See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/344477700

Impact of novel processing techniques on the functional properties of egg

products and derivatives: A review

Article  in  Journal of Food Process Engineering · December 2020

DOI: 10.1111/jfpe.13568

CITATIONS READS

6 442

9 authors, including:

Muhammad Talha Afraz Moazzam Rafiq Khan

University of Agriculture Faisalabad University of Agriculture Faisalabad
3 PUBLICATIONS   47 CITATIONS    83 PUBLICATIONS   1,404 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Ume Roobab Qazalbash Noranizan Mohd Adzahan

South China University of Technology Universiti Putra Malaysia
44 PUBLICATIONS   517 CITATIONS    118 PUBLICATIONS   2,499 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Effect of thermal, sonication and thermosonication treatment on bioactive compounds of fresh apple-grape juice View project

Special issue entitled “Innovative Non-Thermal Technologies for The Extraction and Modification of Bioactive Compounds from Food Processing By-Products” in
Frontiers in Nutrition View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Muhammad Talha Afraz on 06 October 2020.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Received: 1 June 2020 Revised: 31 August 2020 Accepted: 16 September 2020
DOI: 10.1111/jfpe.13568

REVIEW ARTICLE

Impact of novel processing techniques on the functional

properties of egg products and derivatives: A review

Muhammad Talha Afraz1 | Moazzam Rafiq Khan1 | Ume Roobab2 |

Mohd Adzahan Noranizan | Brijesh K. Tiwari | Muhammad Tayyab Rashid5 |
3 4

Muhammad Inam-ur-Raheem1 | Seyed Mohammad Bagher Hashemi6 |

Rana Muhammad Aadil1

1
National Institute of Food Science and
Technology, University of Agriculture, Abstract
Faisalabad, Pakistan Eggs are an excellent source of quality proteins. Eggs as a whole and its components
2
School of Food Science and Engineering,
(egg white and egg yolk) are employed in a range of food preparations. Thermal
South China University of Technology,
Guangzhou, China processing employed for stabilizing and improving shelf-life of egg components is
3
Department of Food Technology, Faculty of known to have adverse effect on heat-sensitive proteins leading to protein denatur-
Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra
Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia ation and aggregation thus, reducing the required functional, technological, and over-
4
Department of Food Biosciences, Teagasc all quality of egg proteins and other constituents. Therefore, the current challenge is
Food Research Centre, Dublin, Ireland
to identify novel processing techniques that not only improve the intrinsic functional
5
School of Food and Biological Engineering,
Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, P.R. China
properties of eggs or its components, but also improve the quality of the product.
6
Department of Food Science and Technology, This review focuses on the use of technologies such as ultrasound, pulsed electric
Faculty of Agriculture, Fasa University, field, high-pressure processing, radiofrequency, ultraviolet light, microwave, and cold
Fasa, Iran
plasma for egg products. These novel technologies are known for their advantages
Correspondence over thermal treatments especially in protecting the heat sensitive nature and
Muhammad Inam-ur-Raheem and Rana
Muhammad Aadil, National Institute of Food retaining the overall quality of the egg and egg products. Availability of alternatives
Science and Technology, University of processing has significantly improved the structural properties, techno-functional,
Agriculture, Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan.
Email: raheemuaf@gmail.com (M. I. R.) and nutritional and as well improving the safety egg and egg products.
dilrana89@gmail.com (R. M. A.)
Practical Application
Eggs are consumed worldwide as whole egg or in some cases, consumed partly as
egg whites or egg yolks. Egg components with improved techno-functional proper-
ties can be used in various food industries (such as baking, confectionery, and culi-
nary preparation, etc.). Value addition of new products can be achieved through
modification of egg proteins. Additionally, these techniques also provide microbial
safety and have a reduced impact on nutritional content and overall food quality.

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N
Current consumers demand that food manufacturers switch to a
more cost-effective, nutritionally stable, and environment-friendly
processing technology, as conventional technologies are seen to
promote concerns in the aspects of quality, safety, and toxicity (Aadil
et al., 2018, 2020; Mukhopadhyay & Ukuku, 2018; Roobab, Aadil,
Madni, & Bekhit, 2018; Arshad et al., 2020). Liquid eggs are rich in
nutrients and have a variety of desirable techno-functional attributes
such as foaming, emulsifying, gelling, coloring, and flavoring properties
(Bi et al., 2020). These functional properties are applied in products
such as meat loaves, broths, salad dressing, custards, mayonnaise, and
cakes (Kavuşan & Serdaro

glu, 2019). As well-known, eggs are highly
perishable and undergoes considerable chemical, physical and

J Food Process Eng. 2020;e13568. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jfpe © 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC. 1 of 18

https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.13568
2 of 18
microbiological changes during long term storage (Yüceer &
Caner, 2018). Currently, pasteurization (64
C/2.5 min) is a widely
employed heat treatment (HT) to provide microbial safety and
increase the shelf life of egg products, but at the expense of deterio-
rated functional properties. Moreover, traditional HTs are neither
energy nor time-efficient and damage the delicate protein structure
(Wei, Lau, Reddy, & Subbiah, 2020) therefore a new and innovative
novel approach are needed.
This review work covers seven different novel technologies for
egg processing. Selection of the technologies are based on the current
trends in the industry as well as developments in the research arena.
The technologies are ultrasound (US; Caner & Yuceer, 2015; Sheng
et al., 2018; Stefanovic et al., 2017; Yüceer & Caner, 2020a, 2020b;
Zhu, Vanga, Wang, & Raghavan, 2018b), high hydrostatic pressure
(HHP; Hoppe, Jung, Patnaik, & Zeece, 2013; Ma, Lozano-Ojalvo,
Chen, Lopez-Fandiño, & Molina, 2015; Naderi, Pouliot, House, &
Doyen, 2017; Savadkoohi, Bannikova, Mantri, & Kasapis, 2016;
Shahbaz et al., 2018), pulsed electric field (PEF; Baba et al., 2018; Liu,
Oey, Bremer, Carne, & Silcock, 2017; Liu, Oey, Bremer, Carne, &
Silcock, 2019; Liu et al., 2019; Wu, Zhao, Yang, & Chen, 2014), micro-
wave (MW; Li, Sun, Ma, Jin, & Sheng, 2018; Singh et al., 2018; Zhu,
Vanga, Wang, & Raghavan, 2018a), ultraviolet light (UV; Holck, Liland,
Drømtorp, Carlehö, & McLeod, 2018; Manzocco, Panozzo, &
Nicoli, 2012; Mehdizadeh, Minaei, Torshizi, & Mohajerani, 2014), cold
plasma (CP; Dasan, Yildirim, & Boyaci, 2018; Dobeic et al., 2016;
Georgescu, Apostol, & Gherendi, 2017; Wan, Chen, Pankaj, &
Keener, 2017), and radio frequency (RF; Boreddy, Birla, Froning,
Thippareddi, & Subbiah, 2014; Boreddy, Thippareddi, Froning, &
Subbiah, 2016; Geveke, Bigley, & Brunkhorst, 2017; Yang
et al., 2019). Thus, the efficiency and suitability of available novel
technologies, for the processing of egg products and derivatives
should be compared and examined.
Technologies offers a novel approach to modify and customize the
functional properties of egg proteins (Li et al., 2018; Sheng et al., 2018).
For example, US (Jun et al., 2020; Yüceer & Caner, 2020a), PEF (Liu
et al., 2017), HHP (Singh & Ramaswamy, 2014) have been reported to
improve the functional properties of egg derivatives, subsequently mod-
ify the properties of egg proteins. Zhu et al. (2018a) reported that US
affect the secondary structure of protein which triggers the exposure of
inner hydrophobic and sulfhydryl groups, consequently altering the pro-
tein surface properties (associated with emulsifying and foaming) and
causing the subsequent formation of protein aggregates (associated
with protein gelation) (Li et al., 2018). Furthermore, it has been reported
that sulfhydryl groups and disulfide bonds play an important role in the
gelling process concerning protein gelation (Boreddy et al., 2016). These
techniques could also inactivate the microbial population (Baba
et al., 2018; Dasan et al., 2018; Holck et al., 2018; Naderi, Pouliot,
et al., 2017; Shahbaz et al., 2018) while resulting in “secondary” benefi-
cial outcomes, which are related to the functionality-enhancing effects.
The effect of non-conventional techniques on protein functional
properties, and extending its food applications are well documented
(Higuera-Barraza, Del Toro-Sanchez, Ruiz-Cruz, & Márquez-

lu, 2019; Liu, Oey, Bremer, Carne, &
Ríos, 2016; Kavuşan & Serdarog
AFRAZ ET AL.
Silcock, 2019; Liu, Oey, Bremer, Silcock, et al., 2019; Mirmoghtadaie,
Shojaee Aliabadi, & Hosseini, 2016; Zhu et al., 2018a). However, there
is a need for a comparative and up-to-date systematic review provid-
ing crucial information for food industry about the various novel tech-
niques focusing on the modification of structure and functional
properties of egg products and derivatives.
Therefore, the objectives of this review are to discuss:
1. the effects of novel processing technologies on egg products and
derivatives.
2. the improvements brought about by these technologies with
regard to the techno-functional attributes and microbiological
status.
3. the potential of increasing the breadth of applications for egg
products and derivatives in the food industries through the use of
novel processing technologies.
2 | T H E I N T E R V E N T I O N OF N O V E L
T E C H N I Q U E S FO R T H E A D V A N C E M E N T O F
C L O S E - T O F RE S H F O O D P RO DU C T S
Today wholesome product that meets clean label requirement is
trending across the world, however an uphill battle exist to maintain
the stability of end products. Innovative food processing techniques
are therefore required to ensure food product safety and quality
(Naderi, House, Pouliot, & Doyen, 2017). Thermal treatment is an effi-
cient means of food preservation because the vast majority of harmful
pathogens are killed near the boiling point of water. Nevertheless,
market demand for fresh-like food has sparked the development of
new technologies, to replace well-established conventional thermal
processing (Mukhopadhyay & Ukuku, 2018).
Several modern and advanced, novel processing techniques for
different food commodities including eggs have been developed in
recent years to enhance quality and shelf life. Techniques such as US,
PEF, HHP, and UV have been used to reduce the microbial risk and
improve sensory, nutritional, and functional properties, moreover,
these techniques are environment friendly (Holck et al., 2018;
Rahaman et al., 2020; Sheng et al., 2018). For specific applications,
many new processing techniques have already been industrially
implemented, while many others are being further developed but with
great potential (Mukhopadhyay & Ukuku, 2018).
3 | CURRENT CHALLENGES AND
POTENTIAL FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
Foods produced from novel processing technologies need approval
from certain regulation bodies for their market circulation and label-
ing. According to the EU regulation, the novel foods result from the
chemical, biochemical, and biotechnological reactions (via novel
processing) that needs to be checked for their safety and intended
functional claims. Likewise, some countries already have guideline or
AFRAZ ET AL.
regulations to assist industry players in this area, but many countries
are still without any official standards. The development of appropri-
ate equipment, particularly to ensure safety requires process parame-
ter standardization for regulatory approval, will lead a way for
improved emerging technologies. With regulations in place, industry
stakeholders could operate with confidence and safety of the
consumers.
Most importantly, foods produced through novel technologies
must not be dangerous or misleading labelling and similar accep-
tance between a novel product and conventionally available food
product (Steinhart, 2007). Furthermore, it has been reported by
Zhu et al. (2018a) that protein unfolding results in the exposure of
inner buried groups and there is a possibility of a potential allergen
being unfolded as a result of novel processing. According to Besler,
Steinhart, and Paschke (2001), the significance of hidden allergen
present in egg and egg products are significant but egg protein is
sensitive to high pressure. Novel processing applied under severe
condition reported to deteriorate the quality of egg products
including viscosity, color, and protein and lipid oxidation. A 20%
increase in viscosity as a result of novel processing would render
the product undesirable by indirectly causing protein coagulation
and denaturation (Monfort et al., 2012; Monfort, Saldaña, Condón,

