1

Impact of A Hostile or Amicable Divorce On Parent-Child Attachment Bonds During

Sensitive Periods for Attachment Formation

Nomi Rubin

McGill University

PSYC 535: Adv. Topics in Social Psych

Dr. Jennifer A. Bartz

April 17, 2023

 2

IMPACT OF A HOSTILE OR AMICABLE DIVORCE ON PARENT-CHILD

ATTACHMENT BONDS DURING SENSITIVE PERIODS FOR ATTACHMENT
FORMATION
Children establish strong bonds with their primary caregivers during attachment
formation sensitive periods, which lasts from birth to around age five. Disruptions of these bonds
can have long-term consequences for their attachment to each parent. Divorce is one such
disruptive event that can impact a child’s social and emotional development as they adjust to new
routines and living arrangements all the while coping with their parents' separation. I propose
that the type of divorce, whether amicable or hostile, can have varying effects on a child’s
attachment style towards each parent, particularly if the divorce occurred during this sensitive
period. An amicable divorce is when both spouses mutually agree to property division, child
support, and custody in which litigation is not involved. Children whose parents divorce was
amicable may feel that their parents are reliable and accessible sources of support. On the other
hand, a hostile divorce is one where both parents are in high conflict, and often legal action
invokes a settlement between both parties, causing less energy to put into their child. Previous
research on attachment theory and divorce has focused on the effect of child attachment style on
their future romantic and parental relationships. Yet, there is a paucity of research on the varying
impacts of divorce type ( i.e., amicable vs. hostile) on attachment style (secure vs. insecure). The
proposed cross-sectional study will use semi-structured interviews to examine how the child’s
experience in such divorce scenarios affect the relationship with each parent. The Relationship
Structures (ECR-RS) questionnaire will assess participant attachment style to each parent
post-divorce. Participants (N=200 through calculations of the size needed for statistical power)
between the ages of 8 and 18 must meet all three inclusion criteria: 1) both parents must be
living; 2) the divorce must have taken place during the sensitive period for attachment, as
defined above; and 3) the parents must have joint custody of the child and 4) the child must be an
only child. The findings of this study can shed light on the effects of amicable and hostile
divorces on children’s attachment to their parents. In addition, it can provide insights into how to
work toward fostering healthy parental relationships.

Keywords: Amicable, hostile, divorce, attachment, bond, social and emotional, parents
 3

Background Literature

At the time of birth, children develop internal working models of their parents, which are

subsequently reflected in their relationships with them as adults. Establishing stable, reliable, and

warm parent-child bonds will provide children with attachments that will be fairly resilient to

change in the following years. In recent research, it has been asserted that divorce may disrupt

these bonds and alter the attachment of children to their parents. Johnson (2019) stated that the

main principle of attachment theory is that interruptions to the affectional bond generate an

instinctive fear in children. Therefore, if left unaddressed, it can disrupt the establishment of a

secure parent-child bond leading to increasing difficulties for that child. Some evidence

indicates that divorce between the ages of birth and five may adversely affect a child's emotional

and social development. In many cases, divorce is perceived as an adverse event in a person's life

that has downstream implications on the relationships and attachments of the child. The divorce

process does not follow a clear path as every case differs depending on the individual

circumstances. The majority of the research on attachment and divorce has focused on the impact

of subsequent romantic relationships (Fraley & Heffernan, 2013). Fraley and Heffernan (2013)

have also solely examined divorce as one broad event without indicating whether it is perceived

as hostile or amicable by the child. A paucity of literature examines how the child's individual

experience of their parents' divorce, whether amicable or high conflict, affects their attachment to

both parents. The effects of a divorce may vary depending on the type of divorce; for instance,

some children may experience relief when their parents divorce since they no longer live in

high-conflict households (R. Amato et al., 2011, p.1). Alternatively, children whose parents
 4

divorced under high conflict may be more likely to develop attachment anxiety and avoidance in

adulthood (Smith-Etxeberria et al., 2022). Ledbetter (2019) highlighted that these challenging

parent-child associations increase with time and can persist into adulthood. For example,

Ledbetter (2019) reported that the influence of a hostile parental divorce on children can lead to

psychosocial impairments such as fear of rejection and anxiety. It was also found that adult

children of divorce parents spend less time with their parents, show less love for them, and

involve fewer intergenerational exchanges of assistance. These findings indicate that parental

divorce might negatively impact parent-child bonds over the life course. Nevertheless, some

research on the impacts of amicable divorces display that whether the divorce was high conflict

or not the child will still go on to develop insecure attachments to both of their parents, be less

reliant on their parents for support and have increased anger towards them (Ledbetter, 2019).

