Cell Biology and Organisation

 
We will learn about the cell structure and their cell function, living process in unicellular organisms and mul
of organisation in multicellular organisms.
 

2.1 Cell Structure and Cell Function

 
Cell organelles Functions
Plasma membrane Regulates the movement of substances across the cell

Separates the contents of the cell from the external environment

Cell wall Maintains the shape of plant cells

Protects the plant cells from burst

Provides strength and support to the plant cell

Cytoplasm Acts as a medium for biochemical reactions of most living processes
Nucleus Carries genetic information in the form of DNA
Vacuole Stores nutrients, wastes and metabolic by-product
Ribosome Synthesises proteins
Mitochondrion Synthesises ATP

Site of cellular respiration

Rough endoplasmic reticulum Transports proteins made by the ribosomes throughout the cell
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Synthesises lipids and carries detoxification of drugs
Golgi apparatus Modifies, transports, sort and package the proteins and carbohydrate
Lysosome Digests old and worn organelles

Breakdown complex organic molecules

Centriole Form spindle fibres during cell division
Chloroplast Site of photosynthesis
 
Similarities between plant cell and animal cell:

 Both cells contain a nucleus, cytoplasm, plasma membrane, Golgi apparatus, mitochondrion, endoplas

 
Differences between plant cell and animal cell:
 
Plant Cells Animal C
Has a fixed shape Does not have a
Has a cell wall Does not have a
Has chloroplasts Does not have a c
Has a large vacuole No vacu
 Stores carbohydrates in the form of starch Stores carbohydrates in th
Does not have a centriole Has centri
 

2.2 Living Processes in Unicellular Organisms

 
Unicellular organisms are made up of only one cell.
 
For example: Ameoba sp. and Paramecium sp.
 
Differences of living process between Ameoba sp. and Paramecium sp.:
 
Amoeba sp.

Habitat: Freshwater and damp soil

Structural characteristics:

 Can change shape

 Has one nucleus
 Has contractile vacuole and food vacuole

 
Respiration: Simple diffusion

Feeding: Phagocytosis

Movement: Extend its pseudopodium

Reproduction: 

 Binary fission (favourable condition)

 Spore formation (unfavourable condition)

 
Excretion: Osmoregulation through contractile vacuole
 
Paramecium sp.

Habitat: Freshwater

Structural characteristics:

 Slipper-shape
 Has cilia
 Has two nuclei; macronucleus and micronucleus
 Has contractile vacuole and food vacuole
 
Respiration: Simple diffusion

Feeding: Oral groove

Movement: Beats the cilia

Reproduction: 

 Binary fission (favourable condition)

 Conjugation  (unfavourable condition)

 
Excretion: Osmoregulation through contractile vacuole
 
Ameoba sp. :
 

Source:[Biology Text Book KSSM Form 4]

 
Paramecium sp. :
 

Source:[www.livescience.com/55178-paramecium.html]
 

2.3 Living Processes of Multicellular Organisms

 
Specialised cells in animals and humans:
 
Epithelium cell

Structural adaptation: Thin cells; arranged closely

 
Function: 

 Provide protection
 Aid in gaseous exchange
 Helps in nutrients absorption, secretes mucus

 
Muscles cell

Structural adaptation:

 Contains many fibres; aid in movement

  Have many mitochondria; provide energy for muscle contraction

 
Function: Contracts to produce movement
 
Nerves cell

Structural adaptation:

 Have long dendrites and axon

 Axons covered with myelin sheath; faster transmission

 
Function: Transmits nerve impulse from one part to another part of the body
 
Red blood cell

Structural adaption:

 Contains haemoglobin; transport oxygen

 Elastic and flexible; allow the blood to squeeze through thin blood capillaries
 Has a biconcave disc shape; increases the ratio of surface area per volume; increase the diffusion of re

 
Function: Transports respiratory gases
 
White blood cell

Structural adaption: Can change shape; easily squeeze through the tiny blood vessels to the interstitial space

Function: Protects the body from pathogens

 
Sperm cell

Structural adaption:

 Has a long tail; helps the sperm to move

 Contains mitochondrion; provide energy for the sperm to swim
 Contains enzymes; helps the sperm to penetrate the ovum

 
Function: Fertilises the ovum
 
Specialised cells in plants:
 
Spongy palisade mesophyll cell

Structural adaptation: Packed loosely; efficient gaseous exchange

Function: Facilitate gas permeation
 
Xylem

Structural adaptation:

 Consists of porous long tubes; to transport substances efficiently

 Strengthen by lignin; to prevent the xylem from collapse

 
Function: Transport water and mineral salts from the roots to a whole plant
 
Sieve tubes

Structural adaptation:

 Matured sieve tubes have no nucleus; provide more space for transportation
 Have sieve plates
 No lignin

 
Function: Transport organic substances; sucrose, amino acids and hormones from the shoots to other parts of
 
Root hair cell

Structural adaptation:

 Have many mitochondria; provide energy to absorb more mineral salts through active transport
 The root hairs increase the surface area; maximising the absorption

 
Function: Absorb water and dissolved mineral salts in the ground
 
Guard cell

Structural adaptation:

 Have chloroplasts; produce glucose

 Have a large vacuole; control the osmotic pressure of the cell; aid in controlling the opening and closi

 
Function: Control the opening and closing of the stoma
 
Cell Organisation in animals:
 
Types Characteristics and functions
Epithelium Consists of one or more layers of cells
 Some epithelium tissues form glands (exocrine and endocrine glands)

Epithelial tissues carry out functions associated with protection, secretion and absorption
Muscles Musculoskeletal: involves involuntary movements; contracts and relaxes to move the bones