Raso, & Alvarez, 2012). However, the disadvantage is minimal when
compared to a variety of advantages that the novel processing
offers. Novel techniques that are environmentally friendly and
cost-effective are the key alternatives for the future. Therefore,
more research are required to understand the impact of novel
processing on egg products and derivatives.
4 | ULTRASOUND (US)
In the food industry, US is mainly based on the mechanical waves
have a frequency above the human hearing approach (>16 kHz) and
that the frequency ranges are classified as low and high energy. US
can be classified into high-frequency (100 kHz–1 MHz) low-energy
diagnostic ultrasound and low-frequency (16–100 kHz) high power
US. High power US is primarily based on the high shear force and tur-
bulence generated by the cavitation to break covalent bonds in pro-
teins. The frequency typically employed in US applications is limited in
between 20 kHz and 500 MHz ranges. Low-frequency US is used to
alter physical and chemical properties of food while that of high fre-
quency is used to acquire information related to physicochemical
properties (Xiong et al., 2016; Zhu et al., 2018a).
Egg proteins are used in an extensive range of formulations due
to their nutritional value and functional properties (Liu, Yang,
Bhandari, Meng, & Prakash, 2020). These proteins are capable of air
bubbles and oil droplets stabilization, gel structure formations, and
viscosity enhancement because of their high functionality (Shen, Fang,
Gao, & Guo, 2017). These functional properties are a result of the
complex nature of these molecules because of their exclusive amino
acid arrangements (O'Sullivan, Park, Beevers, Greenwood, &
Norton, 2017). To increase the commercial value of proteins, one of
3 of 18
the challenge is to enhance their functionality, which would result in
the diversified application, attained conventionally either through
coagulation, complexation with other biopolymers or modification of
molecular weight such as aggregation or proteolysis (Mulcahy,
Mulvihill, & O'Mahony, 2016; O'Sullivan, Murray, Flynn, &
Norton, 2016).
4.1 | Effect of US on egg and egg products
Table 1 summarizes the effect of US on egg and its derivatives. The
influence of US on the structural changes of egg white (EW) proteins
was evaluated. Different durations (2–20 min) and frequency
(20 ± 0.2 kHz) were used to investigate the effect of US on foaming,
emulsifying properties, and protein solubility of EW proteins and its
susceptibility to alcalase hydrolysis. It was reported that US treatment
(20 kHz, 34.11 ± 1.46 W for 2–15 min, 25 ± 1
C) decreased the diam-
eter of particle size (368.4 ± 10.51 to 68.4 ± 5.22 nm) and increased
the zeta potential (stability indicator) value (−4.68 ± 1.40 to
−22.8 ± 1.06 mV) as compared to control sample. Prolonged treat-
ment of 20 min caused the denaturation of EW proteins, enhanced
the aggregation of molecules, decreased the sulfhydryl (SH) group
contents and increased the particle size. In contrast, a 15 min treat-
ment showed an increase in solubility, foaming stability and foaming
capacity of the EW proteins by 18.1, 193.3, and 60.6%, respectively
compared to untreated samples. The emulsifying properties, foaming
properties, and solubility of EW proteins can be improved by varying
the sonication time (Stefanovic et al., 2017). In another study, US
treatment of 400 W for 1–16 min on avidin and secondary structures
of EW proteins was evaluated. The study showed that β-sheets was
significantly increased while α-helices was decreased after 1 min
treatment than control, while observed 45% of avidin was reduced
during the treatment durations (0–16 min). The same study also
observed no significant (p ≤ .05) change in secondary structure that
showed low processing ability of US with increase in sonication time
(Zhu et al., 2018a).
The impact of US (20 kHz and 20% amplitude, 20 min,
70–85
C) was investigated on the following properties (surface
hydrophobicity, denaturation temperature, SH groups concentra-
tion, bulk viscosity, foaming, and emulsifying properties) of EW pro-
teins. An increase in surface hydrophobicity and a decrease in
apparent viscosity was reported to directly affect the foaming
stability, while retaining the SH content. They observed that the
functional properties of EW solutions can be improved using US
treatment, decreases the foaming capacity and stability with bulk
viscosity and emulsion stability and the rate of aggregate formation
(Arzeni et al., 2012).
A change in tertiary structure of ovalbumin was reported
by Xiong et al. (2016) as a result of US application (20 kHz,
35–48 W/m2, 40 min). The secondary structure and subunits had no
significant change. US increased the SHa groups and caused partial
unfolding of ovalbumin. The foaming ability and emulsifying activity
were increased, and the interface tension was decreased after US
4 of 18 AFRAZ ET AL.

TABLE 1 Effect of US on egg and egg derivatives

Sample Treatment conditions Overall outcomes References

EW 20 kHz, 360 W power for 10 min,
25
C
EW protein 400 W power, for 0–16 min
EW protein 0.2 kHz frequency, 40% amplitude,
time 2–20 min, 25 ± 1
C
EW protein 20 ± 0.2 kHz, 360 W power for
15 min, at 25 ± 1
C
Ovalbumin Amplitude (0, 60, 90%), for 20 and
40 min frequency
EW 20 kHz, 20% amplitude 750 W at
pH 7, 5–20 min and 0.5
C
Duck egg 60 kHz, 140 W at for 240, 480,
and 720 min
EW solution 35 and 40 kHz frequency,
(functional hydrolysate) 15–16 min at 25 and 55
C
EW protein 20 kHz frequency, 20% amplitude,
20 min, 70–85
C
LWE (inoculated with 40 W frequency, at 55
C for 5 min
Salmonella enteritidis)
260% increased foaming ability, 4.9-fold Sheng et al. (2018)
to the control
β-sheets increased, α-helices declined, Zhu et al. (2018b)
and 45% reduction in avidin
Decreased partial diameter, increased Stefanovic et al. (2017);
zeta potential, and prolonged Boreddy et al. (2016)
treatment caused denaturation
Decreased hydrolysis activation energy, Jovanovic et al. (2016)
enthalpy, entropy of activation and
enzyme deactivation energy
Increased free sulfhydryl groups, Xiong et al. (2016)
changed tertiary structure, and partial
unfolding of ovalbumin
Decrease in particle size Arzeni, Pérez, and
Pilosof (2015)
Increased the salt and water content, Mai Dang, Le, and
increased EW's hardening ratio, NaCl Songsermpong (2014)
diffusivity coefficient increased by
45–46 times
Changed peptide composition, changed Stefanovic et al. (2014)
hydrolytic pattern, and higher
antioxidant activity
Increased surface hydrophobicity, Arzeni, Pérez, and
decrease in viscosity, and aggregate Pilosof (2012)
formation increased
3.2-log reduction Huang, Mittal, and
Griffiths (2006)

(20 kHz, 35–48 W/m2, 40 min) treatment as compared to control
(untreated). This could be due to the increase in the surface hydro-
phobicity and decrease of surface net charge in ovalbumin. Moreover,
the foaming and emulsifying stability did not significantly change
which shows the differences among the US treated and untreated
samples. After US (20 kHz, 35–48 W/m2, 40 min) treatment, large
particle formed due to protein aggregation, while the gelation temper-
ature of treated samples was higher as compared to control (Xiong
et al., 2016). Therefore, US can be used to alter the functional proper-
ties of ovalbumin to promote its usage in food industries (Xiong
et al., 2016; Yuceer, 2020).
An increase in foaming property of EW can be achieved when US


(20 kHz, 10 min, 25 C temp) at different powers (90–480 W) was
used. Above 360 W, US treatment attained the highest foaming
potential (260%) which was 4.9 times the control treatment (Sheng
et al., 2018). Moreover, the lower surface tension and viscosity, and
the higher solubility of proteins as a result of US treatment suggested
that the protein was easier to add to the gas–liquid interface Besides,
the increase in free sulfhydryl groups and surface hydrophobicity
showed that the protein adopted a loose structure after US treatment
(Sheng et al., 2018).
Enzymatic hydrolysis of EW proteins is an important biotechnologi-
cal method used to enhance the chemical, physical and functional
properties of EW's without altering its nutritional value (Knezevic-
Jugovic et al., 2012). Pretreatments with US (20 and 40 kHz, 21.3 and
30.7 W, 25
C) significantly boost the affinity between alkalase and EW
proteins and increase the enzymatic hydrolysis reaction rate constants
(k2) as compared to thermal treatments. Both pretreatments (probe-type
sonicator and US water bath cleaning technique) have shown a signifi-
cant positive effect on the thermodynamics of enzymatic hydrolysis
compared to the control reaction. The enzymatic hydrolysis of EW pro-
teins demonstrated better effect than thermal pretreatment whereby
the enthalpy (ΔH) (63.6 and 54.7%), entropy (ΔS) (4.2 and 3.3%), Gibbs
free activation energy (ΔG) (32.2 and 27.9%) and activation energy (Ea)
(61.7 and 53.1%) values were decreased (Knezevic-Jugovic et al., 2012).
Another application of US as a pretreatment step is in the produc-
tion of functional hydrolysates from EW protein. Different parameters
including US treatment (40 kHz, 15–16 min, 25 and 55
C) were
applied to the impact on the hydrolysis process. The US pretreatment
followed by alcalase hydrolysis under optimal conditions (40 kHz,
21.3 W, 25
C, 15 min) caused changes in the peptide composition
and hydrolytic pattern. These conditions will result in hydrolysates
with increase antioxidant activity than conventional heat (75
C for
15 min) pretreatment (Stefanovic et al., 2014).
Salted egg, one of the most popular and traditional preserved egg
products, generally made by brining eggs in saturated salt or by
AFRAZ ET AL.
coating an egg with a soil wrapped mixed with salt for about
15–30 days. For instance, the US treatment (60 kHz and 140 W) sig-
nificantly increase the salt and water content of the duck egg during
pickling especially under process conditions (240, 480, and 720 min)
which will led to a faster increase in the salt content of EY and EW
(Mai Dang et al., 2014). They observed more rapid increase in the EY's
hardening ratio during pickling under US (720 min running time). Addi-
tionally, the US could increase the NaCl diffusivity coefficient through
the eggshell by approximately 45–46 times compared to the tradi-
tional process (submerged in the brine solution, 25% wt/wt, 16 days
at room temperature) after 48 hr, indicating high level of dehydration
and salt diffusion (Mai Dang et al., 2014).
The effect of US treatment (40 W power, 55
C, 5 min) was inves-
tigated on Salmonella enteritidis in a liquid whole egg for the inactiva-
tion purpose by Huang et al. (2006). A combination of US (40 W
power, 55
C) and hydraulic high pressure (138 MPa and 20
C) treat-
ments showed a maximum microbial reduction of 3.2-log cycles along
with mild heat (55
C). Furthermore, the combination of two treat-
ments can be used in place of conventional thermal processing where
coagulation of egg proteins, due to high temperature, often causes a
problem (Huang et al., 2006).
Overall, the US is capable of changing foaming and structural
properties of EW besides reducing microbial counts. These properties
could be controlled by changing the US treatment duration,
depending on the end product requirement. Further the reaction rates
can be shortened when the US is applied to salting process and enzy-
matic hydrolysis as a pretreatment step, which contributes in produc-
ing hydrolysates with improved antioxidant activity and accelerates
enzyme hydrolysis.
5 | H I G H H Y D R O S T A T I C P R E S S U R E (H H P )
During HHP treatment, the products are placed in a highly special-
ized vessel and exposed to a pressure above 100 MPa to maintain
food preservation (Yamamoto, 2017). In HPP, no substantial heating
process is involved therefore, this technology avoids the destruction
of valuable food components. However, HHP treatments modify
the functional properties by disrupting the hydrophobic regions and
electrostatic interactions of food components (Marciniak, Suwal,
Naderi, Pouliot, & Doyen, 2018). Direct HHP application on proteins
leads to the modifications in structure depending on the pressure
applied, conditions of solution, protein system and duration and
magnitude of pressure treatment, structural modifications occur
due to the formation of new bonds which further leads to gelation,
precipitation or aggregation (Khan et al., 2015; Perreault, Hénaux,
Bazinet, & Doyen, 2017). HHP treatment also modifies the interfa-
cial properties of proteins, which further leads to the alteration of
foaming and emulsifying properties of proteins (De Maria, Ferrari, &
Maresca, 2016; Manassero, Beaumal, Vaudagna, Speroni, &
Anton, 2018).
5 of 18
5.1 | Effect of HHP on egg and egg products
The effect of HHP treatment (100–500 MPa, 10 min, 25 ± 2
C) on
some functional and physicochemical properties of EY are well
reported (Table 2). A significant (p < .05) increase in the viscosity and
a gradual decline in protein solubility were reported by Yan
et al. (2010), after the HHP treatment and these changes could be
due to the aggregation of protein. A gradual decrease in SH contents
and surface hydrophobicity could be due to the unfolding of protein
and then rearrangement of unfolded proteins. At 400 MPa, the emul-
sifying activity index was significantly (p < .05) decreased as compared
to the control (untreated) sample. At lower pressures (100 MPa), the
emulsion stability index was increased, while the decrease was
observed at >200 MPa. Modification of EY at different pressure levels
might be due to the varying rearrangement extent and aggregation of
proteins (Yan et al., 2010).
Effect of HHP on crosslinking of EW and ovalbumin with trans-
glutaminase to assess the allergenic potential was reported by Ma
et al. (2015). Susceptibility of EW and ovalbumin crosslinking to trans-
glutaminase after HHP treatment (400 MPa, 40
C for 30 min) was
increased. The high-molecular-weight polymers were created, how-
ever, a significant (p ⩽ .05) amount of unmodified monomeric proteins
was left in the EW and ovalbumin sample. While the digestibility
experiments showed that resistance to IgE-binding, immuno-
stimulatory properties, and proteolysis of transglutaminase and HHP
treated proteins were not significantly different from those of the nat-
ural ones, thus do not support the idea of reducing the allergenicity of
egg proteins using transglutaminase crosslinking (Ma et al., 2015).
In a study, Singh and Ramaswamy (2014) reported the effect of
HHP on antioxidant activity and the degree of hydrolysis of freeze-
dried EW powder and EW protein. HHP can modify the functional
properties of proteins by altering their structure. For instance, HHP
treatment (350–550 MPa for 5–15 min) increases the degree of tryp-
sin hydrolysis, 2.78 (untreated) to 11.3% in EW protein, and
2.20–8.41% in freeze-dried EW powder, at 550 MPa for 15 min, the
degree of hydrolysis was highest. Furthermore, the antioxidant activ-
ity of both (freeze-dried EW powder and EW protein) samples
increased (19.0 and 25.00%) after being treated at 350 and 550 MPa
for 5 min (Singh & Ramaswamy, 2014).
Impact of HHP on hard-cooked peeled eggs (HCEs) (value-added,
ready-to-use egg products) as it is susceptible to microbial re-
contamination (S. enteritidis) during post-processing stages was evalu-
ated by Shahbaz et al. (2018). HHP treatment (500, 550, 600 MPa,
5 min, 25
C) was used by researchers as a post-processing terminal
step to ensure maximum safety of HCEs and its effect of processing
were evaluated and compared with commercial heat treatment (95
C
for 40 min). Heat treatment often lead to discoloration in HCEs yolks
(greenish-gray) but color values after HHP treatment were reported
to have no significantly different (p > .05) compared to control
(unprocessed HCEs). The thermal and nonthermal treatment kept the
growth of microorganism's constant (<104 CFU/g) throughout the
45 days refrigerated storage while in the untreated sample microbial
count exceeds (within 3 days) the safety limit (<104 CFU/g).
6 of 18 AFRAZ ET AL.

