Module 2: Organisation of Living

Things
Organisation of cells
Unicellular organisms

 One cell  carries out all metabolic processes

 Either prokaryotic or eukaryotic
 Oldest life form
 E.g. archaea, bacteria & protozoa

Colonial organisms

 Collection of unicellular (individual) cells living together in a colony

 Physically connected & interdependent
 If separated, may survive on their own
 E.g. volvox & choanoflagellates

Two types:

 Facultative colonies  independent organisms that come together to form

complex structures
 Obligate colonies  consist of individuals called zooids that vary in form and carry out specific functions

Multicellular organisms

 Many different specialised cells that perform different tasks within organisms body
 If separated, cannot survive
 E.g. brain cell

Endosymbiosis theory

 Eukaryotes evolved by free-living prokaryotes became incorporated inside larger prokaryotic cells
 Eventually developed into mitochondria, chloroplasts etc.

Multicellularity

Advantages Disadvantages
 Cell specialisation is efficient  More energy is required
 Longer lifespans  Cells cannot function independently
 Increased genetic diversity  Slower evolution
 Larger size and more mobile
 More complex functions

Cell differentiation: less specialised cell changes to become a specialised

Cell specialisation: specific function which a cell has, determined by their physiology and cellular structures

Tissues

 Groups of cells that have a similar structure and act together to perform a specific function

Tissues in humans
  Epithelial tissue  coats surfaces of the body including the digestive tract and skin. It is composed of
epithelial cells, which are specialised to perform secretion, excretion, and absorption functions.
 Nervous tissues  makes up the nervous system, and is composed of neurons, cells which process and pass
along information in the form of electrochemical signals. Neurons have specific structural features, including
dendrites, an axon, and synapses, to help perform this function.
 Connective tissue  supports the body and holds it together. Connective tissue also helps to protect the
body. E.g. Bone, cartilage, fat, tendons, and ligaments
 Muscle tissue  makes up muscles, and is composed of myocytes, which are elongated cells containing
specialised cytoskeleton. These structures help the cells contract, aiding the function of movement.
 Reproductive tissue  makes it possible to produce offspring.
 Blood tissue  connective tissue that provides support to the body and protects the organs
 Fat tissue  loose connective tissue, stores energy in the form of fat, acts as a cushion and insulates the
body

Tissues in plants

 Vascular tissue  xylem transports water, phloem transports sugars

 Epidermal tissue  protect plant tissues and prevent water loss
 Ground tissue  makes up bulk of plant mass
 Meristematic tissue  divide to produce new growth
 Mesophyll tissue  made up of mesophyll cells, containing chloroplasts to perform photosynthetic
functions
 Xylem tissue  made of tracheids, which are elongated and have thick cell wall, specialised for allowing
water flow
 Phloem tissue  vascular tissue, responsible for the transport of sugar from source tissues

Organs

 A self-contained group of tissues that performs a specific vital function in the organism

Organs in humans

Organ Function Tissues

Heart To pump blood throughout the body Mostly muscle; also blood, nerve, and fat
Stomach Works with mouth, oesophagus, or food pipe, Muscle, fat, nerve, blood, and other tissues
and small intestine to digest food
Skin Covers and protects the body; helps get rid of Mostly epithelial; also blood, nerve, and
salts, water, heat, and a small amount of urea other tissues
Brain and spinal Organ of thinking; the brain and spinal cord Mostly nerve; also blood, connective, and
cord send and receive messages other tissues
Ears, eyes, nose, Sense organs; tell what is happening around Nerve, muscle, blood, and other tissues
tongue and skin you
Lungs Site of gas exchange called respiration (or Connective tissues
breathing). Carbon dioxide is expelled and
oxygen enters.

Organs in plants

Organ Function Tissues

Roots Keep the plant in the ground and take in water
and nutrients from the soil.
Leaves Absorb sunlight and make food for the plant
by photosynthesis. The waste product of
photosynthesis, oxygen, escapes through tiny
holes in the leaves.
Stem Supports the leaves and flowers. It also
 transports water and nutrients between the
roots and the leaves.
Flower Reproductive organs – allows a plant to
produce new plants.

