english notes

english notes
english notes
english notes
Don't expect every
g10 english lesson to

english notes
be here, but do expect
that the basics are

english notes
PRESENT.

english notes
english notes
 information
INFORMATION - is the processed, organized and structured data. It
provides context for data and enables decision making. For example, a
single customer’s sale at a restaurant is data – this becomes information
when the business is able to identify the most popular or least popular dish.

Difference Between Data and Information

Data Information

Information comprises processed, organized data

Data is unorganized and unrefined facts
presented in a meaningful context

Data doesn’t depend on information. Information depends on data.

Raw data alone is insufficient for decision making Information is sufficient for decision making

An example of data is a student’s test score The average score of a class is the information
Methods of gathering information
- listening
- reading
- interviews
- questioning
- questionnaires
- observation
- study of existing reports

Relevant sources of information

News reports
- are found in newspapers, televisions, or radios which aim to inform the
readers of what is happening in the world around them.

Speech
- refers to the formal address or discourse delivered to an audience

Informative talks
- tend to educate the audience on a particular topic
- help the audience understand a subject

Panel discussion
- a live or virtual discussion about a specific topic amongst a selected group
of panelists who share different perspectives in front of a large audience
 fake information
It is a term that has come to mean different things to different people. At its
core, we are defining “fake news” as those news stories that are false: the
story itself is fabricated, with no verifiable facts, sources or quotes.
Sometimes these stories may be propaganda that is intentionally designed
to mislead the reader, or may be designed as “clickbait” written for economic
incentives (the writer profits on the number of people who click on the
story). In recent years, fake news stories have proliferated via social media,
in part because they are so easily and quickly shared online.

https://www.lib.umich.edu/
 information literacy

Important notes.
- Review the source’s references.
- Double-check the information in other sources. Can the information be
corroborated in any other source?

For you to understand clearly, there is actually a revised acronym called “TRAAP”
which stands for Timeliness, Relevance, Authority, Accuracy, and Purpose.

Timeliness
- The “newness of the information”.
- The date it was created, published, or last updated.

Questions to ask
- When was it originally created?
- Is the information up-to-date?
- Is it current enough for your topic?

Relevance:
- Sources that you cite should be relevant to your topic and pitched at an
appropriate level.

Questions to ask
- Is it an in-depth explanation or a quick summary?
- Is the language appropriate to your level?
- Is this information part of a more comprehensive source that might be
appropriate for your research?
Authority:
- Who wrote and published the resource?

Check the following: (Checking the credentials of the author and the publisher)
- Area of research
- Qualifications
- Other publications
- Reputation

Questions to ask
- Who is the author and are their qualifications relevant to the topic they are
writing about?
- Has the author provided substantial evidence to back up their information?

Accuracy:
- Is it legitimate?

Question to ask
- Can you verify the information? (by checking at least two other sources)
- Is there any evidence of peer review?
- Does the language seem unbiased and objective?

Purpose:
- Think about why the resource was written in the first place
- Looking beyond the source
- Read the about us section to find out about the Author, Funding body, and
publisher.

Questions to ask
- Why & How the resource was funded
- If it’s a website, does it have advertising?
primary and secondary sources
Primary and Secondary Literature:
- Sources of information are often considered one of these two depending on
their originality and proximity to when the information was created.

- Consider if it is an original work or whether it evaluates or comments on the

work of others.

What are primary sources?

Characteristics of Primary Sources:

- First-Hand accounts or individual representations and creative works.
- Created by those who have directly witnessed what they are describing.
- Bring us as close to the original event or thought as possible without being
filtered, influenced, or analyzed through interpretation.
- Tend to be original documents that do not usually describe or analyze work by
others.
- May be published or unpublished works.

When to use it?

- When you want to make claims or criticisms.
- As evidence for theories.
- To gain timely perspectives on a topic.

Examples: Theses, dissertations, scholarly journal articles (research based),

some government reports, symposia and conference proceedings, original
artwork, poems, photographs, speeches, letters, memos, personal narratives,
diaries, interviews, autobiographies, and correspondence.
What are secondary sources?

Characteristics of Secondary Sources:

- Offer extensive and in-depth analysis of primary sources.
- Summarize, evaluate, and analytically interpret primary material, often by
offering a personal perspective.
- Are not evidence, but are useful sources of different experts’ views of the
primary sources.
- Are one step removed from the original or primary source.
- Are published works, that list their sources of information which can be then
used to locate additional information for your research.

When to use it?

- When you need a summary of the primary source.
- When you need an analysis or evaluation of primary source.
- To help place first-hand experiences into a broader context.

Examples: Textbooks, edited works, books and articles that interpret or review
research works, histories, biographies, literary criticism and interpretation,
reviews of law and legislation, political analyses and commentaries.
 compare and contrast
Comparing and Contrasting means looking for their similarities and differences.

Why is this an important concept?

- Comparing and contrasting information from multiple sources allows students
to get a more comprehensive view of the topics.

