This document summarizes the skeletal and muscular systems of humans and other animals. It describes the main types of skeletons as endoskeletons, found in humans, and exoskeletons, found in arthropods like lobsters and insects. It then details the human musculoskeletal system, including the 206 bones and cartilage that make up the axial and appendicular skeleton. It explains the different types of vertebrae and their functions. It also discusses joints, types of muscle movement, and the mechanisms of locomotion in the human arm, leg and in earthworms.
This document summarizes the skeletal and muscular systems of humans and other animals. It describes the main types of skeletons as endoskeletons, found in humans, and exoskeletons, found in arthropods like lobsters and insects. It then details the human musculoskeletal system, including the 206 bones and cartilage that make up the axial and appendicular skeleton. It explains the different types of vertebrae and their functions. It also discusses joints, types of muscle movement, and the mechanisms of locomotion in the human arm, leg and in earthworms.
This document summarizes the skeletal and muscular systems of humans and other animals. It describes the main types of skeletons as endoskeletons, found in humans, and exoskeletons, found in arthropods like lobsters and insects. It then details the human musculoskeletal system, including the 206 bones and cartilage that make up the axial and appendicular skeleton. It explains the different types of vertebrae and their functions. It also discusses joints, types of muscle movement, and the mechanisms of locomotion in the human arm, leg and in earthworms.
Movement: same position Locomotion: Different position Types of skeleton Endoskeleton 内骨骼 Exoskeleton外骨骼 made up of chitin 几丁质 or calcium Ecdysis蜕皮 Ex: Lobster龙虾, Spider, Cicada 蝉 Hydrostatic skeleton Musculoskeletal肌肉骨胳 system of human Made up of 206 bones硬骨 and cartilage软骨 Function: Enables movement Provides shape and support for so body tissue Protects internal organs Produces blood cell Stores certain minerals such as calcium and phosphate Skeletal system Axial skeleton 中轴骨 Skull 头骨 cranial bones颅骨 (x8)- protect the brain facial bones面部骨骼(x14) - formed mouth and nose Ribcage胸廓 Ribs肋骨 Costal cartilage肋软骨 Sternum胸骨 Vertebral column脊柱 made up of 33 small bones call vertebrae脊椎 extends from the base of the skull to the pelvic girdle骨盆带 Each vertebra is separated from each other by disc 阀瓣of cartilage called intervertebral椎间 dics. The cartilage dics absorbs the impact of shock冲击 and serves as a flex point for bending. Vertebral column is S-shaped and function: support and balance the body protect the spinal cord骨髓 support the skull provide surfaces for the attachment of muscles Cervical vertebrae 颈椎 (7) Atlas vertebra (first cervical vertebra) located in the neck No centrum椎体 Has a large neural canal椎管 Has small transverse processes横突(長且尖細的橫突,為腰部原 來的肋骨退化而成) Has a pair of transverse foramina颈椎横突孔(在颈椎椎体侧面, 由椎弓根,横突前、后根及肋横突板围成一个卵圆形孔), one on each transverse process Has a short spinous process棘突:脊椎骨上的一种突起,位于椎 体后方,起到支持和保护脊髓的作用 Joins with the base of cranium 头盖骨to support the head and to enable nodding of the head Axial vertebra (second cervical vertebra) Has a projection from the centrum called odontoid process 齿状突 (使头左右旋转)to airticulate with the atlas Has small transverse processes Has a pair of transverse foramina Has a large spinous process Joins with the atlas vertebra to enable the head to move from le to right Third to seventh cervical vertebra Has a pair of transverse foramina which contain artery, vein and nerve to carry blood to and from the brain Has a short spinous process Has a flat centrum Has small and broad 广泛transverse process Thoracic vertebrae胸椎(12) located at the thorax胸腔 Extra facets at the end of transverse processes and sides of centrum to articulate with ribs肋骨 A long spinous process and tranverse process for the attachment of back muscles Has a thick and big centrum Lumbar vertebrae腰椎(5) Located at the waist腰 The biggest and strongest vertebra Short spinous process Thick and large centrum Long transverse processes for muscle attachment Sacrum骶骨(5) located at the hip臀部 Sacral vertebrae fused to each other to form sacrum Has four openings through which nerves leave the spinal cord Triangle in shape Neural canal gradually becomes narrower and finally disappear Facet at the back of the first transverse processes on each side articulates with the pelvic girdle Coccyx尾骨(4) 4 vertebrae fused together to form coccyx(the tail) Transverse process: provides a large surface area for attachment of muscles and ligament Articulating surface (facet): Provides surface which articulates with the next vertebra Spinous process: Provides a large