Systems

 Group of organs that work together to perform one or more functions

Systems in humans

System Function Organs

Nervous system To coordinate bodily function by passing
electrochemical signals, to detect and
respond to external stimuli
Digestive system To breakdown and absorb food
Excretory system To rid the body of metabolic wastes
Brain, sensory organs (eyes, ears, tongue, skin),
nerves
Stomach, intestines, mouth, liver
Kidney, bladder, urethra, ureters

Systems in plants

System Function Organs

Cellular respiration Break down sugar and turn it into energy Mitochondria
Photosynthesis Harness energy from sunlight and turn it Chloroplast
into chemical energy.

Hierarchical structure of multicellular organisms

 Hierarchies = system organised in levels

 Each level has a certain role  forms the basis for the next
 Due to the hierarchical structure, each layer is more specialised, and allows for a huge amount of complexity
within the organisms
 ORGANELLES  CELLS  TISSUES  ORGANS  ORGAN SYSTEM

Nutrient and Gas Requirements

Leaf

 Site of photosynthesis
 Chloroplasts – scattered green dots, produce glucose
 Distinct cell wall – maintains rigid structure
 Epidermis – outer layer, gas exchange, thickness varies
 Stomata in epidermis – act as pores, regulate amount of gas that enters with assistance from guard cells
  Cuticle – waxy layer, protects from excessive loss of water or gas exchange
 Below epidermis – 2 layers of mesophyll cells:
- Palisade mesophyll (palisade parenchyma) – tightly packed, photosynthetic cells
- Spongy mesophyll (spongy parenchyma) – irregular and loosely packed photosynthetic cells  air
spaces enable gas exchange through stomata and buoyancy
 Vascular bundles – deliver nutrients and water to cells

Stem

 Structural support for leaves

 Delivers substances via vascular bundles: xylem & phloem – separated by cambium
 Epidermis – outer layer, acts as a protective layer
 Ground tissue – tissue surrounding the vascular bundles, composed of mostly parenchyma cells
 Pith – towards the centre of the stem it is called pith
 Cortex – between the vascular bundles and the epidermis

Roots

 Anchors plant into soil

 Water and nutrient collection
 Root hairs on exterior – large SA:V
 Substances enter by diffusion and osmosis
 Xylem – larger cells in the centre
 Phloem – smaller cells surrounding this central complex
 3 sections:
- Zone of maturation – where mature cells, including xylem and phloem cells, are found, providing
basic structure for the root
- Zone of elongation – where new cells are added and begin to elongate
- Meristematic zone – where cells are constantly undergoing mitosis, and diving, which creates new
cells for the root to grow

Tracing the development and movement of the products of photosynthesis

The mechanism by which the process of photosynthesis occurs has been investigated over a long period. It was

 Originally thought that sunlight acted on carbon dioxide in the initial stages
 Melvin Calvin used a radioactive tracer (carbon-14) to show that sunlight actually acts on the chlorophyll to
begin the manufacturing of organic compounds. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1961 for his ground-
breaking work.
 Isotopes are different forms of the same element
 Radioisotopes = isotopes that emit radiation – said to be radioactive (emit radioactive waves or particles to
try to achieve a stable state)
 Emission waves can be measured using a number of methods
 Radioisotopes are very useful as tracers — technologies can be used to trace their paths in physical, chemical
and biological systems
 Radioisotopes were used to determine whether the oxygen released during photosynthesis originated from
the oxygen atom in water or that in carbon dioxide
 - Plants that were given water that contained radioactive atoms of oxygen showed that all of the
radioactive oxygen atoms from the water molecules were released as oxygen gas, showing that
water (and not carbon dioxide) was the source of oxygen gas released during photosynthesis
 The pathway of the glucose produced in photosynthesis can also be traced using radioisotopes
- Carbon-14 is added to the carbon dioxide supply of a plant
- This carbon-14 then takes part in the reactions of photosynthesis and is incorporated into the
glucose molecules produced
- The pathway of movement of glucose molecules can be traced using the radiation being emitted by
the carbon-14 and recorded in an autoradiograph
- This can be achieved by placing the experimental plant against photographic film; the dark areas on
the film show where the carbon-14 has accumulated
 Modern computer software can convert the information into 3D images so that investigators can 'see' where
the radioactively labelled chemicals are moving or stored in living organisms
 Real-time radioactive imaging system (RRIS) is a non-destructive imaging system that visualises the
movement of substances in the phloem

