Lecture 1

Metrology and Measurement
Lecture 1
 Introduction to Metrology
 Scope of Metrology
 Objectives of Metrology
 Necessity and Importance of Measurements
 Metrological Terminologies
 Assignment
27-Nov-18 By: Laxman Motra 1

Metrology
 Metrology is the science of measurement.
 Metrology is the enforcement, verification, and validation of predefined standards.
 Metrology is the science concerned with the establishment, reproduction, protection,
maintenance, and transfer or conversion of units of measurements and their
standards, and also concerned with the correctness of measurements.
 Metrology is the process of making extremely precise measurements of the relative
positions and orientations of different optical and mechanical components.
 Metrology is the science of measurement, embracing both experimental and
theoretical determinations at any level of uncertainty in any field of science and
technology.

Metrology
 Metrology is the documented control that all equipment is
suitably calibrated and maintained in order to perform as intended
and to give reliable results.
 In the broader sense it is not limited to length measurement but is
also concerned with industrial inspection and its various
techniques.
 The knowledge about anything is complete only when it can be
expressed in numbers and something is known about it.
Measurement
Measurement is a group of operations carried out by means of
measuring instruments to determine the numerical value of the size
which describes the object of measurement.
Measurement is the process of determining or finding the size, quantity
or degree of something by means of measuring instruments which
describes the object of measurement.
Physical Measurement is defined as the act of deriving quantitative
information about a physical object of action by comparison with a
reference.
Scope of Metrology
Metrology is mainly concerned with:
 Establishing the units of measurements and their standards, ensuring the
uniformity of measurements.
 Developing methods of measurement.
 Errors of measurement.
 Measuring instruments and devices.
 Accuracy of measurements and their care.
 Industrial inspection and its various techniques.
 Design, manufacturing and testing of gauges of all kinds.
Objectives of Metrology
The basic objective of a measurement is to provide the required accuracy at a
minimum cost.
 To ascertain complete evaluation of newly developed products.
 To ensure uniformity of measurements.
 To determine process capabilities to achieve better component tolerance.
 To determine the measuring instrument capabilities and ensure that they are
quite sufficient for their respective measurements.
 To minimize the cost of inspection by effective and efficient use of available
facilities.
Objectives of Metrology
 To reduce the cost of rejects and rework through application of
statistical quality control techniques.
 To standardize the measuring methods.
 To calibrate measuring instruments regularly in order to maintain
the accuracy in measurement.
 To resolve the measurement problems that might arise in the shop
floor.
 To prepare design for all gauges and special inspection fixtures.
 To investigate and eliminate different sources of measuring errors.

Types of Metrology
Metrology is separated into three categories with different levels of complexity
and accuracy.
 Scientific Metrology : deals with the organization and development of
measurement standards and with their maintenance (highest level).
 Industrial Metrology : has to ensure the adequate functioning of measuring
instruments used in industries as well as in production and testing processes.
The metrological activities, testing and measurements are generally valuable
inputs to work with the quality in industrial activities.

Types of Metrology
Legal Metrology : is concerned with the accuracy of measurements
where these have influence on the transparency of economical
transactions, and health and safety. Legal metrology is that part of
metrology which treats units of measurement, methods of
measurements and measuring instruments, in relation to the statutory,
technical and legal requirements.
 Legal metrology is directed by a national organization which is
called national service of Legal metrology.
Types of Metrology
Legal Metrology cont.
 It includes a no. of international organization whose ultimate objective
is to maintain uniformity of measurement through out the world.
The activities of legal metrology are:
 Control ( testing, verification, standardization) of measuring
instruments.
 Testing of prototype/models of measuring instruments.
 Examination of measuring instrument to verify its conformity.
Types of Metrology
Dynamic Metrology
 A quantity is called dynamic if its values depend on another, independent, quantity.
 A measurement is dynamic if at least one of the involved quantities is dynamic.
 That is, in contrast to static measurements where a single value or a (small) set of
values is measured, dynamic measurements consider continuous functions of time.
Since the analysis of dynamic measurements requires different approaches than the
analysis of static measurements this part of metrology is often called "Dynamic
Metrology".
 The mathematical modeling of dynamic measurements typically utilizes
methodologies and concepts from digital signal processing.
 Typical examples are measurements of mechanical quantities, high-speed
electronics, medical ultra-sound, spectral characterization of radiation sources.
Types of Metrology
Deterministic Metrology
This is a new philosophy in which part measurement is replaced by
process measurement. In the deterministic metrology, full advantage
is taken of the deterministic nature of production machines
(machines under automatic control are totally deterministic in
performance).
 System processes are monitored by temperature, pressure, flow,
force, vibration, acoustic “finger printing” sensors, these sensors
being fast and non-intrusive.