TABLE 2 Effect of HPP on egg and egg derivatives

Sample Treatment conditions Overall outcomes References

HCEs 550 MPa, 5 min, 25 C 6.14-log CFU/g reduction in Salmonella. Shahbaz et al. (2018)
enteritidis population
EW 300–600 MPa, 10 min, 20 and Increase lysozyme activity (<6.8 times) Tribst et al. (2018)
50
C at pH 1.5 and improved its stability by
112%
EW 400 MPa pressure, 40
C, for Higher molecular weight polymers, Ma et al. (2015)
30 min unmodified monomeric proteins
EW powder 350–550 MPa pressure, for 8.41% increase in trypsin hydrolysis Singh and Ramaswamy (2014)
5–15 min, 20
C
Liquid whole egg 300 MPa/30 , 2% triethyl citrate, 5-log reduction in Listeria innocua. and Monfort, Ramos, et al. (2012)
52
C/3.50 or 55
C/20 Escherichia coli. population
Egg yolk 100–500 MPa, 10 min, 25 ± 2
C Decreased SH content, decreased Yan et al. (2010)
surface hydrophobicity
EW solutions 400–700 MPa, 10–60
C, Increased turbidity, exposed SH Van der Plancken, Van Loey,
20 min, pH 7.6 and 8.8 content, surface hydrophobicity, and and Hendrickx (2005)
susceptibility to enzymatic hydrolysis
Liquid whole egg 250 MPa, 886 s, 5
C 5-log reduction in Listeria seeligeri Lee, Heinz, and Knorr (2003)
population

Moreover, the HHP post-package pasteurization (550 MPa for 5 min)
showed potential as a non-thermal terminal kill stage for commercial
production of HCEs (Shahbaz et al., 2018).
HPP (800 MPa, 5 min, 9–37
C) treatment of EW has been found
to increase its pepsin digestibility to a greater extent than thermal


treatment (95 C). After HP treatment, pepsin was reported to degrade
the main egg white protein (EWP) (ovalbumin, ovomucin,
ovotransferrin, lysozyme) in less than 2 min (Hoppe et al., 2013). Pep-
sin incubation of the pressure-treated EW cause substantial hydrolysis
of the majority of proteins and liberate various peptides sequences,
which may have bioactivities such as antioxidant activity and ACE
inhibition. In addition, HP treatment also increase EW digestibility and
consequently enhance its health benefits (Hoppe et al., 2013). In
another study by Savadkoohi et al. (2016), the combined effects of
HP (600 MPa, 15 min, 20
C) and medium (high solid, semi diluted and
diluted) concentration on the structure of ovalbumin have shown that
it retains the natural conformation in the high solid (80% w/w)
medium. In an aqueous medium (20% wt/wt), the composition of
ovalbumin was irreversibly modified and slightly altered in a semi
dilute (30–60% wt/wt) medium. This change may be due to the fact
that ovalbumin is very hydrophobic in nature and HP treatment trig-
gers rearrangements between disulfide and sulfhydryl bonds
(Savadkoohi et al., 2016).
The use of HHP technology allows the preservation of native
qualities of food raw materials with comparable antimicrobial effec-
tiveness to heat treatment, and its beneficial effect has been demon-
strated in many heat-sensitive foods. HHP (200–400 MPa, 3–17 min)
treatment has effectively reduced the viable cell count of specific bac-
teria (Listeria monocytogenes, S. enteritidis, and Staphylococcus. aureus)
in artificially infected liquid whole egg. The most troublesome bacte-
rium in egg products is S. enteritidis and its reduction was reported
around 2-log CFU/ml (Németh et al., 2012). In addition, the study also
observed color of the sample was primarily affected by the pressure
level and the rheological properties (viscosity) were significantly
(p < .05) influenced by the length of HPP treatment (Németh
et al., 2012). The granule fraction of egg yolk (EY) (produced by centri-
fugation processes) was reported to yield different compositional
properties compared to the native yolk, thereby creating opportuni-
ties for being used as ingredients in the nutraceutical and food indus-
tries. HHP (600 MPa, 5 min) treatment has been used to promote
disintegration of the compact structure of EY granule. Upon disinte-
gration high concentrations of folate (230 μg/g dry matter) were
released in the plasma fraction of the yolk granule (Naderi, Pouliot,
et al., 2017).
The combined effect of HHP, heat, and triethyl citrate on a liquid
whole egg to design an alternative pasteurization process was evalu-
ated by Monfort, Ramos, et al., 2012, Monfort, Saldaña, et al., 2012.
HHP treatment applied at 20
C was not sufficient to pasteurize the
liquid whole egg without disturbing its physical properties. Lethality
of treatment was increased when applied at 4 or 50
C. However,
HHP treatment alone may not be enough to declare the liquid whole
egg as safe. HHP at 20 or 4
C along with 2% triethyl citrate showed
synergistic lethality and decrease in the resistance of Listeria innocua.
and Escherichia. coli (Monfort, Ramos, et al., 2012; Monfort, Saldaña,
et al., 2012). HHP (300 MPa/30 ) at 20
C, 2% triethyl citrate and heat
treatment at different temperatures (52
C/3.50 or 55
C/20 ), these
conditions were applied by the researchers. This combined treatment
shown to achieve similar lethality (5-log reduction) of heat ultra-
pasteurization treatment (71
C/1.50 ), in L. innocua and E. coli popula-
tion of liquid whole egg sample was reported by Monfort, Ramos,
et al. (2012), Monfort, Saldaña, et al., 2012. This process retains better
functional, physicochemical properties and certain quality parameters
compared to ultra-pasteurization treated liquid whole egg (Monfort,
Ramos, et al., 2012, Monfort, Saldaña, et al., 2012).
AFRAZ ET AL. 7 of 18

6 | P U L S E D E LE C T R I C FI EL D (P E F )
For egg and egg products, PEF is mainly used to destroy microorgan-
isms by employing high-intensity electric fields, further, it retains the
nutritional quality and food flavor (Soliva-Fortuny, Vendrell-Pacheco,
Martín-Belloso, & Elez-Martínez, 2017). The working principle of elec-
tric fields (EF) is to modify protein structure that depends upon the
aggregation and unfolding of protein or by generating free radicals
(Barbosa-Cánovas & Zhang, 2019). Different interactions between
molecules of protein, comprising Van der Waals forces, disulfide brid-
ges, hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions, salt bridges, and
H-bonding can be disrupted by free radicals, thus at various dimen-
sions, functional properties of protein and its structure can be altered
(Barbosa-Cánovas & Zhang, 2019). Changes in protein structure, also
influence the properties such as solubility, foaming, apparent viscosity,
gelling properties, immunoreactivity, and emulsifying activities, which
plays a vital in the food industry (Echeverría, López-Caballero, Gómez-
Guillén, Mauri, & Montero, 2016; Nguyen, Zhang, Barber, Su, &
He, 2016). Especially solubility properties is the most critical func-
tional properties, which relate to the hydrogen holding and hydro-
philic and hydrophobic surface development on protein structure
(Zhu, Lin, Ramaswamy, Yu, & Zhang, 2017). On the other hand, food
allergy is related by immunoreactivity, major public health problem,
and theoretically, a food allergy can be reduced by altering the struc-
ture of the protein which consequently increase the protein solubility
and digestibility (Okolie, Aryee, & Udenigwe, 2018; Zhang, Zhang,
Sheng, Wang, & Fu, 2016). Thus PEF helps to alter the functional
properties and protein structure, the later can influence the quality
and flavor of food, and they are influenced by EFs and electromag-
netic waves (Liu et al., 2017; Zhang, Wang, Jiang, & Qian, 2017).
6.1 | Effect of PEF on egg and egg products
Table 3 summarizes the effect of PEF on egg and its derivatives. The
impact of PEF and thermal processing on the aggregation of ovomucin
depleted EW protein solution at varying pH was evaluated by Liu
et al. (2017). The heat treatment caused a noticeable protein
aggregation in a sample at pH 5, 7, and 9 at 60
C for about 10 min.
While PEF treatment-induced aggregation at pH 5 and 7, however
at 4 or 9 aggregations did not occur, using constant strength of EF
1.4–1.8 kV/cm besides energy input of 260–700 kJ/kg. Same resul-
ts were achieved when samples subjected to varied EF strengths
(0.7–1.7 kV/cm) however the energy input (713 kJ/kg) was kept con-
stant. Additionally, samples were more prone to aggregation at pH 5
during both PEF and heat treatments. Therefore, PEF has a consider-
able potential to minimize the protein aggregation during processing,
as EW proteins are heat-sensitive, therefore PEF can be used to retain
the ovomucin depleted EW protein in solution which later can be used
in the protein fortification of the drinks (Liu et al., 2017).
PEF treatment (25 kV/cm for 400 μs, 1,362.6–2,043.9 kJ/L, 18
C)
has not reported to change the colloidal properties of protein solution.
But, when treatment duration increased from 400 to 600 μs, there is
an increase in Z-average size (36.9%) and a decrease in insoluble con-
tent (7.84%) was observed as compared to control. After PEF treatment
of protein solution, carbonyl contents were not affected and a slight

TABLE 3 Effect of PEF on egg and egg derivatives

Sample Treatment conditions Overall outcomes References

EW 1.4–1.7 kV/cm field strength,
653–695 kJ/kg energy, 80
C for
10 min
Liquid whole egg 50 kV/cm field strength, 1 Hz pulse
rate, 10 ml/min flow rate, temp. 4
C
Ovomucin- 1.7 kV/cm, 260–700 kJ/kg, 20 μs pulse
depleted EW width, 50
C, pH 5 and 7
EW protein 1.4–1.8 kV/cm field strength,
260–700 kJ/kg energy, pH 4 or 9,
10 min, 60
C
EW solution 25 kV/cm field strength, for
400–600 μs, 1,362.6–2,043.9 kJ/L,
18
C
Liquid whole egg 25 kV/cm field strength, 75–100 kJ/kg
energy, six pulses of 3 μs, 52–60
C
Liquid egg yolk 45 kV/cm, 419 kJ/kg, 30 μs
Liquid egg yolk 30 kV/cm field strength, 2 Hz, 2 μs
pulse duration, temp. 40
C
EW proteins 12.5 kV/cm intensity, 2,465 and
1,631 J/ml 10 pulses, 35
C
Increased anti-inflammatory and
antioxidant activity, less solution
turbidity
>6-log reduction in bacteria
Showed similar extent of hydrolysis
compared to ovomucin depleted EW
solution heat-treated at 80
C
Minimized protein aggregation
Decreased soluble content, increased in
SH content, and insoluble aggregates
formed
9-log reduction in Salmonella . enteritidis
population
4-log reduction in Salmonella
typhimurium and S. aureus
5-log reduction in S. enteritidis and
Escherichia coli. O157:H7
Thermostability partially increased,
lowered gelation rate
Liu, Oey, Bremer, Carne, and
Silcock (2019); Liu, Oey,
Bremer, Silcock, et al. (2019)
Baba et al. (2018)
Liu, Oey, Bremer, Silcock, and
Carne (2018)
Liu et al. (2017)
Wu et al. (2014)
Monfort, Saldaña, et al. (2012)
Monfort, Gayán, Raso, Condón,

and Alvarez (2010)
Amiali, Ngadi, Smith, and
Raghavan (2007)
Perez and Pilosof (2004)
8 of 18
increase in SH contents was reported, which reflects that no oxidation
occurred and induced protein unfolding. Moreover, insoluble aggre-
gates formed after the PEF treatment and their main components were
ovalbumin, ovotransferrin, and lysozyme (Wu et al., 2014).
The impact of PEF followed by heat treatment in the presence of
triethyl citrate in continuous and static settings in the liquid whole
egg was studied by Monfort, Saldaña, et al. (2012), as an alternative to
pasteurization treatment. PEF treatment (25 kV/cm and 75–100 kJ/kg,
6 pulses of 3 μs) followed by heat (60
C/10 , 55
C/20 or 52
C/3.50 ) in
the presence of triethyl citrate (2%) in liquid whole egg has been
reported by authors to reduce the S. enteritidis population by 9-log.
This newly designed treatment/process has been reported to reduce
the population of Salmonella serovars enteritidis 4300, Virchow,
Senftenberg, Dublin, Typhimurium, Tnteritidis 4396 and Typhi by 5-log
reduction in both static and continuous conditions. But, heat pas-