surface area for attachment of muscles and ligaments Neural arch: Protects the spinal cord Neural canal: Contains the spinal cord Centrum: Provides support and absorbs shock. Compare and contrast the types of vertebrae Appendicular skeleton附肢骨 Forelimb前肢 Humerus肱骨 Radius桡骨 Ulna尺骨 Carpals腕骨 Metacarpals掌骨 Phalanges指骨 Hindlimb后肢 Femur 股骨 Tibia胫骨 Fibula腓骨 Tarsals跗骨 Metatarsals跖骨 Pectoral girdle 肩带 Scapula Clavicle Pelvic girdle骨盆 Ilium髂骨 Ischium坐骨 Pubis耻骨 Compare and contrast the types of vertebrae Similarities All vertebrae have spinous and transverse processes, centrum (except the atlas vertebra) and neural canal, The neural canal of all the vertebrae contains the spinal cord脊髓. Differences Spinous cord Cervical vertebrae : Short Thoracic vertebrae : Long Lumbar vertebrae :Short Sacral vertebrae : None Caudal vertebrae : None Transverse process Cervical vertebrae : Wide and short Thoracic vertebrae : Long Lumbar vertebrae :Long Sacral vertebrae : Becomes shorter gradually Caudal vertebrae : None Centrum Cervical vertebrae : Small Thoracic vertebrae : Big Lumbar vertebrae :Large Sacral vertebrae :Centrum of sacral vertebrae fused to form the sacrum Caudal vertebrae :Centrum of caudal vertebrae fused to form the coccyx Transverse foramina Cervical vertebrae : One transverse foramen at each transverse procss Thoracic vertebrae :None Lumbar vertebrae :None Sacral vertebrae :None Caudal vertebrae :None Extra facets Cervical vertebrae : None Thoracic vertebrae :Facets at the end of transverse processes and sides of centrum for articulation with the ribs Lumbar vertebrae :None Sacral vertebrae :Facets at transverse processes of first sacral vertebrae to join with the pelvic girdle Caudal vertebrae : None Joint Immovable joint 不动连结 Gliding joint 微动连结 the joint between vertebrae (by cartilage disc) at the vertebral column allow the vertebral column to bend slightly forward, backward and to the sides the joint between the ribs and the sternum胸骨 (by cartilage) that allow the ribs to move slightly during the breathing process Movable joint 活动关节
also known as synovial joint
made up of cartilage, synovial membrane, synovial fluid, capsule and ligament Ligament joins bone to bone and holds the bones in position Elastic and can be stretched to allow movement at the joint Holds the bone together at the joint Prevents dislocation of bones and gives support and strength to the joint. Synovial fluid - fills the cavity between the bones, acts as a lubricant to reduce friction between the bones at the joint Cartilage - at the surface of bones that meet and absorb shocks and reduces frictions between bones Capsule-the fibrous connective tissue that encloses and protects the joint Synovial membrane located at the joint cavity secretes synovial fluid into synovial cavity The synovial fluid acts as a lubricant to reduce friction between the bones at the joint Ex: Hinge joint allows movement in one place found at the elbow, knee and phalanges趾骨 Ball and socket joint allows movement in all planes - allow rotational movement in all directions Found at the shoulder joint and hip joint. Mechanism in Human Forearm Bending of the arm Biceps contracts while triceps relaxes. A pulling force is produced by the contraction of the biceps This force is transmitted through the tendon to the radius The radius is pulled upwards and cause the arm to bend at the elbow The forearm moves upwards Straightening of the arm Triceps contracts while biceps relaxes A pulling force is produced by the contraction of the triceps This force is transmitted through tendon to the ulna The ulna is pulled downwards and causes the arm to straighten at the elbow joint The forearm moves downwards Mechanism in Human Leg Leg movement is produced by the action of the antagonistic muscle in the leg: The biceps femoris as the flexor muscle The quadriceps femoris as the extensor muscle These muscles in the leg act to bend the leg at the knee and to raise up the femur for the leg to move forward lower the femur and straighten the leg at the knee 过程 脚尖碰地 The right calf muscle contracts to straighten the leg at the ankle The heel of the foot is raised from the ground 脚抬起 The flexor muscle of the thigh called biceps femoris contracts while the extensor muscle called quadriceps femoris relaxes to bend the leg at the knee The foot is raised up and the body thrusts forward 脚往前走 The quadriceps femoris contracts while the biceps femoris relaxes to straighten the leg The tibialis at the shank contracts to lower the heel of the foot onto the ground. Mechanism of Locomotion in Earthworm wall of earthworm is made up of a pair of antagonistic muscles Circular muscles - surround the body of earthworm Longitudinal muscles - extend from one end of body to the other The circular