Despite these other studies, the evidence for both sides is inconsistent; thus, extensive research

must be conducted to improve our understanding of the impact of a hostile or amicable divorce

on parent-child attachment bonds during sensitive periods for attachment formation.

Specific Aims and Hypotheses

To determine the effect divorce type has on a child’s attachment style with each parent (avoidant,

anxious, or secure)

Hypothesis 1: Children whose parents divorce was hostile will develop an attachment related

avoidance to one or both parents while children whose parents divorce was amicable will have a

secure attachment to one or both parents.

 5

To determine if the timing of the divorce moderates the relationship between the type of divorce

(hostile vs. amicable) and attachment style with each parent.

Hypothesis 2: If one’s parents had a hostile divorce that occurred when attachment formation

was critical, it would increase the chance that a child would develop insecure relationships with

one or both of their parents.

Methods

The proposed cross-sectional study will rely on semi-structured interviews to investigate how

children’s experiences in such divorce scenarios affect their relationships with each parent and to

determine the child's perception of their parents divorce. The interviews will be in person and

rely on the child's first hand experience going through their parents divorce once they are at an

age where they can clearly convey their thoughts and feelings (8-18 years old). Participants

would be recruited for the interview and questionnaire on an internet survey where they admit to

going through a parental divorce during early childhood. The researcher will also use the

Relationship-Structures (ECR-RS) questionnaire to assess individuals attachment styles to each

parent post-divorce at the specified age range of 8-18 where they determine their attachment to

both of their parents. This approach will help map young people’s understanding of and

meanings of their experiences of parental divorce.

Participants

This sample was recruited through an internet survey between April 2023-December 2023 and

all participants were from different socioeconomic backgrounds. Participants (N=200 through
 6

calculation of the size needed for statistical power) between the ages of 8 and 18 will meet all

three inclusion criteria: 1) both parents must be living; and 2) the divorce must have taken place

during the sensitive periods as defined above; and 3) the parents must have joint custody of the

child and 4) the child must be an only child. Most of the participants in the sample were from

Canada (68%), others from the United States (20%) and the rest were from the United Kingdom

(12%). 60% of the participants were women while 40% were men which is a relatively equal

ratio of males to females. The average age of participants when their parents first divorced was 2

years old. If participants indicated that their parents were divorced, a question was followed

asking them “at what age were you when your parents divorced?”. The mean age of the

respondent at the time of the interview and questionnaire is 12 years old.

Measures

Semi-structured interview. The researcher will use a semi-structured interview format which

contains a mix of open-ended questions with some rigid questions. There will be the creation of

an interview script that the interviewer will follow. The interview will entail several prompts and

questions that will direct the interview. This script will not determine the exact course of the

interview, but it will provide a base of certain questions that will be asked to encourage the

participants to share their experiences of their parents divorce and the feelings that were brought

up at that time. The duration since the divorce occurred will be controlled for as many years have

passed since the divorce occurred. The researcher will interview each participant on an

individual basis. This process will last between 30 and 40 minutes each. The recordings of the
 7

interview will help with the transcription. Relationship-Structures (ECR-RS) questionnaire.

Participants between the ages of 8-18 will be asked to fill out THE ECR-RS questionnaire in

person assessing their attachment to their parents. Participants will be reporting on a divorce that

has occurred a while back therefore there may be lack of detail due to their memory. This is a

widely used self-report questionnaire used to assess their attachment to interpersonal targets such

as their parents. Overall the questionnaire contains 36 items. Both dimensions of attachment

related anxiety (the participants' level of worry of rejection and not being loved by their parents)

and attachment related avoidance (tendency to avoid intimacy, closeness) will be assessed on the

questionnaire. Some sample items are as follows: Please answer the following for your mother or

mother-like figure 1) I usually discuss my problems and concerns with this person strongly

disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly agree, 2) 4. I find it easy to depend on this person strongly

disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly agree. The same will be done for the father. The

questionnaire was answered only for their parents and not for their other interpersonal bonds.

