Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals

 
We will learn about the types of the skeleton, musculoskeletal systems in humans, movement and locomoti
human musculoskeletal system.
 

14.1 Types of Skeleton

 
1. There are three types of skeletons in humans and animals:
 
 Exoskeleton
 Endoskeleton
 Hydrostatic skeleton

 
2. Necessities of the skeleton to humans and animals:
 
 Gives body shapes
 Support body weight
 Protects internal organs
 For muscle attachment
 Allows the growth of organisms except for animals with an exoskeleton
 Storage for calcium and phosphate ion
 Allows movement and locomotions
 Produces blood cells in vertebrae

14.2 Musculoskeletal System of Humans

 

Source:[Text Book Biology KSSM Form 4]

 
 Human skeleton 

 
 The human skeletal structure is categorised into two 
1. Axial skeleton (Skull, ribcage, & vertebral column)
2. Appendicular skeleton (Pectoral girdle, upper limb, pelvic girdle, & lower limb) 

 
 
1. Axial skeleton 
 
 
  Skull 
o Skulls are made up of flat bones joined by sutures (immovable joints).
o Skull is the framework of the face and support the teeth.
o The lower jaw (mandible) is movable and allow mouth opening and closing.
o The cranium protects the brain.

 
 Ribcage (Sternum & ribs)
o 12 pairs of ribs articulate with the sternum and thoracic vertebrae.
o Ribs and sternum form a cage to protect the heart and lungs.
o The sternum is a flattened, narrow bone and ribs are curved bones.

 
 Vertebral column
o Consist of 33 vertebrae attached to form a strong & flexible column. There are 5 types of verte
o It protects the spinal cord, support the head, provides a base for back muscle attachment and p
ribs and pelvic girdle.

 
Characteristics of cervical vertebrae:
 
Vertebra Characteristics and functions
 Has large neural canal
 No centrum
Atlas (1)  Has two transverse foramina - allow arterioles to pass through brain
 Support the skull

 Odontoid process extends into ventral part of the neural canal of atlas and act
move side-to-side
Axis (1)  Has two transverse foramina
 Side-to-side head movement

 Broad and short transverse process

 Broad centrum
 Has two transverse foramina
Cervical (7)  Support head and neck
 Attachment for neck muscles
 Has a short spinous process

 Has long spinous process which points backwards

 Support rib bones to form the rib cage and provide surface for attachment of
and centrum
Thoracic (12)  Muscle attachment to support head and neck
 Large and thick centrum
 Long transverse process
  The largest and strongest vertebra in the vertebral column
 Large and thick centrum
 Transverse process is long and flat
Lumbar (5)
 Spinous process is short
 The large centrum supports the weight of the lower back

 Five bones fused together forming a broad

Sacrum (5) and caudal  Coccyx is formed by fusion of four vetebrae bones
(4)  Balances and supports sitting position

 
Types of vertebrae Cervical vertebra
Spinous process Short
Transverse process Broad and short
Centrum Small
Transverse foramen Has a pair of transverse f
 
Types of vertebrae Thoracic vertebra
Spinous process Long 
Transverse process Long
Centrum Medium size
Transverse foramen Absent
 
Types of vertebrae Lumbar vertebra
Spinous process Short
Transverse process Short
Centrum Large
Transverse foramen Absent
 
Joint:

1. Movements of human limbs can be done by:

 The presence of joints in which two or more bones meet

 The actions between skeletal muscles and bones

 
Types of joint Characteristic  Examples
 Bone attached together by fibrous connective tissue 
 No movement is allowed 
Immovable joints Joints in skull & pelvic
 These joints are categorised as sutures

 Bone attached together by cartilage 

Slightly movable joints  Movements are limited The joint between verte
  Bones joint together with synovial fluid 
 Movement in one plane or all planes
Freely moveable joints  Hinge joints & ball-and
 These joints are known as synovial joints

 
 Role of muscles, ligament, tendon and joint in movement.

 
 Tendon - Joint muscle to bones.
 Ligament - Joint the bone to bone
 Synovial membrane - secretes the synovial fluid
 Synovial fluid - Lubricate the joint and reduce the friction between bones. It also nourishes the cartila
o Cartilage - Absorbs shock and protect the bone.