muscles contract , Longitudinal muscles relax and the body become thin and long The circular muscles relax, longitudinal muscles contract and the body become thin and short The peristaltic wave along the body of the earthworm enables the earthworm to move forward Mechanism of locomotion of fish has an endoskeleton for the attachment of muscles muscles in fish are in the form of segmental blocks calles myotomes on both sides of the flexible backbone fish move forward due to the contraction and relaxation of myotomes on either side of the body Myotomes act antagonistically when myotomes on the right contract , myotomes on the l relax the body bends to the right the alternate contractions of right and le myotomes cause the body and the tail to sweep from side to side this produces a forward thrust that propels the fish forward in a straight path the lateral thrusts produced in opposite directions cancel off each other fish has fins to balance the body in the water and to control the direction of movement Mechanism of locomotion of grasshopper The antagonistic flexor and extensor muscles are attached to the inner surface of the exoskeleton The flexor muscle bends a joint while the extensor straightens it The hind legs of a greasshopper are long and muscular especially adapted for jumping First , the hind legs are folded in the shape of Z due to the contraction of the flexor muscles. The hind legs are fully flexed and prepared for jump Then, the extensor muscle contracts while the flexor muscle realxes. The hind legs are extended and straightened A force is produced downwards and backwards. This causes an upward and forward force which propels the grasshopper to jump into the air. Mechanism of locomotion of bird Flight in bird is due to the action of the large and strong breast muscles Pectoralis major - lower part of the humerus Pectoralis minor - upper part of the humerus Muscle act antagonistically enables the wings to flap downwards or upwards during flight flapping of the wings is due to the antagonistic action of the breast muscles Downstroke of wings When the pectoralis major on both wings contrascts, pectoralis relaxes Wings are pulled dowmwards and backwards Air resistance produces an upthrust on the wings The upthrust is transmitted from the wings to the coracoid to li up the whole body upwards and onwards Upstroke of wings The pectoralis minor on both wings contracts, the pectoralis major relaxes. Wings are pulled up. Air resistance is low The wings return to the starting position. Health Issues Related to the Human Musculoskeletal System Osteoporosis bone disorder due to the thinning of bone mass or low bone mass 有这种病的人:light , so and porous bones 导致bones become brittle and fragile. 通常发生在年老的妇女身上 the rate of calcium loss is higher compared to the rate of calcium absorption. This results in a loss of bone mass. In women who reach menopause, the oestrogen level is low. Oestrogen is required to help the body to absorb calcium and reduce calcium loss from the bone. Hence, a low level of oestrogen can reduce bone mass due to the loss of calcium from the bones. Causes Insufficient intake of calcium and phosphorus Insufficient intake of vitamin D which helps in the absorption of calcium Lack of exercise Symptoms Fractures of the vertebrae, wrist or hips, loss of height and stooped posture Prevention Diet rich in calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D Regular exercise Osteomalacia due to the so ening of bones in adults caused by a severe vitamin D deficiency during the bone maturing process in children and young adults these so ened bones can lead to bowed legs and fracture Causes Lack of calcium and phosphorus to build strong bones Lack of vitamin D to help in the absorption of calcium and phosphorus Symptoms Dull, aching pain in the lower back, pelvis, hips, legs and ribs Decreased muscle tone and leg weakness cause difficulty in walking Treatment Sufficient intake of vitamin D and calcium to strengthen the bones Rickets so ening and weakening of bones in children due to the lack of vitamin D and calcium which is needed to build strong bones The bones especially in the legs are bowed because they are weak and cannot support the body Cause Lack of vitamin D due to lack of exposure to sunlight or a diet deficient in vitamin D Lack of calcium during formation of bones in children Can be due to genetic factors in some cases Symptoms Pain at the affected bones causes difficulty in walking in children Thickening of the ankles, wrists and knees, bowed legs, so skull bones Stunted growth due to poor growth and development of the skeleton Bones can becomes weaker and prone to fractures in severe cases Treatment Intake of food rich in calcium and vitamin D Take vitamin D supplement