Table 1: INTERVIEW REMARKS

Type of divorce Comments from child based on interviews

Hostile divorce “It was a really hard time for everyone in the
house. I would hear my parents arguing in the
house and I tried to tune it out. My father
would often say rude things to my mother and
I would get engaged because I couldn’t just sit
back and watch things get out of hand.
(Christopher)

Amicable divorce “I feel like the divorce actually brought the

family closer together since we all went
through the situation together. I am close with

RESULTS
Table 2: Divorce Type and Timing
Divorce Type and Timing
Amicable divorce that occurred during the
sensitive periods for attachment
Hostile divorce that occurred during the
sensitive periods for attachment
Among children whose parents divorced during the sensitive periods for attachment and whose
divorce was described as amicable it is projected that those children will go on to develop secure
attachment styles. Their response on the ECR-RS concluded that they will not display attachment
8
both my mom and dad and actually feel like
my relationship with them is so much better
after the divorce.” (Elizabeth)
Outcomes
The child is projected to develop a secure
bond with their mother and father as they both
remained reliable and responsive to their
child's needs while going through such a
traumatic event.The parents came together to
put their child’s well-being as a priority.
Although the child is still fairly young going
through a parental divorce, if the parents
remain a cohesive team the child will not
develop an insecure attachment style.
The child is projected to develop an avoidant
attachment style to both their mother and
father. This is characterized by their
caregivers being unresponsive and not
satisfying their child's needs. Younger
children under the age of 5 may be more
sensitive to the effects of a divorce as they are
still developing and do not have enough
resources to cope on their own without the
support of their parents.
 9

anxiety or avoidance to either of their parents. Their parents will maintain their close bond with

their child and ensure to be there to support the child when needed despite not living in the same

household altogether. These parents will communicate with one another amicably and ensure to

put their child as their top priority manifesting a secure attachment to both parents. It is predicted

that this will not only produce a secure attachment but it may even enhance a child's chances of

developing a secure attachment as the child's parents are now removing themselves from a

marriage they no longer would like to be in, reducing their stress and placing more emphasis on

their child. However, among children whose parents divorced during the sensitive periods for

attachment and whose divorce was described as hostile it is projected that they will go on to

develop avoidant attachment styles. These children's parents will be in conflict fighting over

property and settlements that they will disregard their child's needs and will be more affected by

their divorce and therefore have less energy to put into taking care of their child. Although the

parents will have joint custody, this child will not get their needs met and will ultimately learn

how to vouch for themselves and they will not turn to their mother or father for support or safety.

The neglect on both parents' part will lead these children to developing avoidant attachment

styles to both mother and father.

Discussion

- limitations/results/strengths

The timing that has passed since the divorce and when they are doing the questionnaire/interview
 10

Differnces on affects of amicable vs hostile divorce for mother and father should be assessd

separately on separate scales

Parent psychopathology during the divorce?

Do a longitudinal study of sensitive period hypotheses and following childrena after divorce

How one copes to a divorce

Look at a comparative study looking at the impact of a hostile vs amicable divorce for children

whose parents divorce during ciritcal periods and those whose parents divorced during

adulthood.

Parental custody? Sole custody?

Siblings?

Age at which the participant responds to questionnaire and interview can vary 8-18 may be

differences in age?

cross-sectional?

Strengths?

- Look at the different types of divorce

- Timing of divorce during sensitive periods

- Controlling for joint custody

- Understnaind the effect of divorce solely on parent-child bonds

- Looking at ti from biotoh perspectives

- Two measurems \
 11

- Looks at the divorce process and how the child perceives that and its affect on attachment

- Develop interventions

- Combination of other and father combined

- Paves way for future research ot look at more gaps in literature

- Used to just describe process of divorce as hostile however eveyr case is individual

Research suggests that parents in hostile divorces should strive to maintain contact with their

children as much as they can after the divorce in order to strengthen the child-parent bond.
12
 13

This study aims to examine children whose parents divorced during the critical period for

attachment formation. As attachment bonds establish the foundation for a child's future

relationships, this is a crucial development period. Specifically, this study seeks to determin.
 14

References

Smith-Etxeberria, K., Corres-Medrano, I., & Fernandez-Villanueva, I. (2022). Parental Divorce

Process and Post-Divorce Parental Behaviors and Strategies: Examining Emerging Adult

Children's Attachment-Related Anxiety and Avoidance. International journal of

environmental research and public health, 19(16), 10383.

https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191610383

Ledbetter, A. M. (2019). Parent-child privacy boundary conflict patterns during the first year of

college: Mediating family communication patterns, predicting psychosocial distress.

Human Communication Research, 45(3),

255-285.https://academic.oup.com/hcr/article-abstract/45/3/255/5310111