0
0
teurization treatments (60 C/3.5 and 64 C/2.5 ) reduced 5-log of
various serovars of Salmonella, only S. enteritidis 4396 and Salmonella
senftenberg reduced to 3–4 and 2-log, respectively (Monfort, Ramos,
et al., 2012; Monfort, Saldaña, et al., 2012). After PEF treatment, it
was reported that soluble contents of protein were decreased (5.0,
1.3, and 1.8%) followed by heat treatment (60, 55, and 52
C),
respectively, in the presence of triethyl citrate additive. While 9.4
and 1.6% of soluble protein content were reduced at 64 and 60
C,
respectively. The authors concluded that newly designed treatment
could be used in place of the current heat pasteurization process, as
it showed lethal efficiency against S. serovars with an identical or
minor reduction in protein soluble contents (Monfort, Ramos,
et al., 2012, Monfort, Saldaña, et al., 2012).
The effect of intense PEF (30–50 kV/cm field strength, 1 Hz
pulse rate, 10 ml/min flow rate, 4
C) along with mild heat (55
C for
2 min), on the liquid whole egg for pasteurization purpose, was inves-
tigated by Baba et al. (2018). Carboxymethyl cellulose solution with
added lipoproteins from liquid whole egg (CMC+), liquid whole egg
(LWE), carboxymethyl cellulose solution (CMC) and lipoprotein
reduced liquid whole egg (LWE−) were used as solvents. Furthermore,
these liquids were inoculated with Enterobacter aerogenes (107/ml)
and treated with different amplitudes of PEF (30 and 50 kV/cm), ther-
mal treatment below 55
C was employed to increase the lethality of
PEF treatment (Baba et al., 2018). A reduced microbial count was
achieved after PEF treatment (30 kV/cm) for LWE−, LWE, CMC+, and
CMC with 1.6, 1.4, 2.4, and 6.6-log reductions, respectively. When
PEF was applied at 50 kV/cm, more than 6-log reduction in bacterial
population for all liquids was observed. Numerical analysis of PEF
showed that lipoproteins interfered with the killing effect of bacteria,
therefore, in contrast to other liquids (which contain more or fewer
lipoproteins) bacteria were killed only in CMC solution (Baba
et al., 2018).
The use of PEF for inactivation of S. enteritidis and shelf life
improvement of liquid whole egg was reported by Hermawan,
Akdemir Evrendilek, Dantzer, Zhang, and Richter (2004). PEF caused
1-log CFU/ml reduction in the population of S. enteritidis, under
2.12 μs duration of a pulse, the strength of EF 25 kV/cm for 250 μs
period, in the liquid whole egg sample. The PEF treated sample was
AFRAZ ET AL.
further subjected to heat treatment (55
C for 3.5 min) to kill the resid-
ual bacterial population in a liquid whole egg without denaturation of
the protein. Such combination reduced S. enteritidis population
(p < .05) by 4.3-log reduction and significantly increased the shelf life
and caused no changes in color, pH, electrical conductivity, and vis-
cosity (Hermawan et al., 2004). In another study, the effect of PEF,
temperature, and time to inactivate S. enteritidis and E. coli O157: H7
in liquid EY was investigated by Amiali et al. (2007). Reduction in bac-
terial population was reported in the inoculated (108 CFU/ml) sam-
ples of EY through E. coli or S. enteritidis. PEF treatment at 20, 30, and
40
C combined with PEF (intensities 20 and 30 kV/cm 105 pulses
and 2 μs pulse duration, 2 Hz) in a continuous process. Increase in EF
intensity, heat treatment and processing time caused an increase in
bacterial inactivation, at about 30 kV/cm EF intensity and heat treat-
ment (40
C), 5-log reduction occurs in S. enteritidis and E. coli. Inacti-
vation rates of S. enteritidis (0.004–0.098 μs−1) and E. coli
(0.009–0.039 μs−1) were increased as the temperature of processing
amplified from 20 to 40
C, whereas S. enteritidis was way more resil-
ient than E. coli during PEF inactivation process at lower temperatures
(Amiali et al., 2007).
The high thermal sensitivity of liquid whole egg components
limits the production of microbiologically healthy liquid whole egg
with industrial ultra-pasteurization. PEF (25 kV/ and 100 kJ/kg) in
combination with natural essential oils (EO; 200 μl/L of lemon) and
mild heat (60
C) proposes an alternative treatment, which provides a
safety level comparable to ultra-pasteurization, but at a lower temper-
ature. The combined treatment resulted in a 4-log reduction in the
L. monocytogenes and S. senftenberg 775 W population and when only
one of these barriers were used, authors found that the microbial
inactivation was reduced to 1.5-log of either bacterium (Espina,

Monfort, Alvarez, García-Gonzalo, & Pagán, 2014). However, syner-
gism was also observed by Espina et al., (2014) in the successive appli-
cation of PEF, heat and 200 μl/L mandarin, carvacrol, citral, or
limonene EOs. Attaining a 3.5-log reduction in S. senftenberg and
3.0-log in L. monocytogenes. Thus, this combined treatment could be
applied in the food industry to obtain microbiologically safe liquid
whole egg (Espina et al., 2014).
Among the Salmonella serovar, S. enteritidis was reported by
Monfort et al. (2010) to be the most resistant strain at the field
strength greater than 25 kV/cm during the processing of liquid whole
egg. The inactivation level of S. enteritidis was mainly dependent on
the energy being applied such as 106, 272, and 472 kJ/kg for 1, 2,
and 3-log reductions, respectively (Monfort et al., 2010). In another
study it was reported that, polypeptides from EW can be used as
functional ingredients in food products. PEF technology has been
used to enhance the antioxidant activity of polypeptides
(MW 10–30 kDa) from EW proteins. Under specific conditions, PEF
(10 kV/cm, 2000 Hz pulse frequency) showed an increase (28.44%) in
the inhibition of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) as compared to
the polypeptide's antioxidant activity, without PEF treatment (Wang
et al., 2013).
In another study, effects of PEF at different EF intensities (1.4–
1.7 kV/cm) and energy amplitudes (269–700 kJ/kg, 20 μs pulse width,
AFRAZ ET AL.
50
C) along with heat treatment (60 and 80
C) for about 10 min were
examined. At different pH environments (pH 4, 5, 7, and 9), the effect
of these conditions on antioxidant activity and anti-inflammatory
properties of ovomucin depleted EW was assessed after controlled
gastrointestinal hydrolysis. An increase in antioxidant activity of
hydrolysates after PEF and heat treatment at pH 4 was reported by
Liu, Oey, Bremer, Silcock, et al. (2019), while the anti-inflammatory
activity of whole hydrolysates was also enhanced after PEF and
heating treatment at pH 4. This enhancement was dose-dependent.
Hydrolysates (1 mg/ml) showed reduction (35.5 and 35.9%) in the
production of interleukin-8 (chemokine) after being treated with PEF
and heat treatment (80
C for 10 min), respectively. PEF processing of
ovomucin depleted EW solution can improve the protein hydrolysates
with increased anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity along with
less solution turbidity which can be used in high clarity products and
protein fortified drinks (Liu, Oey, Bremer, Carne, & Silcock, 2019; Liu,
Oey, Bremer, Silcock, et al., 2019).
7 | MICROWAVE TECHNOLOGY (MW)
In MW heating, energy transfer in food molecules occurs through
electromagnetic fields (Kalla & Devaraju, 2017) MW treatment,
energy is supplied by conduction, convection, and radiation due to
thermal gradients from the surfaces of the material. MW is assumed
to induce vibration in molecules that lead to cell wall ruptures, leading
to microbial inactivation (Cao, Zhang, Mujumdar, & Wang, 2019). MW
technology due to minimal loss of nutrients, energy efficiency, and
food safety has gained popularity, over the last few decades (Pan,
Sun, Cheng, & Han, 2018; Pu & Sun, 2017; Su, Bakalis, & Sun, 2018).
The photon energy of MWs is 0.0016 eV at 2.45 GHz whereas, chem-
ical bond energy is greater than the MW quantum energy therefore
MW cannot alter the primary structure of a protein (Han, Cai,
Cheng, & Sun, 2018). However, alteration in tertiary and secondary
structures can be promoted through MWs with the generation of
carbon-centered free radicals (Fan et al., 2016).
7.1 | Effect of MW on egg and egg products
Table 4 summarizes the effect of MW on egg and its derivatives. The
impact of MW processing on the secondary structure of EW protein
TABLE 4 Effect of MW on egg and egg derivatives
Sample Treatment conditions
EW protein 500 W energy, at pH 8.0
EW 10 GHz/22 dBm radiation, for 2–60
min
EW protein Temp. 60–80
C, for 1–5 min
EW and whole 915 MHz energy, 20–30% solid
egg powder conc., salt content 0–200 mM
9 of 18
and the influence of this treatment on avidin activity was reported by
Zhu et al. (2018a). They reported a decrease in avidin activity after
the MW treatment at 60, 70, and 80
C for 1, 3, and 5 min, while the
reduction in activity was greater at 80
C. Furthermore, analysis of
secondary structure revealed that an increase in β-sheets occur at
60 and 70
C with an increase in processing time and became constant
at 80
C. Whereas α-helices were decreased with time at each temper-
ature on which MW was applied (Zhu et al., 2018a). The effect of
phosphorylation with MW assistance (200, 300, 400, 500, and
600 W) at pH 8.0 in the presence of sodium tripolyphosphate on
structural and foaming properties of EW protein was investigated.
Results showed an increase (p-value) in the degree of phosphorylation
at the start of treatment, but it remained constant throughout treat-
ment. Analysis of surface hydrophobicity and spectroscopy revealed
that phosphorylated proteins had a more flexible and unfolded struc-
ture. Phosphorylated EW protein showed lower content of free SH
groups and higher zeta potential value. After MW treatment (500 W),
foaming stability was increased to 1.1 times, and foaming ability was
increased to 0.44 times as compared to untreated samples, whereas
excessive MW treatment (600 W) was reported to decrease the
foaming properties. It was concluded that MW-assisted phosphoryla-
tion of EW protein is beneficial to improve its foaming properties
(Li et al., 2018).
Singh et al. (2018) investigated the effect of MW
(10 GHz/22 dBm) radiation for different durations ranging from 2 to
60 min on hen EW. They reported that the MW treatment between
15 and 30 min exposed the buried residues of tryptophan of the
native molecule and a higher duration of treatment leads to a compact
structure of the protein, which consequently buried the tryptophan
residues again. There was no change in the secondary structure of
protein even when treated at 60 min as the molecules move back to
their native configuration in 7–8 hr after being removed from the radi-
ation field.
Furthermore, the outcome of MW pasteurization on the physical
properties of EW and the whole egg was investigated. Heating unifor-
mity and hot and cold spots during MW pasteurization treatment
were determined. They prepared a sample with the addition of water
in EW and whole egg powder and maintained separate concentration
(30, 27.5, 25, and 20%) of solid, salt contents were 200, 100, 50, and
0 mM. And studied physicochemical properties including water hold-
ing capacities, gelation temperatures, dielectric properties, and gel
strengths. Gelation temperatures of both liquid EW (70
C) and whole
Overall outcomes References
Foaming ability and stability increased Li et al. (2018)
Exposed tryptophan residues, no change in Singh et al. (2018)
secondary structure
Increased β-sheets, decreased α-helices Zhu et al. (2018a, 2018b)
Water-holding capacity increased, the Zhang, Liu, Nindo, and
strength of gel increased Tang (2013)
10 of 18
egg (80
C) samples were in the pasteurization temperature range. The
dielectric constants and gelling ability of both types of samples
decreased with the reduction in solid contents while the treatment
loss factor was not affected significantly at 915 MHz MW. With the
addition of salt loss factor of samples increased linearly, which
resulted in increased electrical conductivity of samples. MW treated
samples showed an increase in water-holding capacity and strength of
gels with an increase in solid concentration, whereas the addition of
salt had no considerable impact on the physicochemical properties of
sample (Zhang et al., 2013). Furthermore, functional properties of EW
after in-shell pasteurization by MW heating and by hot water immer-
sion were compared by Dev, Orsat, Gariépy, Raghavan, and Ruiz-
Feria (2010). Results demonstrated that MW treated in-shell eggs had
four times more viscosity, 20% higher enthalpy of denaturation, 30%
less foam density with 50% more stable foam, and 78% clearer, when
compared with water bath pasteurized in-shell EW. MW was proven
a better and viable alternative for the in-shell pasteurization and
heating of eggshells (Dev et al., 2010).
8 | ULTRAVIOLET (UV) LIGHT
The UV light (UV-C) has germicidal properties as it produces non-
ionizing radiation at wavelengths in the range of 200–280 nm, there-
fore it can be used for surface decontamination for fluid foods and