Mammals: Alveoli

 In order to perform aerobic respiration, oxygen is transported into the blood in the lungs, and then carried
to the cells
 Carbon dioxide (by-product of aerobic respiration) is then diffused into the blood  then carried back to the
lungs to be exhaled
 Membranes of the alveoli = surface for gas exchange (oxygen into the blood and carbon dioxide out of the
blood)
 Alveoli = clusters of air sacs, which air flows into from the bronchioles of the lungs (alveolus = single air sac)
 Blood capillaries are wound around the alveoli
 Where their thin membranes touch – gas can diffuse based upon concentrations on either side of the
membranes)
- When deoxygenated blood travels from to the lungs carrying carbon dioxide, the carbon dioxide will
diffuse into the alveoli as there is a high concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and a low
concentration in the lungs
- Diffuses passively across concentration gradient
 The efficiency of this gas is ensured by a number of structural features
 Alveoli have a large surface area (approx. 90 m 2) – across which gas can diffuse
 Very thin walls (similar to capillaries, they are only a single cell thick) – gases can flow more easily between
spaces
 Covered in many capillaries – ensuring a large blood supply of gases to be
exchanged with
 Surface is kept moist – enables oxygen and carbon dioxide to more easily
diffuse, as they do so more rapidly when dissolved in water

Mammal respiration

 Lungs
 Site of gas exchange, where blood releases carbon dioxide and takes in oxygen
 The alveoli are the site of this gas exchange
 Air enters the lungs through the trachea, which is connected to the mouth
 The trachea braches into two bronchi stem (one for each lung)
 These then branch into increasingly smaller tubes called bronchioles, which connect to alveolar ducts, and
end in alveoli air sacs
 Of the two lungs, right lung has 3 sections, called lobes, whereas the left lung only has 2 lobes
 Between the lungs is the diaphragm – a sheet of muscle which contracts to perform the breathing function,
letting air in and out of the lungs
  De-oxygenated blood is umped to the lungs through the pulmonary vein, and then returned to the heart
through the pulmonary artery.

Fish respiration

 Gills (or branchia)  organ aquatic organisms use to respire

 Responsible for extracting dissolved oxygen from water, and excreting carbon dioxide
 Composed of a series of gill filaments, which are supported by a gill arch holding them in place
 Gill filaments branch out into primary lamellae, and then these structures branch out into secondary
lamellae
 Secondary lamellae are orientated parallel to the flow of water, which flows into the gills from gill slits in the
side of the fish
 De-oxygenated blood flows into the secondary lamellae, oxygen is absorbed into the lamellae, and into the
blood, and carbon dioxide is released
 The blood is then pumped around the fish by its heart
 There are many secondary lamellae in the gills, providing a large surface area over which gas can exchange

Insects:

 Tracheae
 Invertebrates have open respiratory systems
 Gas exchange occurs directly onto cells of the organism
 Spiracles = small openings on insect body
 Allow air to flow into tracheae, which branch into tracheoles
 These continue to branch throughout the body, becoming as small as a few micrometres
 Tracheoles penetrate cells, creating a site where oxygen and water can diffuse by passive diffusion or active
ventilation

Reptile respiration

 Occurs in different ways

 Gills  A newly hatched tadpole's gills are external. These gills take in oxygen when water passes over them.
As the tadpole matures, the gills are absorbed by the body and become an internal part of the tadpole's
anatomy.
  Lungs  after mature frog loses its gills, they bring oxygen into their bodies via lungs. Because they lack a
diaphragm to help regulate the pressure in their lungs, frogs must use their throats, nostrils and mouths
together to bring in and expel gases.
 Skin  The moisture on the skin dissolves oxygen from the air and water surrounding the frog and transmits
it into the blood.
 Mouth  additional surface for respiration, the most lining of the mouth.