Necessity and Importance of Metrology
 Measurements provide a basis for judgments about process
information, quality assurance, and process control.
 Design and proper operation and maintenance of such a

product/system are two important aspects.
 Measurement is a significant source for acquiring very important

and necessary data about both these aspects of engineering, without
which the function or analysis cannot be performed properly.

 Measurements are required for assessing the performance of a
product/system, performing analysis to ascertain the response to a
specific input function, studying some fundamental principle or law of
nature, etc.
 Metrology helps extract high‐quality information regarding the

completion of products, working condition, and status of processes in
an operational and industrial environment.

 In design, design engineer should not only check his design from
the point of view of the strength or economical production, but he
should also keep in mind how the dimensions specified can be
checked or measured.
Higher productivity and accuracy can be achieved by properly

understood, introduced the Metrology.

 One can improve the measuring accuracy and dimensional and
geometrical accuracies of the product.
 Proper gauges should be designed and used for rapid and effective
inspection.
 Also automation and automatic control, which are the modern

trends for future developments, are based on measurement.

Process of Measurement
The sequence of operations necessary for the execution of measurement
is called process of measurement.
There are main three important elements of measurement,
Measurand
Measurand is the physical quantity or property like length, angle, diameter,
thickness etc. being measured.
Reference
It is the physical quantity or property to which quantitative comparisons are
made.
Process of Measurement
Comparator or Comparison:
It is the means of comparing measuring measurand with some reference to
render a judgement.
For Example:
Suppose a fitter has to measure the length of M.S. plate - he first lays his rule
along the plate. He then carefully aligns the zero end of his rule with one end
of M.S. plate and finally compares the length of M.S. plate with the graduations
on his rule by his eyes. In this example, the length of M.S. plate is a
measurand, steel rule is the reference and eye can be considered as a
comparator.
Methods of Measurement
The methods of measurement can be classified as :
(i) Direct Method
This is a simple method of measurement, in which the value of the
quantity to be measured is obtained directly without the calculations.
The quantity to be measured is directly compared with the primary or secondary
standard.
Scales, vernier callipers, micrometers, bevel protractors, etc., are used in
the direct method.
(ii) Indirect Method
In indirect method the value of quantity to be measured is obtained by
measuring other quantities which are functionally related to required
value. E.g., angle measurement by sine bar.
(iii) Absolute or Fundamental Method
Measuring a quantity directly in accordance with the definition of that
quantity. Example, force and area are measured for pressure
measurement.
(iv) Comparative Method
In this method the value of the quantity to be measured is compared
with known value of the same quantity or other quantity practically
related to it.
The quantity is compared with the master gauge and only the
deviations from the master gauge are recorded after comparison.
e.g., dial indicators, or other comparators.
(v) Coincidence Method
It is a differential method of measurement, in which a very small difference
between the value of the quantity to be measured and the reference is
determined by the observation of the coincidence of certain lines or signals.
E.g., measurement by Vernier calipers, micrometer.
(vi) Complementary Method
The value of the quantity to be measured is combined with a known value of the
same quantity.
The combination is so adjusted that the sum of these two values is equal to the
predetermined comparison value.
For example, determination of the volume of a solid by liquid displacement.
(vii) Transposition Method
This method involves making the measurement by direct comparison, wherein
the quantity to be measured (V) is initially balanced by a known value (X) of the
same quantity; next, X is replaced by the quantity to be measured and balanced
again by another known value (Y). If the quantity to be measured is equal to both
X and Y, then it is equal to
An example of this method is the determination of mass by balancing methods

and known weights.
(viii) Deflection Method
This method involves the indication of the value of the quantity to be
measured directly by deflection of a pointer on a calibrated scale.
Pressure measurement is an example of this method.
(ix) Contact Method
In this method, the surface to be measured is touched by the sensor or
measuring tip of the instrument. Care needs to be taken to provide
constant contact pressure in order to avoid errors due to excess
constant pressure. Examples of this method include measurements
using micrometer, vernier calliper, and dial indicator.
(x) Contactless Method
There is no direct contact with the surface to be measured. Examples
of this method include the use of optical instruments, tool maker’s
microscope, and profile projector.
General Metrological Terms
Measured Value: The observed value of weight, volume, meter-reading or other
quantity, found in the analysis of a material.
True Value: The value that characterizes a quantity perfectly defined in the
conditions that exist when that quantity is considered. It is an ideal value which
could be arrived at only if all causes of measurement error were eliminated, and the
entire population was sampled.
Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as the closeness of the measured value with true
value. It can be defined as the degree to which the measured value agrees with the
true value.
Precision: A measure of how close repeated trials are to each other. It
is the repeatability of the measuring process.
 It refers to the group of measurements for the same characteristics
taken under identical conditions.
 If the instrument is not precise it will give different results
for the same dimension when measured again and again.