ingredients (Gayán, Serrano, Alvarez, & Condón, 2016). The effective-
ness of UV technology as a disinfectant is well known for over six
decades (Pendyala, Patras, Ravi, Gopisetty, & Sasges, 2020). Types of
UV is based on the wavelength; UV-A between 315 and 400 nm
(longwave), UV-B from 280 to 315 nm (medium wave) and UV-C
between 200 and 280 nm (Lante, Tinello, & Nicoletto, 2016; Tremarin,
Brand~ao, & Silva, 2017). As most microorganisms absorb ultraviolet
light at 254 nm, UV-C is the UV of interest in food processing due to
its germicidal effects. UV-C alters the microbial cell's DNA which
inhibits them from further replication by forming two thymines
next to each other in DNA chains during the UV treatment
TABLE 5 Effect of UV on egg and egg derivatives
Sample Treatment conditions
2
Whole egg Pulsed UV 1.25–18.0 J/cm , UV-C
(surface treatment) 0.05–3.0 J/cm2, 2 mW/cm2, 5–300 s
Liquid egg (inoculated 0.75 × 103 J/m2, sample thickness 1, 2,
with salmonella) and 3 mm, 3–15 min, stored at
5–37
C for up to 8 days
EW 10.6 and 63.7 kJ/m, 35.4 W/m2, 5 and
30 min
Liquid EW 9.22 J/cm2, 3.94 mW/cm2 for 39 min
Eggshells 23.6 ± 0.1 J/cm2 dose, for 20 s, 9.5 cm
below UV lamp
Liquid EW 44 J/mL, 50
C, 160 s, 330 ml/min flow
rate
AFRAZ ET AL.
(Ochoa-Velasco, Salcedo-Pedraza, Hernández-Carranza, & Guerrero-
Beltrán, 2018; Pendyala et al., 2020). There are two technologies
which uses UV-C as the source for disinfection, namely Pulsed UV
and continuous UV. These technologies use different types of lamps
as the UV source, and the manner or UV exposure to samples are also
different.
8.1 | Effect of UV light on egg and egg products
Table 5 summarizes the effect of UV light on the egg and its deriva-
tives. The efficiency of pulsed UV light and UV-C (254 nm) for the
reduction of enterohemorrhagic E. coli, S. enteritidis, and L. mono-
cytogenes on eggs (shelled) was compared. Bacterial populations
were reduced (1.6–3.8-log) when treated with pulsed UV light
(1.25–18.0 J/cm2) at different fluences and UV-C light (fluences
0.05–3.0 J/cm2) for 5–300 s. Treatment with UV-C light achieved a
higher reduction (3.2-log at 2 mW/cm2 for 25 s) in bacterial cells at
lower fluences. On the other hand, when bacterial load shielded in
feces or stacked on a small area, pulsed UV light gave higher bacterial
reduction (1.3–2.2-log) due to its higher penetration power as com-
pared to UV-C light. After UV light treatment, the integrity of the egg-
shell was maintained while slight sensory deviations were highlighted
by the panelists after treated with higher doses. Researchers con-
cluded that pulsed UV and UV-C light treatments might be useful for
the decontamination of egg surfaces and overcome the hazard of sal-
monellosis infections in humans (Holck et al., 2018). Moreover, the
influence of UV light (10.6 and 63.7 kJ m−2, 35.4 W/m2, 5, and
30 min) on certain properties (particle size, free SH contents, protein
fractions, absorbance, gelling, foaming properties, immunoreactivity
and viscosity) of EW was investigated. Large protein aggregate was
formed due to change in SH contents, protein backbone cleavage, and
development of browning as a result of UV exposure, whereas EW
proteins were sensitive to UV processing. There was no change in gel
firmness, immunoreactivity, and gelling temperature, while UV light
treated EW produced higher stability foams. The latter effect was
Results References
1.6–3.8-log reduction in microbes Holck, Liland, Dromtorp, Carlehog,
and Mc (2018)
Reduction in microbial population Mehdizadeh, Minaei, Torshizi, and
Mohajerani (2015)
Larger protein aggregate, browning Manzocco et al. (2012)
5.3-log reduction in Salmonella . De Souza and Fernández (2011)
enteritidis
5.3-log CFU/cm2 reduction in S. Keklik, Demirci, Patterson, and
enteritidis Puri (2010)
4.3-log reduction in Escherichia coli. Geveke (2008)
AFRAZ ET AL.
attributed to protein aggregate, which filled empty spaces in between
bubbles and might be because of the increased viscosity of the aque-
ous phase and higher viscosity was also related to increased foam vol-
ume (Manzocco et al., 2012).
Effect of UV radiation (0.75 × 103 J/m2) on the thickness, func-
tional properties (foaming ability and stability), storability, and bacte-
rial activity of liquid egg was investigated. A reduction in the
population of Salmonella was consistent in egg samples, while
improvement in functional properties and protein oxidation was also
obtained. When treated at 5
C, a decrease in protein oxidation and
Salmonella population was observed after 2 days of storage. UV irradi-
ation can be used to reduce the microbial population but not below
the safe level in a liquid egg. A UV treatment duration of 5 and 10 min
were considered to be the best for stability and foaming ability,
respectively (Mehdizadeh et al., 2014).
Toxicological and microbiological contaminants are of vital signifi-
cance because of their impact on human life and diseases caused by
raw food materials which directly or indirectly contaminate other food-
stuffs, perhaps the most prevalent health concern in the world today.
Effect of UV (254 nm, 3–15 min) irradiation conditions, sample thick-
ness (1–3 mm) and temperature (3–15
C) of storage on functional
properties, storability and bacterial activity of liquid egg (separated yolk
and albumen), with Salmonella suspension spiked (108/ml), was investi-
gated. The total viable count of Salmonella reduced in all samples, but
not to the safe level (<2-log CFU/g). The best irradiation times were
10 and 5 min for the purpose of to improving foam strength and stabil-
ity, respectively. However, after 2 days of storage, protein oxidation
and total Salmonella count were only decreased in the 5
C treatment
of liquid egg sample (Mehdizadeh et al., 2014). UV (253.7 nm, 30 W for
30–120 min) irradiation has also been reported to improve the emulsi-
fying and functional properties of EW proteins by inducing cross-
linking. Thus, EW could be used as a novel foaming and emulsifying
agent in a wide variety of food systems (Kuan, Bhat, & Karim, 2011).
Effect of UV-C radiation on decontamination efficiency (such as S.
enterica subsp. enterica Ser. Enteritidis) and quality attributes of liquid
egg products was investigated. In contrast to heat treatment, pH and
viscosity were not affected by UV-C treatment while slight browning
observed because of the Maillard reaction that occurred in the whole
egg and EY at low UV-C doses. Despite that, browning was not as
severe as the conventionally pasteurized egg fractions. The change was
attributed to the lipid oxidation. TBARS values during maximum UV-C
doses were greater than in pasteurized whole egg and EY, while results
did not differ considerably as compared to the untreated samples.
UV-C treatment effectively inactivate the S. enteritidis population, in EY
and whole egg up to 3.3-log and 3.8-log, while 5.3-log-reduction was
achieved in EW under dynamic conditions (9.22 J cm−2, 39 min). Static
treatments although proved to be less effective but still reduced the
load of bacterial cells between 1.7 and 2.8-log reduction. Further, it
was revealed that duration requires to achieve a 4D reduction of Sal-
monella cells, at 3.94 mW/cm2 was around 7.4 min in EW (de Souza &
Fernández, 2011).
The impact of UV-C light on minerals, key secondary metabolites
such as zeaxanthin, lutein, and vitamins of egg segments (EW, whole
11 of 18
egg, and EY) was determined. Results described that nutrients in eggs
were fairly stable to the UV-C light treatment except for carotenoids
(61% loss), ascorbic acid (66% losses), and retinol (80% losses). UV-C
treated egg fractions showed improvement in foaming ability and its
stability and 20% increment in the emulsifying activity index as com-
pared to the pasteurized samples. It was revealed that UV processing
not only sustains most of the nutritive properties of an egg but also
maintain or even increase the functional properties of egg and egg
products (Poliana Mendes De Souza et al., 2015). Furthermore,
(Geveke, 2008) investigated the effect of UV light (44 J/ml) on liquid
EW to compare its efficiency with conventional pasteurization
method, which damages the functional properties of the egg. EW
sample was injected with E. coli and passed through the UV system at
a specific flow rate of 330 ml/min. The effect of temperature
(30–50
C), pH (7–9), and treatment time (0–160 s) on the inactivation
of E. coli in EW samples was studied. 4.3-log reduction in the popula-
tion of E. coli was reported during its exposure to UV treatment at
50
C for 160 s, this reduction was linearly based on the treatment
time. Furthermore, the inactivation of E. coli was inversely dependent
on pH in the EW sample and directly dependent on temperature.
9 | COLD PLASMA (CP)
CP technology has been viewed as beneficial for the inactivation of
microbes while maintaining the quality of fresh produce (Liao
et al., 2017). On the other hand, this technique is not effective in food
systems of a controlled environment for the inactivation of enzymes or
microbes, as they are present in intact tissues and CP technology is a
surface phenomenon. CP technology can be used to prevent browning
by inactivation of endogenous enzymes (polyphenol oxidase and peroxi-
dases) (Kang, Roh, & Min, 2019; Misra, Pankaj, Segat, & Ishikawa, 2016).
It is considered as a modern technique for the modification of starch
and altering its chemical and physical properties. CP is an eco-friendly
process and used for the preservation of food items as an alternative to
common techniques (Bourke, Ziuzina, Boehm, Cullen, & Keener, 2018).
The inactivation effect of CP is caused by DNA modification and
improper replication of cells (Georgescu et al., 2017).
9.1 | Effect of CP on egg and egg products
Table 6 summarizes the effect of CP on egg and its derivatives. The
effect of novel CP on the eggshell surface for the inactivation of
S. enterica serovar Enteritidis was investigated. Eggshells were contam-
inated (107 CFU/egg) with S. enteritidis and then treated with atmo-
spheric pressure plasma (APP) with different experimental settings,
rate of gas flow ranges from 2000 to 3,000 L/h, exposure times
(60–120 s), plasma jet distance ranges (15 or 40 mm), reference volt-
ages (100–80%), and frequencies (20–25 kHz). The reported reduc-
tion (<102 CFU/egg) was lower than the detection limit, in the
concentration of S. enteritidis on egg surface at an extreme plasma
power of 655 W for 120 s of treatment. There was not any negative
12 of 18
TABLE 6 Effect of CP on egg and egg derivatives
Sample Treatment conditions
Eggshell (inoculated with 655 W (25 kHz–100% V), for 120 s
Salmonella. enteritidis)
Egg (surface 10–12 kHz frequency, 25–30 kV voltage,
He/O2 for indirect treatment, for 10
and 25 min
Eggshell (inoculated with S. enteritidis) 85 kV voltage, for 15 min
Eggshell (inoculated with S. aureus) 21 kHz frequency, 1 kV voltage,
for 10–60 s
Eggshell (inoculated with RH 35 and 65%, at 25
C, for 90 min
S. enteritidis and S. typhimurium)
Eggshell Air, 21–23
C for 90 min
effect on egg quality because temperature stayed below 35
C during
the treatments (Dasan et al., 2018). Moreover, the effect of CP on egg
surface for the inactivation of S. enterica either with direct treatment
(eggs dipped in plasma) or indirect treatment (eggs outside the plasma
zone) was studied. They used 25–30 kV voltage and 10–12 kHz fre-
quency and eggs were polluted with Salmonella population (108).
He/O2 compound was used to perform direct treatment while in indi-
rect treatment air was used as working gas. Reduction in Salmonella
population (<102 CFU/egg) was below the detection limit, after the
direct treatment of 10 min and indirect treatment of 25 min, with a
relative humidity of 80% as the experiment confirmed the importance
of humidity in the inactivation process (Georgescu et al., 2017).
The potential of atmospheric CP for the external decontamination
of eggs in the shell was studied as in European Union, eggs may not
be washed or cleaned. A reduction of 1.8–2.5-log in S. aureus and
native aerobic mesophilic bacteria on eggshells after 10–60 s of treat-
ment was reported by Ragni et al. (2010). Plasma treated eggs were
not significantly different from the untreated eggs for 54 days in the
case of physicochemical properties. The treatment of eggshells with
plasma jet has no side effect on egg quality and has the potential for
the decontamination (Dobeic et al., 2016). Furthermore, the decon-
tamination power of gas plasma on eggshell samples was evaluated
which were artificially inoculated with S. enteritidis (5.5-log CFU/egg)
and S. typhimurium (6.5-log CFU/egg). Different experimental condi-
tions were considered such as, relative humidity in the chamber (35%
and 65%, at 25
C), and decontamination times (10, 20, 30, 45, 60, and
90 min) at room temperature. A reduction of 2.5 and 4.5-log
CFU/eggshell was reported in the population of S. enteritidis using low
and high humidity, respectively. While there were no significant nega-
tive effects on the quality of eggs, and 90 min treatment is feasible
for industries and farmers who stock eggs longer than that is neces-
sary for sterilization (Ragni et al., 2010).
CP (85 kV, 5–15 min) were used for the inactivation of Salmonella
from spot inoculated eggshells under different modes of exposure, in
dry air (direct) and modified atmospheric gas (MAG) environment
(indirect). Inactivation of Salmonella was reported to be dependent on
the mode of exposure, gas type, and treatment time. Eggshells directly
treated under MAG for 15 min a reduction of 5.53-log CFU/egg was
AFRAZ ET AL.
Results References
Reduction in S. enteritidis below Dasan
the detection limit (102 CFU/egg) et al. (2018)
Reduction in salmonella population, Georgescu
below the detection limit (102 CFU/egg) et al. (2017)
5.53-log CFU/egg reduction on surfaces Wan et al. (2017)
1.8–2.5-log reduction in S. aureus, and Dobeic
native aerobic mesophilic bacteria et al. (2016)
2.5–4.5-log CFU/eggshell reduction Ragni
et al. (2010)
4-log reduction in Enteritidis MB2509 Vannini
population et al. (2009)
observed. There was no significant difference in the quality attributes
of eggs treated under direct and indirect methods (Wan et al., 2017).
S. typhimurium poses a serious hazard to the safety of poultry eggs by
forming biofilms on eggshells. Cold nitrogen plasma (CNP) technology
has an inhibitory effect on the forming of such biofilms. After CNP
(600 W, 2 min) treatment the metabolic activity of S. typhimurium
reduced by 82.2%. The mechanism involves: CNP produces hydroxyl
radicals (by reaction with water) which consequently trigger an
increase in the intracellular oxidative stress. The extracellular polysac-
charide (32.1–8.4 μg/ml), protein (68.5–12.3 μg/ml) and extracellular
DNA (26.5–8.6 μg/ml) were also decreased as a result of CNP treat-
ment (Lin, Liao, Li, Abdel-Samie, & Cui, 2020).
10 | R A D I O F R E Q U E N C Y ( RF )
RF and MW both are nonionizing forms of electromagnetic energy
and RF has a longer wavelength (Han et al., 2018). This technique has
been widely studied as it overcomes the traditional heating methods
because of their low heating rate, RF heat volumetrically instead of
surface heating (Guo, Mujumdar, & Zhang, 2019). In recent studies,
the application of RF energy in food processing was evaluated includ-
ing blanching, pasteurization, drying, heating of bread, and thawing
(Zhao, Zhao, Yang, Singh Sidhu, & Kong, 2017). RF heating was con-
sidered as an alternative to conventional heating such as for disinfec-
tion, cooking, blanching, thawing and also for the treatment of fresh
foods (Guo et al., 2019; Hou, Johnson, & Wang, 2016; Zhang, Lyng, &
Brunton, 2004; Zhang et al., 2017; Zhang, Chen, Mujumdar, Zhong, &
Sun, 2015). In response to RF fields, cell death occurs as a result of
frictional interaction between polarized molecules and charged ions
(Kou, Li, Hou, Zhang, & Wang, 2018).
10.1 | Effect of RF on egg and egg products
Table 7 summarizes the effect of RF on egg and its derivatives.
Boreddy et al. (2014) evaluated the impact of RF assisted thermal
treatment on EW powder was evaluated to retain the functional
AFRAZ ET AL.
TABLE 7 Effect of RF on egg and egg derivatives
Sample Treatment conditions