Smooth: contracts and relaxes that allows involuntary movements; peristalsis in intestines

Cardiac: found in the heart walls; contracts and relaxes that allows pumping the blood
Nerve Consists of neurons or nerve cells

Functions to transmit nerve impulses, control and coordinates the activities in the body
Connective Consists of several types of cells and fibres that are distributed across the body that has many f
 
Connective Tissue:
 
Types Characteristics and functions
Loose connective tissues Places between the organs

Functions to anchor the epithelium tissues to other tissues and places the organs
Fibrous connective tissues Consists of fibrous collagens that are arranged close to one another

Found in tendon and ligament

Cartilage Strong and flexible

Supports the nose, ears and covers the end of the bones, which functions to abso
Bone Consists of cells in one matrix of mineral salts and fibrous collagen

Collagen matrix is hardened by the deposition of minerals such as calcium phos

Functions to protect the organs and provides support to the body

Blood tissues Consists of blood cells; red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets

Blood functions to protect, transport and regulate

Adipose tissues Functions to store fats, protects the organs and insulates heat

Found in the skin dermis and at the surroundings of the organs

 
Tissue organisation in plants:
 
Meristematic tissue

A group of undifferentiated cells; active in cell division

 Two types; apical and lateral meristems

 
Function:
  Apical meristem: primary growth; vertical growth
 Lateral meristem: secondary growth; horizontal growth

 
Parenchyma tissue

Thin-walled cells; loosely arranged with spaces between them

Function:

 Provides support and shapes

 Stores food
 Conducts photosynthesis

 
Collenchyma tissue

 Elongated, polygonal cells with unevenly thickened cell walls

 The cell walls are thickened by cellulose and pectin

 
Function: 

Provides support to:

 Herbaceous plants
 Young stems
 Leaf stalks
 Petioles

 
Sclerenchyma tissue

 The cells are rigid

 Have cell walls; thickened by lignin
 Most of the cells are dead at maturity

 
Function: Provide support and protection to the plant
 
Epidermis

 The outermost layer that covers the whole plants

 The wall of epidermal cells is normally covered by cuticle

 
Function:
The cuticle on the epidermal tissue helps to:

 Prevent water loss

 Protects the plants from mechanical injury
 Prevent the invasion by disease-causing microorganisms

 
In roots, some of the epidermal cells have long projections called root hairs; increase the surface area for ab

In leaves, the lower epidermis contains specialised cells, called guard cells; controls the opening and closing
 
Xylem

 Consists of tracheids and xylem vessels; long tubes joined together end to end
 The cell walls of the xylem are thickened with lignin; provide support to plants
 Xylem tissues die upon reaching maturity; form hollow tubes

 
Function:

 Xylem carries water and minerals from the roots to the leaves
 Xylem provides support and mechanical strength to the plant

 
Phloem

 Phloem tissue consists of parenchyma cells, sclereids, sieve tubes and companion cells
 The sieve tubes have pores at both ends; called sieve plates
 Sieve tubes obtain nutrients and energy from the adjacent companion cells

 
Function: Phloem transports carbohydrates, amino acids, hormones from the leaves to storage organs and to
 
The density of certain cell components and specialised cell functions:
 
Mitochondria

 Muscle cell; Provide energy for muscle contraction

 Sperm cell; Provide energy for the tail of sperm during swimming to fertilise the ovum
 Meristem cell; Provide energy for cell division and cell growth
 Kidney cell; Provide energy for active transport to transport substances across the plasma membrane

 
Chloroplast

 Palisade mesophyll and spongy mesophyll; To conduct photosynthesis

 
Rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus
  Goblet cell and pancreatic cell; Produces mucus, synthesises and secretes digestive enzymes

 
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus

 Liver cell; Conduct carbohydrate metabolism and detoxification drugs and poisons

2.4 Levels of Organisation

 
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m}}\rightarrow\boxed{\text{Organism}}Cell→Tissue→Organ→System→
 
Main organ systems in the human body:
 
Systems Functions and Organ involved
Endocrine system The endocrine gland secretes hormones

Main function:

Coordinates body activities with the nervous system

Respiratory system Trachea, nose, lungs and diaphragm

Main function:

Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases between the body and the ext
Muscular system Skeletal muscles, smooth muscles and cardiac muscles

Main function:

Contracts and relaxes to produce movements in different parts of the body

Male reproductive system Testes, prostate gland and penis

Main function:

Produces sperm and male sex hormones

Female reproductive system Ovary, uterus, Fallopian tube, vagina and cervix

Main function:

Produces ovum and female sex hormones

Lymphatic system Spleen, lymph nodes and lymph vessels.
 Main function:

Maintains balance of bodily fluids and prevents infectious diseases

Nervous system Brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves

Main function:

Detects and send information in the body, as well as coordinates body activi
Blood circulatory system Heart, artery, vein and blood capillary

Main function:

Transports nutrients, respiratory gases and waste products

Digestive system Mouth, oesophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, small intestine and large intes

Main function:

Digests food into a simpler form for easy absorption

Urinary system Kidney, ureter, urethra and bladder

Main function:

Eliminates waste products such as urea and uric acid from the body
Skeletal system Bone, cartilage, ligament and tendon

Main function:

Supports the body, protects the internal organs and provides a base for musc
Integumentary system Skin

Main function:

Protects the body from physical injury, infection and dehydration

 
Main systems in plants:
 
The plant system is divided into the shoot system and root system.

 The shoot system consists of stems, leaves, shoots, flowers and fruits.

 Stems and twigs are support systems that support the leaves at the vertical position to allow maxim
photosynthesis
 Flowers are involved in the pollination process
 The root system consists of all roots in a plant that function in absorbing water and mineral salts as w