It is important for students to be able to compare and contrast ideas found in

multiple sources to enable them to identify conflicting information and consistent
information and critically evaluate sources. When students can compare and
contrast information, they can make inferences and draw conclusions about
topics.
 literature
I. LITERARY THEORIES

Literature
- Came from the word literare which means something written
- Beauty is based on the perspective of the one looking

Literary Theory
- Capacity to generalize about phenomena and to develop concepts that form the basis for
- interpretation and analysis—in this instance, of a “literary” text.

Literary Criticism
- Disciplined application of theoretical principles for the purpose of analyzing, interpreting and
evaluating literary texts.
- Making sense of a literary based on your perspective

Literary Analyses

a. Structuralist perspective
You identify the parts of the literary
Focuses on the opposites that often appear in literary constructs
Studies the systems of relationships that are embedded in words and items, “and shows us
the ways in which we think” (Guerin 369)
Structuralists analyze other structures:
- the sequence of events: (1) from beginning to end; (2) rearrangement of narrative to build
suspense; (3) flashbacks; (4) shifts in viewpoints or speakers

Fathers of Structuralism:
Ferdinand de Saussure
Claude Levi-Strauss
Checklist of Structuralist Critical Questions:
1. What are the elements of the work—words, stanzas, chapters, parts—and how can these be seen
as revealing “difference”?
2. How do the characters, narrators, speakers, or other voices heard in the work reveal differences?
3. How do the elements of the work’s plot or overall action suggest a meaningful pattern? What
changes, adjustments, transformations, shifts of tone, attitude, behavior, or feeling do you find?
4. How are the work’s primary images and events related to one another? What elements of
differentiation exist, and what do they signify?
5. What system of relations could be used to link this work with others of its kind?
6. What system of relations could be use to link this work with different kinds of things with which it
shared some similarities?

b. Formalist Perspective
Form of the literature itself
Started Russian Revolution
Began in Russia
NOT IMPORTANT: name of the author; time the author lived; reader
First, identify the genres (short story, poems, novel, etc.)
Questions:
1) what is the structure of the piece?
2) what imagery is used?
3) what symbols help convey a message?
4) what is the theme?

- Critical Questions:
1. How is the work structured or organized? How does it begin? Where did it go next? How does
it end? What is the work’s plot? How is its plot related to its structure?
2. What is the relationship of each part of the work to the work as a whole? How are the parts
related to one another?
3. Who is narrating or telling what happens in the work! How is the narrator, speaker or character
revealed to readers? How do we come to know and understand this figure?
4. Who are the major and minor characters?
c. Historical / Biographical Analysis
Situating the text: using the context surrounding a text to create “lens” to interpret that text
The biography of the writer
Cite the specific scenarios where the author’s life appears or familiarizes
Context: event in author’s life or historical event that occurred around time of text
Context: not information that the text itself provides (though it may allude to)
Cite specific scenarios
Context lens text interpret
Context supplements your understanding of the text

d. Marxist Theory
Based on the political and economic theories of Karl Marx (1818-1883)
Economic structure as the main driving force behind all social conditions and historical
changes
Capitalism is based on the exploitation of laborers
Marx considers human history as series of struggles between classes—between oppressed
and the oppressors
Aims to bring about a classless society

Questions:
1. What role does class play in the work?
2. What is the author’s analysis of class relations?
3. What does the work say about oppression and social conflicts?

e. Feminist Theory
Literary and critical theory that explores the bias in favor of the male gender in literature and
with reexamines all literature from a feminist point of view
Feminist criticism is applied to literature by examining the characters' portrayals, the text's
language, the author's attitude, and the inter-character relationships. Feminist critics also
consider the author's apparent commentary about society as a whole.
 Feminist literature portrays characters or ideas that attempt to change gender norms. It
tends to examine, question, and argue for change against established and antiquated gender
roles through the written word. Feminist literature strives to alter inequalities between
genders across societal and political arenas.

Basic premises:
1) women presented in literature by male writers from male point of view
2) women presented in writing by female writers from female point of view

f. Moralist Theory/ Christian Humanism

Accdg. To Plato, art was a replica of the world that it presented, if art did not teach a moral
lesson, it’s harmful
Examples: fairy tales, Bible, fables

g. Reader Response Theory (20th century)

Primary focus on reading
AKA Affective Fallacy
Text-based not author-based
Text + experiences of the readers
How readers respond to text
Impact of the story to the reader
parts of an Argumentative Essay

I. Introductory paragraph
Your introductory paragraph sets the stage or the context for the position you are
arguing for. This introduction should end with a thesis statement that provides
your claim (what you are arguing for) and the reasons for your position on an issue

Thesis: The production, sale, and possession of assault weapons for private
citizens should be banned in the US

II. Body of your argument

A. Background information
basic information

B. Reasons or Evidences to Support your Claim

1. Claim: Keeping assault weapons out of private citizen’s hands can lower
the increasing occurrence of barbaric slayings.
Evidence:

2. Claim: The ban on assault weapons is backed heavily by public opinion.

Evidence:
III. Addressing the opposite side
Any well-written argument must anticipate and address positions in opposition to
the one being argued.

Pointing out what your opposition is likely to say in response to your argument
shows that you have thought critically about your topic. Addressing the opposite
side actually makes your argument stronger!