Photosynthesis

Process by which plants and other certain organisms transform light energy into chemical energy.

 Roots take water and salts Roots take water and salts up through the xylem to the leaves
 Carbon dioxide that has entered through the stoma in the leaves where it is used to created
photosynthetic materials
 Materials then enter the phloem (source) and is transported to areas of requirement (sink)

Transpiration

Theory

The mechanism by which water flows through the xylem of plants is due to the combined effects of:

 Transpiration
 Cohesion
 Tension

Evidence for theory

Eduard Strasburg cut through tree trunks and placed them into bucket of plant poison. The solutions rose in the
xylem and only stopped when the leaves were killed. Although tissue father down in the trunks was already dead,
the transpiration stream continued until the leaves were destroyed. Indicating

 Living cells pumping substances up the xylem were not responsible for the upward movement since, when
they were dead, movement continued
 The leaves play a vital role in causing transport up the xylem

Physical digestion

 Incisors  cutting or shearing food into small chewable pieces

 Canines  ripping and tearing at tough foods
 Premolars  chewing and grinding food
 Molars  chewing and grinding food

Carnivores Herbivores Omnivores

Diet Meat Plant materials Animals & plants
Teeth Prominent canines Incisors Canines & incisors – same size
Example

Dog Sheep Human

Chemical digestion

 Involves the action of specialised proteins called enzymes

 Enzymes break down complex chemical compounds into simpler smaller molecules so they can be absorbed
into the blood
Digestion in grazing herbivores

 Large grinding canine that crush the food  increase the surface area for digestion
 Diets high in complex carbohydrates (e.g. cellulose) – requires a complex digestive system
 Caecum (contained in digestive system) assists to break down complex carbohydrates
 Process of cellulose digestion = fermentation (may occur before or after the stomach)
 Foregut fermenters (many farm animals)
 3 or 4 stomach compartments to deal with their diet
 Largest compartment = rumen (consequently called ruminant animals)
 Special ruminant bacteria that are located in the rumen that carry out the majority of the fibre digestion
 Ruminant animals require water, carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals in their diet
 Animals use carbohydrates to provide energy 
 All animals can make use of sugars and starches in food, but only ruminants make full use of the complex
carbohydrate
 Other main group of grazing herbivores = hindgut fermenters
 E.g. Horses, rabbits and possums
 They carry out cellulose digestion in an organ after the stomach called the caecum   
 In rabbits the caecum has the capacity ten times the stomach and it fills most of the abdomen

Cow

Kangaroo

Digestion in carnivores

 Teeth are adapted to catching and holding prey and then ripping it to pieces
 Prominent, large canines
 E.g. dogs, cats and the Tasmanian devil
 Simple digestive system
 Large intestine of carnivores is relatively shorter than herbivores
 Food source  animal cells e.g. muscle cells
- These do not have a cell wall and can be digested rapidly
 Muscle cells in meat are high in protein so carnivores do not need to eat large amounts of food to gain the
same amount of nutrients that a herbivore requires
 Muscle cells are also higher in energy content and take less energy to digest than the food of herbivores
Digestion in nectar feeders

 The length and structure of the intestines will vary according to the diet of the organism
 More complex the substances that enter the intestines = longer digestive tract
 Nectar feeders that eat simple carbohydrates
 Shorter digestive tract overall compared to carbohydrate eaters such as the herbivores and carnivores
 Due to the fact that their primary food source is simple sugars which are easily digested or broken down