Eggshell 40.68 MHz RF, 30–45 W, 30–38 C,
2.5–8 min,
Egg yolk (inoculated 60 MHz RF energy, 35.0 and
with Escherichia coli.) 56.7
C, 23.5 min
EW powder 6 kW, 27.12 MHz RF energy, 90
C
for ≥8 hr
EW powder 90
C, holding at 8 hr or longer
EW and egg yolk 10 MHz to 3 GHz, 5–56
C, 30 min
properties, energy requirements, and decreasing storage time in a hot


room. EW powder stored in an elevated temperature (58–60 C)
chamber for 10–14 days traditionally while EW protein (pH  9.5)
was heated via RF at various temperatures (60–90
C), and then stored


at the same temperature for 60 min, which exceeds 3 days at 60 C. It
was reported that 90
C treatment followed by storage time of
8–24 hr, in hot air oven, provides optimum functional properties. RF
assisted thermal processing on all the above-discussed parameters did
not reduce the solubility, moisture content, and color lightness signifi-
cantly when compared to the traditionally processed samples, but
foaming capacity was significantly lower than the traditionally
processed sample. It was also reported that the foaming stability, gel
firmness, gel elasticity, and water-holding capacity was similar to RF


assisted treatment at 90 C followed by holding for 8 hr or longer in a
hot air oven. It was concluded that 90
C treatment and holding time
of 8 hr or longer in a hot air oven produced parallel or to some extent
better functional properties as compared to the conventionally
processed EW protein. These conditions also achieved a ≥ 7-log
reduction in Salmonella spp. Therefore, it could be used to shrink the
pasteurization time from the existing 10–14 days to <24 hr.
Moreover, the impact of RF heating on egg dielectric (polarized)
properties was studied by Kannan, Dev, Gariép, and Vijaya
Raghavan (2013). At different temperatures from 5 to 56
C and fre-
quency from 10 to 3 GHz to devise a heating standard wherein there
is minimal unfavorable effect to the egg components (EW and yolk).
They determined heating process parameters, based on a dielectric
study. Dielectric properties of EW closely resemble with water
because of its increased water content. While eggshell and shell mem-
brane in their dielectric properties showed great transparency to radio
waves thereby paving the way of in-shell egg pasteurization by RF
heating. After RF treatment, an increase in coagulation and turbidity,
and a decrease in foam stability were reported as compared to the
control sample (Kannan et al., 2013).
A two-step process that uses hot water and RF energy were
developed by (Geveke et al., 2017), to pasteurize the eggs in half time
as compared to the commercial hot water process that required about
60 min to complete. The sample (EY) was injected (7.5-log CFU/ml)
with E. coli, then heated for 3.5 min at 35
C via 60 MHz RF energy,
which preferentially heated to 61
C. Secondly, the sample was further
13 of 18
Results References
>5-log reduction in salmonella Yang et al. (2019)
population
6.5-log reduction in the population of E. Geveke et al. (2017)
coli
Pasteurization and improved the gelling Boreddy et al., 2016)
properties
Better functional properties, ≥7-log (Boreddy et al. (2014)
reduction in Salmonella spp.
Increased coagulation and turbidity, Kannan, Dev, Gariépy, and
decreased foam stability and viscosity Raghavan (2013)
heated additionally for 20 min at 56.7
C. They reported a 6.5-log
reduction in E. coli's population with this two-step process, while the
total time for the process was 23.5 min, whereas in conventional
method 60 min of processing is required for 6.6-log reduction of
E. coli using just hot water. The authors concluded that this novel pas-
teurization process was significantly faster than the conventional/
commercial process (Geveke et al., 2017).
Additionally, the effect of treatment time, RF power, and temper-
ature of cooling water on S. typhimurium inactivation in shell eggs and
interior quality were evaluated. They used different processing param-
eters such as RF; 40.68 MHz; power 30–45 W; treatment time
2.5–8 min and temperature 30–38
C, compared with hot water treat-
ment at 56.7
C for 15 min. The >5-log reduction in Salmonella popula-
tion was reported after employing the above-mentioned conditions
without significant quality changes. It was further revealed that the
shortest (35 W power for 4.5 min at 38
C) and the longest (30 W for
8 min at 30
C) combined treatments considerably (p < .05) preserved
the quality better as compared to the commercial hot water pasteuri-
zation (56.7
C for 60 min). There is no significant (p ≥ .05) change in
the quality of egg between the shortest and longest treatment except
for the shortest duration treatment resulted in greater albumin activ-
ity. So, the industry may go for the shortest RF treatment because the
longest treatment consumed 78% more time and 47% more energy as
compared to the shortest treatment (Yang et al., 2019).
11 | A D V A N T A G E S A N D D I S A D V A N T A G E S
OF USING N O V EL PROCES SING
T E C H N O L O G I E S F O R E G G P RO D U C T S
Novel processing technologies have been reported to significantly
improve the techno-functional properties of different egg products
and increase their usage spectrum in food industry. Non-thermal
novel techniques aid in the processing of heat sensitive egg products
and maintain its natural sensory properties. Under severe conditions
required to achieve microbial safety of egg products, non-thermal
processing technologies could deteriorate the quality of the egg prod-
uct, including color, viscosity, and oxidation of lipids/proteins. Con-
cerning viscosity, HHP processing-induced 20% increase in the
14 of 18
viscosity of the liquid whole egg will make the product unacceptable
as an indirect protein denaturation or coagulation index would act as
an increase in viscosity. Since proteins are prone to pressure or heat
variations in liquid egg products, processing-induced high viscosity
increases the probability of deteriorating protein functionality such as
foaming or emulsification (Monfort, Ramos, et al., 2012; Monfort,
Saldaña, et al., 2012). It has been reported that HHP processing
improves the viscosity of yolk, EW, and whole egg, but higher pres-
sures and longer periods of pressure usually negatively affected the
viscosity (Ramaswamy, Singh, & Sharma, 2015; Singh, Sharma, &
Ramaswamy, 2015).
PEF processing applied (intensity-dependent manner) to liquid
whole egg caused a minor but not significant increase in viscosity.
After PEF processing, pre-homogenized liquid whole egg retained the
same viscosity (Liu, Oey, Bremer, Carne, & Silcock, 2019; Liu, Oey,
Bremer, Silcock, et al., 2019). The type of product determines the
effect of ionizing radiation on the viscosity of egg and egg products
being processed. Liquid EW subjected to irradiation demonstrated a
decrease in viscosity with an increased dose of irradiation. Neverthe-
less, after irradiation, the viscosity of liquid EY (separated from irradi-
ated shell eggs) or an irradiated whole egg powder solution increased
(Liu, Oey, Bremer, Carne, & Silcock, 2019; Liu, Oey, Bremer, Silcock,
et al., 2019; Min, Nam, Jo, & Ahn, 2012). In order to reap the benefits
offered by these technologies, it is crucial to identify the boundaries
of treatment conditions that would work to the advantage of the
intended processing objectives and vice versa.
12 | CONCLUSION AND FUTURE
PERSPECTIVES
Application and benefits of novel processing technologies have several
advantages over conventional technologies. Conventional thermal tech-
niques are relatively involving heat, less cost-effective and can cause
nutritional and structural damages in food products. Novel techniques
such as the US, PEF, and HHP showed better structural and functional
properties to be used in the production of energy drink, protein hydro-
colloids, stabilizers, and protein-fortified drinks, based on studies
reviewed in this work. Other industrial usages of these techniques are
pasteurization, structural modification, bacterial inactivation, and physi-
cal alteration. Although each technique has its advantages, there are
challenges to overcome when operating commercially. Limitations of the
egg products and egg derivatives to extreme treatment conditions for
the specific technology used must be established. Another point to note
is that due to the complexity of the process and lack of technical knowl-
edge among operators, as well as a lack of regulations or guidelines for
the industry acceptance of novel technologies may be stifled. Therefore,
much deeper research is needed to simplify and illuminate the complete
consequence of using these techniques on product quality and safety.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are thankful to University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan for
their support.
AFRAZ ET AL.
AUTHOR CONTRIBU TIONS
Muhammad Talha Afraz: Conceptualization; writing-original draft.
Moazzam Rafiq Khan: Conceptualization; validation; writing-review
and editing. Ume Roobab: Writing-original draft; writing-review and
editing. Noranizan Mohd Adzahan: Visualization; writing-review and
editing. Brijesh K. Tiwari: Conceptualization; writing-review and
editing. Muhammad Inam-ur-Raheem: Supervision; writing-review
and editing. IV.Muhammad Tayyab Rashid: Validation; writing-review
and editing. Seyed Mohammad Bagher Hashemi: Writing-review and
editing. Rana Aadil: Conceptualization; supervision; writing-original
draft; writing-review and editing.
OR CID
Ume Roobab https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6075-6737
Seyed Mohammad Bagher Hashemi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-
3420-0057
Rana Muhammad Aadil https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0185-0096
RE FE RE NCE S
Aadil, R. M., Khalil, A. A., Rehman, A., Khalid, A., Inam-ur-Raheem, M.,
Karim, A., … Afraz, M. T. (2020). Assessing the impact of ultra-
sonication and thermo-ultrasound on antioxidant indices and polyphe-
nolic profile of apple-grape juice blend. Journal of Food Processing and
Preservation, 44(5), e14406. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.14406
Aadil, R. M., Zeng, X. A., Han, Z., Sahar, A., Khalil, A. A., Rahman, U. U., …
Mehmood, T. (2018). Combined effects of pulsed electric field and
ultrasound on bioactive compounds and microbial quality of grapefruit
juice. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 42(2), e13507.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.13507
Amiali, M., Ngadi, M. O., Smith, J. P., & Raghavan, G. S. V. (2007). Synergis-
tic effect of temperature and pulsed electric field on inactivation of
Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella enteritidis in liquid egg yolk.
Journal of Food Engineering, 79(2), 689–694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jfoodeng.2006.02.029
Arshad, R. N., Abdul-Malek, Z., Munir, A., Buntat, Z., Ahmad, M. H.,
Jusoh, Y. M., … Aadil, R. M. (2020). Electrical systems for pulsed elec-
tric field applications in the food industry: An engineering perspective.
Trends in Food Science & Technology, 104, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.tifs.2020.07.008
Arzeni, C., Pérez, O. E., & Pilosof, A. M. R. (2012). Functionality of egg
white proteins as affected by high intensity ultrasound. Food Hydrocol-
loids, 29(2), 308–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2012.03.009
Baba, K., Kajiwara, T., Watanabe, S., Katsuki, S., Sasahara, R., & Inoue, K.
(2018). Low-temperature pasteurization of liquid whole egg using
intense pulsed electric fields. Electronics and Communications in Japan,
101(2), 87–94. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecj.12053
Barbosa-Cánovas, G. V., & Zhang, Q. H. (2019). Pulsed electric fields in
food processing. In Pulsed electric fields in food processing, Boca Raton,
FL: CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429133459
Besler, M., Steinhart, H., & Paschke, A. (2001). Stability of food allergens
and allergenicity of processed foods. Journal of Chromatography B: Bio-
medical Sciences and Applications, 756, 207–228. https://doi.org/10.
1016/S0378-4347(01)00110-4
Bi, X., Wang, X., Chen, Y., Chen, L., Xing, Y., & Che, Z. (2020). Effects of
combination treatments of lysozyme and high power ultrasound on
the Salmonella typhimurium inactivation and quality of liquid whole
egg. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 60, 104763. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ultsonch.2019.104763
Boreddy, S. R., Birla, S., Froning, G., Thippareddi, H., & Subbiah, J. (2014).
Effect of radio frequency assisted thermal processing on quality and
AFRAZ ET AL.
functional properties of egg white powder. Transactions of the ASABE,
57(6), 1761–1770. https://doi.org/10.13031/trans.57.10781
Boreddy, S. R., Thippareddi, H., Froning, G., & Subbiah, J. (2016). Novel
radiofrequency-assisted thermal processing improves the gelling prop-
erties of standard egg white powder. Journal of Food Science, 81(3),
E665–E671. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.13239
Bourke, P., Ziuzina, D., Boehm, D., Cullen, P. J., & Keener, K. (2018). The
potential of cold plasma for safe and sustainable food production.
Trends in Biotechnology, 36, 615–626. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
tibtech.2017.11.001
Caner, C., & Yuceer, M. (2015). Maintaining functional properties of shell
eggs by ultrasound treatment. Journal of the Science of Food and Agri-
culture, 95(14), 2880–2891. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.7029
Cao, X., Zhang, M., Mujumdar, A. S., & Wang, Z. (2019). Effect of micro-
wave freeze-drying on microbial inactivation, antioxidant substance
and flavor quality of Ashitaba leaves (Angelica keiskei Koidzumi). Dry-
ing Technology, 37(6), 793–800. https://doi.org/10.1080/07373937.
2018.1463245
Dang, K. L. M., Le, T. Q., & Songsermpong, S. (2014). Effect of ultrasound
treatment in the mass transfer and physical properties of salted duck
eggs. Kasetsart Journal, 48, 942–953.
Dasan, B. G., Yildirim, T., & Boyaci, I. H. (2018). Surface decontamination
of eggshells by using non-thermal atmospheric plasma. International
Journal of Food Microbiology, 266, 267–273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijfoodmicro.2017.12.021
De Maria, S., Ferrari, G., & Maresca, P. (2016). Effects of high hydrostatic
pressure on the conformational structure and the functional properties
of bovine serum albumin. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Tech-
nologies, 33, 67–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2015.11.025
de Souza, P. M., & Fernández, A. (2011). Effects of UV-C on physicochem-
ical quality attributes and Salmonella enteritidis inactivation in liquid
egg products. Food Control, 22(8), 1385–1392. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.foodcont.2011.02.017
De Souza, P. M., Müller, A., Beniaich, A., Mayer-Miebach, E., Oehlke, K.,
Stahl, M., … Fernández, A. (2015). Functional properties and nutritional
composition of liquid egg products treated in a coiled tube UV-C reac-
tor. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies, 32, 156–164.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2015.09.004
Dev, S. R. S., Orsat, V., Gariépy, Y., Raghavan, G. S. V., & Ruiz-Feria, C.
(2010). Selected post-heating properties of microwave or hot water
heated egg white for in-shell pasteurization. International Journal of
Food Properties, 13(4), 778–788. https://doi.org/10.1080/
10942910902894906
Dobeic, M., Vadnjal, S., Bajc, Z., Umek, P., Pintarič, Š., Uranjek, I., &
Gačnik, K. Š. (2016). Antibacterial properties of a non-thermal, atmo-
spheric, openair®, plasma jet in surface decontamination of eggs in
shell. Slovenian Veterinary Research, 53(1), 29–41.
Echeverría, I., López-Caballero, M. E., Gómez-Guillén, M. C.,
Mauri, A. N., & Montero, M. P. (2016). Structure, functionality, and
active release of nanoclay–soy protein films affected by clove essen-
tial oil. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 9(11), 1937–1950. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s11947-016-1777-z