Generally, this takes the form of a paragraph that can be placed either after the
introduction or before the conclusion.

A. Ist Opposing View: Strict gun control won’t affect crime rate
Refutation :

IV. Conclusion
The conclusion should bring the essay to a logical end. It should explain what the
importance of your issue is in a larger context. Your conclusion should also
reiterate why your topic is worth caring about.

Some arguments propose solutions or make prediction on the future of the topic.

Show your reader what would happen if your argument is or is not believed or acted
upon as you believe it should be.
 introduction to research
RESEARCH
- an organized inquiry carried out to provide information for solving problems.
- It is the cornerstone of every science.
- Is a process in looking at solution of a given problem which can be used as
basis for policy formulation, policy enhancement, or improvements

Quantitative research Qualitative research

It relies on numerical or It relies on personal accounts or

measurable data. documents that illustrate in detail how
people think or respond within society.

Characteristics of each

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

- Asks specific / narrow questions
- Collects data from the participants
- Analyzes numbers using statistics
- Conducts the inquiry in unbiased,
objective manner
- Asks broad, general questions
- Collecting data consisting largely of
words or image
- Descriptions and analysis of words for
themes.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
- is generally made using scientific methods, which can include:
• The generation of models, theories, and hypotheses
• The development of instruments and methods for measurement
• Experimental control and manipulation of variables
• Collection of empirical data
• Modelling and analysis of data
• Evaluation of results

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
- research dealing with phenomena that are difficult or impossible to quantify
mathematically, such as beliefs, meanings, attributes, and symbols

- Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in- depth understanding of human

behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior.

- The qualitative method investigates the why and how of decision making, not
just what, where, when.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
- is generally made using scientific methods, which can include:
• The generation of models, theories, and hypotheses
• The development of instruments and methods for measurement
• Experimental control and manipulation of variables
• Collection of empirical data
• Modelling and analysis of data
• Evaluation of results

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
- research dealing with phenomena that are difficult or impossible to quantify
mathematically, such as beliefs, meanings, attributes, and symbols

- Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in- depth understanding of human

behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior.

- The qualitative method investigates the why and how of decision making, not
just what, where, when.
 parts of a research paper
Chapter 1 : the problem and its background
Chapter 2 : review of related literature
Chapter 3 : method and procedures
Chapter 4 : presentation, analysis and interpretation of data
Chapter 5 : summary, conclusions and recommendations

Chapter 1 : the problem and its background

• Background of the Study – includes purpose and reason behind the conduct of the
study. (What made you conduct the study?) Also serves as the introduction.

• Statement of the Problem – the main problem that the research is trying to solve. It
follows the formulation of the title and should be faithful to it. It specifically points
the important questions that the study needs to answer.

• Significance of the Study – (Why conduct the study?) You have to identify who will
benefit from the research and how they will be benefitted. This should match with
the Recommendations.

• Assumptions of the Study – the expected outcome of the research.

• Scope and Limitations of the Study – determines the coverage of the study and all
the things that it will not cover in order to be specific.

• Definition of Terms – defines technical terms based on how they are used in the
study, specifically in the title. This aims to provide the readers or future researches
with the basic terminologies that are important to understand the paper.
Chapter 2 : review of related literature

• This is where you will use your note cards and will serve as the foundation of your
research.

• This is your own work and therefore should not directly lift words from other
sources. This will require your command of language and writing skills such as
summarizing, paraphrasing and writing indirect speeches.

Chapter 3 : method and procedures

• Method of Research – the kind of research used by your study. This answers why
the method used is appropriate for the study.

• Subjects of the Study – describes your respondents: who they are, what their
profile is, where they are from, etc.

• Description of Research Instrument – describes your instrument which is the

questionnaire.

• Data Gathering Procedure – narrates the process undergone by the study that
eventually leads to the findings.

• Statistical Treatment Applied - The statistical treatment that you will use which
includes your sampling method and formulas to come up
Chapter 4 : presentation, analysis and interpretation of data

• Results of the Study – presents all the data gathered using the questionnaire by
tabulating all the gathered information. Aside from the tables, an interpretation of
each presented data should follow. These will serve as the bases of your Summary
of Findings.

Chapter 5 : summary, conclusions and recommendations

• Summary of Findings – summarizes the interpretation of data given in Chapter 4.

These should directly answer your statement of the problem. • Conclusions – Out of
your findings, your conclusions are based. This provides the answers for every
statement of the problem. This is where you will prove your hypotheses and
assumptions.

• Recommendations – should be directly based on the significance of the study. This

also includes the recommended actions that should be done after the conduct of the
study such as further assessment of the subject, focus on other factors, etc.

Others:

• Title Page – consists of the research title, names of the researchers and name of
the English teacher.
• Acknowledgement – a personal page where the researchers are given the privilege
to extend gratitude to all people who helped in accomplishing the research.
• Table of Contents – contains the accurate paging of each part of the research
paper. • List of Tables/Figures – contains the accurate paging of the tables/figures
used in the study.
• Bibliography – where you will use your source cards. Presents the sources using
APA or MLA format.
• Appendix (e.g., survey questionnaire, interview questions) – attachments