 
Tendon
 Characteristics: 
o Not elastic 
o Strong 
o Connective tissue
 Function 
o Joins muscle to bones
o Transmits pulling force exerted by contraction of muscles to the bone and pull it up

Ligament
 Characteristics 
o Elastic 
o Strong 
o Connective tissue 
o Flexible 
 Functions:
o Join bone to bone 
o Hold joints together 
o Prevent dislocation 
o Allow limited movement 

Muscle
 Characteristic
o A pair of muscles that work together 
o When contracts, the other relaxes 
o Examples: Biceps and triceps of the arm
 Functions: 
o Exert pulling force onto bone 
o Support movement and locomotion

 
 
 
 

14.3 Movement and Locomotion

 
 
 Actions between skeletal muscles and bones at joint causing movement
 Movements of arm and leg are due to the actions of antagonistic pair of skeletal muscle

 
 Movements of arm:

 
Bending of the arm   Straight
Biceps contracts, triceps relax Action of muscles Triceps con
Transmits pulling force exerted by biceps to the radius Tendon Transmits pulling forc
Radius is pulled upwards Bone The ulna is
Holds bones together to form a joint Ligament Holds bones t
forearm moves upwards to bend the arm Joint The forearm moves do
 
 Movements of leg:

 
Bending of the leg   Strai
Biceps femoris contracts and quadriceps relaxes Action of muscles Quadriceps cont
Transmits pulling force exerted by biceps femoris to tibia and fibula Tendon Transmits pulling fo
Tibia and fibula are pulled backward Bone Tibia and f
The leg is bent at knee joint Joint The
 
Locomotions in Animals:
 
 
Locomotion in earthworm
 
Characteristics
 Has antagonistic muscles: circular muscle, longitudinal muscle.
 Hydrostatic skeleton: contraction and relaxation of antagonistic muscles raise hydrostatic press
coelom
 Chaetae: fine hooks which anchor to the ground

 
Mechanism of location and functions
1. Posterior chaetae anchor the ground. Circular muscles in the anterior contract and the longitud
producing high hydrostatic pressure. These cause the anterior segment to extend forward
2. Anterior chaetae anchor the ground. Posterior chaetae are withdrawn. Circular muscles in the a
longitudinal muscles contract, producing low hydrostatic pressure. These cause the posterior se
 forward
3. Continuos process - Peristaltic waves enable earthworms to move forward

 
Locomotion in fish
 
Characteristics
 Scaly and slimly body to reduce water resistance
 W-shaped antagonistic muscle blocks are arranged in segments on both sides of a vertebral co
 Swim bladder: an air sac inside the abdomen to maintain buoyancy
 Dorsal and ventral fins - prevent yawning and rolling
 Tail fin - forward thrust
 Paired fin (pelvic and pectoral fins) - steering, prevent pitching

 
Mechanism of locomotion and function
1. Right myotomes contract, left myotomes to relax
2. Head and tail will bend to the right
3. Right myotomes relax, left myotomes contract
4. Head and tail will bend to the left
5. Continuous contraction and relaxation of muscles allow fish to move their tail
6. The tail movement creates a forward thrust

 
Locomotion in grasshopper:
 
Characteristics
Antagonistic muscles:

1. Flexor muscles
2. Extensor muscles:

 Found inside the internal structure of the exoskeleton

 The hind legs are bigger and longer for jumping
 Movement is produced by contraction and relaxation of these muscles

 
Mechanism of locomotion and function
Jumping:

1. At rest, flexor muscles contract, hind legs folded in the shape of "Z"

2. Extensor muscles contract and hind legs straighten 
3. Grasshopper jumps forward and upwards

 
 
 
 
Health issues related to the human skeletal muscle system:
 
 
Osteoporosis
 Explanation
o Is caused by a deficiency in the uptake of calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D or women ex
o Less calcium is used to form bones
o Bones become weak and easy to fracture especially at the pelvic girdle, wrist and backbon
 Advice & treatment
o Consumption of sufficient calcium, phosphate and vitamin D through daily diet to increase
o Exercise regularly to strengthen the muscles and bones
o Go through hormone replacement therapy for women experiencing menopause

 
Osteomalacia 
 Explanation
o Is caused by the deficiency in the uptake of calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D
o Occur in adults, especially pregnant women
o Osteomalacia that occurs in children known as rickets
o In children, bone defects may occur
 Advice & treatment 
o Consumption of sufficient calcium and phosphate through daily diet to increase bone mass
o Consumption of sufficient vitamin D through daily
o Exercise regularly to strengthen the muscles and bones

 
Arthritis 
 Explanation 
o Cartilages in the joints of the knee, pelvic girdle and backbone become wear off
o Less synovial fluid secreted
o Usually occurs in senior citizens
o The joints experience inflammation, pain, swollen and hard
 Advice & treatment 
o Exercise regularly to strengthen the muscles and joints
o Go through physiotherapy to strengthen the joints
o Undergo surgery operation to replace with artificial joint

 
Scoliosis
 Explanation
o The backbone of an individual is sideways curvature from the spine axis
o Can be caused by genetic factor, tumour, a bacterial infection. osteoporosis, rickets or inju
 Advice & treatment 
o Comprises three "O": observation, orthosis and operation