Espina, L., Monfort, S., Alvarez, I., García-Gonzalo, D., & Pagán, R. (2014).
Combination of pulsed electric fields, mild heat and essential oils as an
alternative to the ultrapasteurization of liquid whole egg. International
Journal of Food Microbiology, 189, 119–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijfoodmicro.2014.08.002
Fan, D. M., Hu, B., Lin, L. F., Huang, L. L., Wang, M. F., Zhao, J. X., &
Zhang, H. (2016). Rice protein radicals: Growth and stability under
microwave treatment. RSC Advances, 6(100), 97825–97831. https://
doi.org/10.1039/c6ra15402f

Gayán, E., Serrano, M. J., Alvarez, I., & Condón, S. (2016). Modeling optimal
process conditions for UV-heat inactivation of foodborne pathogens
in liquid foods. Food Microbiology, 60, 13–20. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.fm.2016.06.011
15 of 18
Georgescu, N., Apostol, L., & Gherendi, F. (2017). Inactivation of Salmonella
enterica serovar Typhimurium on egg surface, by direct and indirect
treatments with cold atmospheric plasma. Food Control, 76, 52–61.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.01.005
Geveke, D. J. (2008). Uv inactivation of E. coli in liquid egg white. Food and
Bioprocess Technology, 1(2), 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11947-008-0070-1
Geveke, D. J., Bigley, A. B. W., & Brunkhorst, C. D. (2017). Pasteurization
of shell eggs using radio frequency heating. Journal of Food Engineering,
193, 53–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2016.08.009
Guo, C., Mujumdar, A. S., & Zhang, M. (2019). New development in radio
frequency heating for fresh food processing: A review. Food Engineer-
ing Reviews, 11, 29–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12393-018-9184-z
Han, Z., Cai, M. j., Cheng, J. H., & Sun, D. W. (2018). Effects of electric
fields and electromagnetic wave on food protein structure and func-
tionality: A review. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 75, 1–9.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2018.02.017
Hermawan, N., Akdemir Evrendilek, G., Dantzer, W. R., Zhang, Q. H., &
Richter, E. R. (2004). Pulsed electric field treatment of liquid whole egg
inoculated with Salmonella enteritidis. Journal of Food Safety, 24(1),
71–85. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4565.2004.tb00376.x
Higuera-Barraza, O. A., Del Toro-Sanchez, C. L., Ruiz-Cruz, S., & Márquez-
Ríos, E. (2016). Effects of high-energy ultrasound on the functional
properties of proteins. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 31, 558–562. htt
ps://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2016.02.007
Holck, A. L., Liland, K. H., Drømtorp, S. M., Carlehö, G. M., & McLeod, A.
(2018). Comparison of UV-C and pulsed UV light treatments for
reduction of salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes, and
enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli on eggs. Journal of Food Protection,
81(1), 6–16. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-17-128
Hoppe, A., Jung, S., Patnaik, A., & Zeece, M. G. (2013). Effect of high pres-
sure treatment on egg white protein digestibility and peptide products.
Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies, 17, 54–62. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2012.11.003
Hou, L., Johnson, J. A., & Wang, S. (2016). Radio frequency heating for
postharvest control of pests in agricultural products: A review. Post-
harvest Biology and Technology, 113, 106–118. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.postharvbio.2015.11.011
Huang, E., Mittal, G. S., & Griffiths, M. W. (2006). Inactivation of Salmonella
enteritidis in liquid whole egg using combination treatments of pulsed
electric field, high pressure and ultrasound. Biosystems Engineering, 94
(3), 403–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2006.03.008
Jovanovic, J. R., Stefanovic, A. B., Šekuljica, N. Ž., Tanaskovic, S. M. J.,
DojXXinovic, M. B., Bugarski, B. M., & Kneževic-Jugovic, Z. D. (2016).
Ultrasound pretreatment as an useful tool to enhance egg white pro-
tein hydrolysis: kinetics, reaction model, and thermodinamics. Journal
of Food Science, 81(11), C2664–C2675. https://doi.org/10.1111/
1750-3841.13503
Jun, S., Yaoyao, M., Hui, J., Obadi, M., Zhongwei, C., & Bin, X. (2020).
Effects of single- and dual-frequency ultrasound on the functionality
of egg white protein. Journal of Food Engineering, 277, 109902.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2020.109902
Kalla, A. M., & Devaraju, R. (2017). Microwave energy and its application
in food industry: A reveiw. Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research, 36
(1), 37–44. https://doi.org/10.18805/ajdfr.v0iof.7303
Kang, J. H., Roh, S. H., & Min, S. C. (2019). Inactivation of potato polyphe-
nol oxidase using microwave cold plasma treatment. Journal of Food
Science, 84(5), 1122–1128. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.
14601
Kannan, S., Dev, S. R. S., Gariép, Y., & Vijaya Raghavan, G. S. (2013). Effect
of radiofrequency heating on the dielectric and physical properties of
eggs. Progress in Electromagnetics Research B, 51, 201–220. https://
doi.org/10.2528/PIERB13031812
Kavuşan, H. S., & Serdaro
glu, M. (2019). The role of novel pasteurization
approaches on altering functional properties of egg proteins. Turkish
16 of 18
Journal of Agriculture - Food Science and Technology, 7(sp1), 138.
https://doi.org/10.24925/turjaf.v7isp1.138-144.2787
Khan, N. M., Mu, T. H., Ali, F., Arogundade, L. A., Khan, Z. U., Zhang, M., …
Sun, H. N. (2015). Effects of high hydrostatic pressure on emulsifying
properties of sweet potato protein in model protein-hydrocolloids sys-
tem. Food Chemistry, 169, 448–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodchem.2014.08.013
Knezevic-Jugovic, Z. D., Stefanovic, A. B., Žuža, M. G., Milovanovic, S. L.,
Jakovetic, S. M., Manojlovic, V. B., & Bugarski, B. M. (2012). Effects of
sonication and high-pressure carbon dioxide processing on enzymatic
hydrolysis of egg white proteins. Acta Periodica Technologica, 43,
33–41. https://doi.org/10.2298/APT1243033K
Kou, X., Li, R., Hou, L., Zhang, L., & Wang, S. (2018). Identifying possible
non-thermal effects of radio frequency energy on inactivating food
microorganisms. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 269, 89–97.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.01.025
Kuan, Y. H., Bhat, R., & Karim, A. A. (2011). Emulsifying and foaming prop-
erties of ultraviolet-irradiated egg white protein and sodium caseinate.
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 59(8), 4111–4118. https://
doi.org/10.1021/jf104050k
Lante, A., Tinello, F., & Nicoletto, M. (2016). UV-A light treatment for con-
trolling enzymatic browning of fresh-cut fruits. Innovative Food Science
and Emerging Technologies, 34, 141–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ifset.2015.12.029
Lee, D., Heinz, V., & Knorr, D. (2003). Effects of combination treatments
of nisin and high-intensity ultrasound with high pressure on the micro-
bial inactivation in liquid whole egg. Innovative Food Science & Emerging
Technologies, 4(4), 387–393. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1466-8564(03)
00039-0
Li, P., Sun, Z., Ma, M., Jin, Y., & Sheng, L. (2018). Effect of microwave-
assisted phosphorylation modification on the structural and foaming
properties of egg white powder. LWT, 97, 151–156. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.lwt.2018.06.055
Liao, X., Liu, D., Xiang, Q., Ahn, J., Chen, S., Ye, X., & Ding, T. (2017). Inacti-
vation mechanisms of non-thermal plasma on microbes: A review.
Food Control, 75, 83–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.
12.021
Lin, L., Liao, X., Li, C., Abdel-Samie, M. A., & Cui, H. (2020). Inhibitory effect
of cold nitrogen plasma on Salmonella typhimurium biofilm and its
application on poultry egg preservation. LWT, 126, 109340. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109340
Liu, L., Yang, X., Bhandari, B., Meng, Y., & Prakash, S. (2020). Optimization
of the formulation and properties of 3D-printed complex egg white pro-
tein objects. Food, 9(2), 164. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9020164
Liu, Y. F., Oey, I., Bremer, P., Carne, A., & Silcock, P. (2017). Effects of pH,
temperature and pulsed electric fields on the turbidity and protein
aggregation of ovomucin-depleted egg white. Food Research Interna-
tional, 91, 161–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2016.12.005
Liu, Y. F., Oey, I., Bremer, P., Carne, A., & Silcock, P. (2019). Modifying the
functional properties of egg proteins using novel processing tech-
niques: A review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food
Safety., 18, 986–1002. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12464
Liu, Y. F., Oey, I., Bremer, P., Silcock, P., Carne, A., & McConnell, M. (2019).
Pulsed electric fields treatment at different pH enhances the antioxi-
dant and anti-inflammatory activity of ovomucin-depleted egg white.
Food Chemistry, 276, 164–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.
2018.10.009
Ma, X., Lozano-Ojalvo, D., Chen, H., Lopez-Fandiño, R., & Molina, E.
(2015). Effect of high pressure-assisted crosslinking of ovalbumin and
egg white by transglutaminase on their potential allergenicity. Innova-
tive Food Science and Emerging Technologies, 29, 143–150. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ifset.2015.03.017
Mai Dang, K. L., Le, T. Q., & Songsermpong, S. (2014). Effect of ultrasound
treatment in the mass transfer and physical properties of salted duck
eggs. Kasetsart Journal - Natural Science, 48(6), 942–953.
AFRAZ ET AL.
Manassero, C. A., Beaumal, V., Vaudagna, S. R., Speroni, F., & Anton, M.
(2018). Calcium addition, pH and high hydrostatic pressure effects on
soybean protein isolates—Part 2: Emulsifying properties. Food and
Bioprocess Technology, 11(11), 2079–2093. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11947-018-2164-8
Manzocco, L., Panozzo, A., & Nicoli, M. C. (2012). Effect of ultraviolet
processing on selected properties of egg white. Food Chemistry, 135
(2), 522–527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.05.028
Marciniak, A., Suwal, S., Naderi, N., Pouliot, Y., & Doyen, A. (2018).
Enhancing enzymatic hydrolysis of food proteins and production of
bioactive peptides using high hydrostatic pressure technology. Trends
in Food Science and Technology, 80, 187–198. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.tifs.2018.08.013
Mehdizadeh, S. A., Minaei, S., Torshizi, M. A. K., & Mohajerani, E. (2014).
Effect of UV irradiation, sample thickness and storage temperature on
storability, bacterial activity and functional properties of liquid egg.
Journal of Food Science and Technology, 52(7), 4414–4422. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s13197-014-1509-1
Min, B., Nam, K. C., Jo, C., & Ahn, D. U. (2012). Irradiation of shell egg on
the physicochemical and functional properties of liquid egg white.
Poultry Science, 91(10), 2649–2657. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.2012-
02345
Mirmoghtadaie, L., Shojaee Aliabadi, S., & Hosseini, S. M. (2016). Recent
approaches in physical modification of protein functionality. Food Chem-
istry, 199, 619–627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.12.067
Misra, N. N., Pankaj, S. K., Segat, A., & Ishikawa, K. (2016). Cold plasma
interactions with enzymes in foods and model systems. Trends in Food
Science and Technology, 55, 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.
2016.07.001

Monfort, S., Gayán, E., Raso, J., Condón, S., & Alvarez, I. (2010). Evaluation
of pulsed electric fields technology for liquid whole egg pasteurization.
Food Microbiology, 27(7), 845–852. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.
2010.05.011