Repeatability: It is the ability of the measuring instruments to repeat the same

results for the measurements for the same quantity, when the measurement are
carried out.
The degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured
under same conditions.
 By the same observer,
 With the same instrument,
 Under the same conditions,
 Without any change in location,
 Without change in the method of measurement,
 And the measurements are carried out in short interval of time

Reproducibility: Reproducibility is the closeness of the
agreement between the results of measurements of the same quantity,
when individual measurements are carried out.
The degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured
under different conditions.
 By different observer,
 By different methods,
 Using different instruments,
 Under different conditions, locations, times etc.

Verification: is an investigation that shows that specified requirements are
fulfilled.
Uncertainty: The uncertainty of a measurement is the interval on the
measurement scale within which the true value lies with a specified
probability, when all sources of error have been taken into account.
Sensitivity: It refers to the ability of measuring device to detect small
differences in a quantity being measured. In other words, sensitivity
denotes the maximum change in an input that will not initiate a response
on the output.
Readability: It refers to the ease with which the readings of a
measuring instrument can be read.
Calibration: It is a set of operations that establish, under specified
conditions, the relationship between values of quantities indicated by
a measuring instrument or values represented by a material measure
and the corresponding values realized by standards.
Magnification: Magnification is the process of enlarging something only
in appearance, not in physical size so that it is more readable.
Stability: Measurement stability is the change in bias over time. It
represents the total variation in measurements of the same part
measured over time. This variation over time is called drift.
Drift: It is an undesirable gradual deviation of the instrument output
over a period of time that is unrelated to changes in input operating
conditions or load.
Accreditation: third party ascertain

Backlash: In Mechanical Engineering backlash, is clearance between mating
components, sometimes described as the amount of loss motion due to clearance
or slackness when movement is reversed and contact is re-established.

Hysteresis: It is the difference between the indications of a measuring instrument
when the same value of measured quantity is reached by increasing or decreasing that
quantity .
It is caused by friction, slack motion in the bearing and gears, elastic deformation,
magnetic and thermal effects.
Threshold: The minimum value below which no output change can be detected when
the input of an instrument is increased gradually from zero is called the threshold of the
instrument. Thus threshold defines the minimum value of input which is necessary to
cause a detectable change from zero output. In a digital system, threshold is the input
signal necessary to cause one least significant digit of the output reading to change.
Resolution:
It is the minimum value that can be measured when the instrument is gradually
increased from non-zero value.
When the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary (non-zero) input value, it
is observed that the output does not change at all until a certain increment is
exceeded; this increment is called Resolution or discrimination of the instrument.
Thus resolution defines the smallest change of input for which there will be a
change of output.
Threshold defines the smallest measurable input while the resolution defines
the smallest measurable input change.
 Traceability: unbroken chain of comparisons
Traceability is the property of a measurement or the value of a standard whereby
it can be related to stated references, usually national or international standards,
through a valid chain of calibrations all having stated uncertainties.

Assignment
 Read standards of measurement and units of measurement.
Books
A Text-Book of Metrology, Manohar Mahajan
Engineering Metrology, R.K. Jain

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Metrology and Measurement

27-Nov-18 By: Laxman Motra 1

27-Nov-18 By: Laxman Motra 2

27-Nov-18 By: Laxman Motra 7

27-Nov-18 By: Laxman Motra 8

27-Nov-18 By: Laxman Motra 12

 Design and proper operation and maintenance of such a

 Measurement is a significant source for acquiring very important

27-Nov-18 By: Laxman Motra 13

 Metrology helps extract high‐quality information regarding the

27-Nov-18 By: Laxman Motra 14

Higher productivity and accuracy can be achieved by properly

27-Nov-18 By: Laxman Motra 15

 Also automation and automatic control, which are the modern

27-Nov-18 By: Laxman Motra 16

An example of this method is the determination of mass by balancing methods

27-Nov-18 By: Laxman Motra 25

Repeatability: It is the ability of the measuring instruments to repeat the same

27-Nov-18 By: Laxman Motra 27

27-Nov-18 By: Laxman Motra 28

27-Nov-18 By: Laxman Motra 31

27-Nov-18 By: Laxman Motra 32

27-Nov-18 By: Laxman Motra 35

27-Nov-18 By: Laxman Motra 36

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