Monfort, S., Saldaña, G., Condón, S., Raso, J., & Alvarez, I. (2012). Inactiva-
tion of salmonella spp. in liquid whole egg using pulsed electric fields,
heat, and additives. Food Microbiology, 30(2), 393–399. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.fm.2012.01.004
Monfort, S., Ramos, S., Meneses, N., Knorr, D., Raso, J., & Alvarez,  I.
(2012). Design and evaluation of a high hydrostatic pressure combined
process for pasteurization of liquid whole egg. Innovative Food Science
and Emerging Technologies, 14, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.
2012.01.004
Mukhopadhyay, S., & Ukuku, D. O. (2018). The role of emerging technolo-
gies to ensure the microbial safety of fresh produce, milk and eggs.
Currrent Opinion in Food Science, 19, 145–154. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.cofs.2018.01.013
Mulcahy, E. M., Mulvihill, D. M., & O'Mahony, J. A. (2016). Physicochemi-
cal properties of whey protein conjugated with starch hydrolysis prod-
ucts of different dextrose equivalent values. International Dairy
Journal, 53, 20–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idairyj.2015.09.009
Naderi, N., House, J. D., Pouliot, Y., & Doyen, A. (2017). Effects of high
hydrostatic pressure processing on hen egg compounds and egg prod-
ucts. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 16(4),
707–720. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12273
Naderi, N., Pouliot, Y., House, J. D., & Doyen, A. (2017). High hydrostatic
pressure effect in extraction of 5-methyltetrahydrofolate (5-MTHF)
from egg yolk and granule fractions. Innovative Food Science and
Emerging Technologies, 43, 191–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.
2017.08.009
Németh, C., Dalmadi, I., Mráz, B., Friedrich, L., Zeke, I., Juhász, R., …
Balla, C. (2012). Effect of high pressure treatment on liquid whole egg.
High Pressure Research, 32(2), 330–336. https://doi.org/10.1080/
08957959.2012.687050
Nguyen, T. T., Zhang, W., Barber, A. R., Su, P., & He, S. (2016). Microwave-
intensified enzymatic deproteinization of Australian rock lobster shells
AFRAZ ET AL.
(Jasus edwardsii) for the efficient recovery of protein hydrolysate as
food functional nutrients. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 9(4),
628–636. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-015-1657-y
O'Sullivan, J. J., Park, M., Beevers, J., Greenwood, R. W., & Norton, I. T.
(2017). Applications of ultrasound for the functional modification of
proteins and nanoemulsion formation: A review. Food Hydrocolloids,
71, 299–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2016.12.037
O'Sullivan, J., Murray, B., Flynn, C., & Norton, I. (2016). The effect of ultra-
sound treatment on the structural, physical and emulsifying properties
of animal and vegetable proteins. Food Hydrocolloids, 53, 141–154.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.02.009
Ochoa-Velasco, C. E., Salcedo-Pedraza, C., Hernández-Carranza, P., &
Guerrero-Beltrán, J. A. (2018). Use of microbial models to evaluate the
effect of UV-C light and trans-cinnamaldehyde on the native microbial
load of grapefruit (Citrus × paradisi) juice. International Journal of Food
Microbiology, 282, 35–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.
05.023
Okolie, C. L., Aryee, A. N. A., & Udenigwe, C. C. (2018). Detection and
deactivation of allergens in food. In Proteins in food processing (2nd ed.,
pp. 367–387). England, UK: Woodhead Publishing. https://doi.org/
10.1016/B978-0-08-100722-8.00015-2
Pan, Y., Sun, D. W., Cheng, J. H., & Han, Z. (2018). Non-destructive detec-
tion and screening of non-uniformity in microwave sterilization using
hyperspectral imaging analysis. Food Analytical Methods, 11(6),
1568–1580. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12161-017-1134-5
Pendyala, B., Patras, A., Ravi, R., Gopisetty, V. V. S., & Sasges, M. (2020).
Evaluation of UV-C irradiation treatments on microbial safety, ascorbic
acid, and volatile aromatics content of watermelon beverage. Food and
Bioprocess Technology, 13(1), 101–111. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11947-019-02363-2
Perreault, V., Hénaux, L., Bazinet, L., & Doyen, A. (2017). Pretreatment of
flaxseed protein isolate by high hydrostatic pressure: Impacts on pro-
tein structure, enzymatic hydrolysis and final hydrolysate antioxidant
capacities. Food Chemistry, 221, 1805–1812. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.foodchem.2016.10.100
Pu, Y. Y., & Sun, D. W. (2017). Combined hot-air and microwave-vacuum
drying for improving drying uniformity of mango slices based on
hyperspectral imaging visualisation of moisture content distribution.
Biosystems Engineering, 156, 108–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
biosystemseng.2017.01.006
Ragni, L., Berardinelli, A., Vannini, L., Montanari, C., Sirri, F.,
Guerzoni, M. E., & Guarnieri, A. (2010). Non-thermal atmospheric gas
plasma device for surface decontamination of shell eggs. Journal of
Food Engineering, 100(1), 125–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jfoodeng.2010.03.036
Rahaman, A., Zeng, X. A., Farooq, M. A., Kumari, A., Murtaza, M. A.,
Ahmad, N., … Jinjing, Z. (2020). Effect of pulsed electric fields
processing on physiochemical properties and bioactive compounds of
apricot juice. Journal of Food Process Engineering, 43(8), e13449.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.13449
Ramaswamy, H. S., Singh, A., & Sharma, M. (2015). Back extrusion rheol-
ogy for evaluating the transitional effects of high pressure processing
of egg components. Journal of Texture Studies, 46(1), 34–45. https://
doi.org/10.1111/jtxs.12108
Roobab, U., Aadil, R. M., Madni, G. M., & Bekhit, A. E. D. (2018).
The impact of nonthermal technologies on the microbiological qual-
ity of juices: A review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and
Food Safety, 17(2), 437–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.
12336
Savadkoohi, S., Bannikova, A., Mantri, N., & Kasapis, S. (2016). Structural
properties of condensed ovalbumin systems following application of
high pressure. Food Hydrocolloids, 53, 104–114. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.foodhyd.2014.09.021
Shahbaz, H. M., Jeong, B., Kim, J. U., Ha, N., Lee, H., Ha, S. D., & Park, J.
(2018). Application of high pressure processing for prevention of
17 of 18
greenish-gray yolks and improvement of safety and shelf-life of hard-
cooked peeled eggs. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technolo-
gies, 45, 10–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2017.09.016
Shen, X., Fang, T., Gao, F., & Guo, M. (2017). Effects of ultrasound treat-
ment on physicochemical and emulsifying properties of whey proteins
pre- and post-thermal aggregation. Food Hydrocolloids, 63, 668–676.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2016.10.003
Sheng, L., Wang, Y., Chen, J., Zou, J., Wang, Q., & Ma, M. (2018). Influence
of high-intensity ultrasound on foaming and structural properties of
egg white. Food Research International, 108, 604–610. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.foodres.2018.04.007
Singh, A. K., Burada, P. S., Bhattacharya, S., Bag, S., Bhattacharya, A.,
Dasgupta, S., & Roy, A. (2018). Microwave-radiation-induced molecu-
lar structural rearrangement of hen egg-white lysozyme. Physical
Review E, 97(5), 52416. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevE.97.052416
Singh, A., & Ramaswamy, H. S. (2014). Effect of high-pressure treatment
on trypsin hydrolysis and antioxidant activity of egg white proteins.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 49(1), 269–279.
https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.12443
Singh, A., Sharma, M., & Ramaswamy, H. S. (2015). Effect of high pressure
treatment on rheological characteristics of egg components. Interna-
tional Journal of Food Properties, 18(3), 558–571. https://doi.org/10.
1080/10942912.2013.837063
Soliva-Fortuny, R., Vendrell-Pacheco, M., Martín-Belloso, O., & Elez-
Martínez, P. (2017). Effect of pulsed electric fields on the antioxidant
potential of apples stored at different temperatures. Postharvest Biol-
ogy and Technology, 132, 195–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
postharvbio.2017.03.015
Stefanovic, A. B., Jovanovic, J. R., Dojčinovic, M. B., Levic, S. M.,
Nedovic, V. A., Bugarski, B. M., & Kneževic-Jugovic, Z. D. (2017).
Effect of the controlled high-intensity ultrasound on improving func-
tionality and structural changes of egg white proteins. Food and
Bioprocess Technology, 10(7), 1224–1239. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11947-017-1884-5
Stefanovic, A. B., Jovanovic, J. R., Grbavčic, S., Šekuljica, N.,
Manojlovic, V. B., Bugarski, B. M., & Kneževic-Jugovic, Z. D. (2014).
Impact of ultrasound on egg white proteins as a pretreatment for func-
tional hydrolysates production. European Food Research and Technol-
ogy, 239(6), 979–993. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-014-2295-8
Steinhart, H. (2007). Novel foods and novel processing techniques as
threats and challenges to a hypersensitive world. Allergy Matters, 10,
65–77. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3897-6_8
Su, W. H., Bakalis, S., & Sun, D. W. (2018). Fourier transform mid-infrared-
attenuated total reflectance (FTMIR-ATR) microspectroscopy for
determining textural property of microwave baked tuber. Journal of
Food Engineering, 218, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2017.
08.016
Tremarin, A., Brand~ao, T. R. S., & Silva, C. L. M. (2017). Application of ultra-
violet radiation and ultrasound treatments for Alicyclobacillus
acidoterrestris spores inactivation in apple juice. LWT - Food Science
and Technology, 78, 138–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2016.
12.039
Tribst, A. A. L., de Morais, M. A. B., Tominaga, C. Y., Nascimento, A. F. Z.,
Murakami, M. T., & Cristianini, M. (2018). How high pressure pre-
treatments affect the function and structure of hen egg-white lyso-
zyme. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 47, 195–203.
Van der Plancken, I., Van Loey, A., & Hendrickx, M. E. (2005). Combined
effect of high pressure and temperature on selected properties of egg
white proteins. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 6(1),
11–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2004.10.002
Wan, Z., Chen, Y., Pankaj, S. K., & Keener, K. M. (2017). High voltage atmo-
spheric cold plasma treatment of refrigerated chicken eggs for control
of Salmonella enteritidis contamination on egg shell. LWT - Food Science
and Technology, 76, 124–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2016.
10.051
18 of 18
Wang, K., Wang, J., Liu, B., Lin, S., Zhao, P., Liu, J., … Huang, H. C. (2013).
Effects on DPPH inhibition of egg-white protein polypeptides treated
by pulsed electric field technology. Journal of the Science of Food and
Agriculture, 93(7), 1641–1648. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.5941
Wei, X., Lau, S. K., Reddy, B. S., & Subbiah, J. (2020). A microbial challenge
study for validating continuous radio-frequency assisted thermal
processing pasteurization of egg white powder. Food Microbiology, 85,
103306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2019.103306
Wu, L., Zhao, W., Yang, R., & Chen, X. (2014). Effects of pulsed electric
fields processing on stability of egg white proteins. Journal of Food
Engineering, 139, 13–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2014.
04.008
Xiong, W., Wang, Y., Zhang, C., Wan, J., Shah, B. R., Pei, Y., … Li, B. (2016).
High intensity ultrasound modified ovalbumin: Structure, interface and
gelation properties. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 31, 302–309. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2016.01.014
Yamamoto, K. (2017). Food processing by high hydrostatic pressure. Bio-
science, Biotechnology and Biochemistry, 81, 672–679. https://doi.org/
10.1080/09168451.2017.1281723
Yan, W., Qiao, L., Gu, X., Li, J., Xu, R., Wang, M., … Yang, Y. (2010). Effect
of high pressure treatment on the physicochemical and functional
properties of egg yolk. European Food Research and Technology, 231(3),
371–377. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-010-1286-7
Yang, Y., Geveke, D. J., Brunkhorst, C. D., Sites, J. E., Geveke, N. J., &
Tilman, E. D. (2019). Optimization of the radio frequency power, time
and cooling water temperature for pasteurization of Salmonella typ-
himurium in shell eggs. Journal of Food Engineering, 247, 130–135.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2018.12.004
Yuceer, M. (2020). Structural and rheological characterization of liquid egg
white modified with phospholipase A2 enzyme. Journal of Food
Processing and Preservation, 44(6), e14450. https://doi.org/10.1111/
jfpp.14450
Yüceer, M., & Caner, C. (2018). Ultrasound; a novel and innovative
processing method for egg and egg products preservation. Journal of
Chemical Biology and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, 1(1:04), 1–3.
Yüceer, M., & Caner, C. (2020a). The effects of ozone, ultrasound and
coating with shellac and lysozyme–chitosan on fresh egg during stor-
age at ambient temperature. Part II: Microbial quality, eggshell break-
ing strength and FT-NIR spectral analysis. International Journal of Food
Science and Technology, 55(4), 1629–1636. https://doi.org/10.1111/
ijfs.14422
Yüceer, M., & Caner, C. (2020b). The effects of ozone, ultrasound and
coating with shellac and lysozyme–chitosan on fresh egg during stor-
age at ambient temperature – Part 1: Interior quality changes. Interna-
tional Journal of Food Science and Technology, 55(1), 259–266. https://
doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.14301
View publication stats
AFRAZ ET AL.
Zhang, L., Lyng, J. G., & Brunton, N. P. (2004). Effect of radio frequency
cooking on the texture, colour and sensory properties of a large diam-
eter comminuted meat product. Meat Science, 68(2), 257–268. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2004.03.011
Zhang, L., Wang, L. J., Jiang, W., & Qian, J. Y. (2017). Effect of pulsed elec-
tric field on functional and structural properties of canola protein by
pretreating seeds to elevate oil yield. LWT - Food Science and Technol-
ogy, 84, 73–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2017.05.048
Zhang, M., Chen, H., Mujumdar, A. S., Zhong, Q., & Sun, J. (2015). Recent
developments in high-quality drying with energy-saving characteristic
for fresh foods. Drying Technology, 33(13), 1590–1600. https://doi.
org/10.1080/07373937.2015.1012267
Zhang, W., Liu, F., Nindo, C., & Tang, J. (2013). Physical properties of egg whites
and whole eggs relevant to microwave pasteurization. Journal of Food Engi-
neering, 118(1), 62–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2013.03.003
Zhang, Y., Zhang, J., Sheng, W., Wang, S., & Fu, T. J. (2016). Effects of heat
and high-pressure treatments on the solubility and immunoreactivity
of almond proteins. Food Chemistry, 199, 856–861. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.foodchem.2015.12.063
Zhao, Y., Zhao, W., Yang, R., Singh Sidhu, J., & Kong, F. (2017). Radio fre-
quency heating to inactivate microorganisms in broccoli powder. Food
Quality and Safety, 1(1), 93–100. https://doi.org/10.1093/fqsafe/fyx005
Zhu, S. M., Lin, S. L., Ramaswamy, H. S., Yu, Y., & Zhang, Q. T. (2017).
Enhancement of functional properties of Rice bran proteins by high
pressure treatment and their correlation with surface hydrophobicity.
Food and Bioprocess Technology, 10(2), 317–327. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s11947-016-1818-7
Zhu, Y., Vanga, S. K., Wang, J., & Raghavan, V. (2018a). Effects of ultra-
sonic and microwave processing on Avidin assay and secondary struc-
tures of egg white protein. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 11(11),
1974–1984. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-018-2158-6
Zhu, Y., Vanga, S. K., Wang, J., & Raghavan, V. (2018b). Impact of food
processing on the structural and allergenic properties of egg white.
Trends in Food Science and Technology, 78, 188–196. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.tifs.2018.06.005
How to cite this article: Afraz MT, Khan MR, Roobab U, et al.
Impact of novel processing techniques on the functional
properties of egg products and derivatives: A review. J Food
Process Eng. 2020;e13568. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.
13568