Honey possum

Digestion in omnivores

 Mix of herbivore and omnivore digestion

Human

Transport
Photosynthesis Cellular respiration
Site Chloroplast – in the leaves Mitochondria – every cell
Time Daytime (needs sunlight) All the time

Plant vascular system

Xylem Phloem
Structure  Xylem vessels  Phloem fibres
 Lignin (spirals)  Sieve cells + companion cells

Substance Water Sugars (glucose), minerals, other nutrients

Transport Unidirectional: roots to leaves
direction
Transport Evapotranspiration: Passive transport ‘CACT’:
theory 1. Root pressure: transverse osmotic pressure
within the cells of a root system that causes
sap to rise through a plant stem to the leaves
2. Capillarity: movement caused by the
attraction of molecules of the liquid to the
molecules of the solid
3. Cohesion: water molecules bond to each
other
Bi-directional: wherever sugars are required
Translocation: Active transport
Pressure-Flow Theory:
1. Nutrients moved into phloem by active
transport from ‘source’ (leaves)
2. Water flows by osmosis, creating pressure
gradient
3. Nutrients move passively down phloem,
following pressure gradient
4. Sugar actively transported out of phloem at
 4. Adhesion: water molecules bind to walls of ‘sink’
xylem tubes
5. Transpiration: evaporation from leaves pulls
water though xylem

Nutrient and gas requirements of autotrophs and heterotrophs

Requirement Autotroph Heterotroph

Oxygen gas No Yes
Carbon dioxide gas Yes No
Water Yes Yes
Glcuose No Yes
Protein/lipids No Yes
Mineral ions Yes Yes

Plant and animal vascular systems

Feature Animal Plant

Tranpsort system Cardiovascular system Vascular systems
Diagram

Components Heart, lungs, blood, arteries, veins and
capillaries
Processes involved The contractions of the double chambered
heart.
Fucntions The high pressure forces movements both
with and against gravity. As a result, both
arteries and veins have thick walls to
withstand this high pressure. Veins also have
valves which stop the backflow of blood.
Xylem, phloem, water, sugar
The CAT and source to sink theory are
processes which cause the movement of
substances to move in the xylem and
phloem.
The cohesion, adhesion transpiration (CAT)
process occurs in the xylem, a unidirectional
structure which moves water from the roots
to the plants main structure. The source to
sink process occurs in the phloem where
dissolved substances are transported
throughout the plant via a bidirectional
tube. This allows the photosynthetic source
material (from leaves) to be transported to
necessary features of the plant such as the
flowers, stem or roots.

Blood

Blood Function Diagram

vessel
 Arteries  Vessels responsible for transporting oxygenated
blood  heart to the tissues
 Thick elastic walls which can withstand a high
degree of pressure, with a thick lining of
muscular tissue surrounding a small lumen
(intra-vessel space). This helps to control the
flow of blood to the tissues

Veins  Vessels which transport deoxygenated blood 

tissues back to the heart and lungs
 As blood flows back to the heart at much lower
pressures, the veins have thin walls and a large
lumen to allow a large amount of blood through
 Specialised valves - prevent back flow to low
pressures

Capillarie  The direct interface between blood and cells

s  Provide a surface for exchange of substances
into and out of the cells
 Very thin walls, only one cell thick, and a tiny
diameter which can only fit one blood cell
through at a time. This enables fluids and gases
to be easily moved through capillary walls.

Blood component Function

Erythrocytes (RBCs)
Leucocytes (WBCs)
Thrombocytes (platelets)
Water
Mineral ions
Plasma proteins
Other substances
 Responsible for distributing oxygen through the body
 Contain haemoglobin, which bind oxygen to heme molecules
 External glycoproteins determine blood type
 Compose about 45% of whole blood volume
 Do not have a nucleus
 About 7μm diameter
 Cells forming part of the immune system
 Destroy and engulf pathogens, old cells, and cellular debris
 Have a nucleus
 About 12μm diameter
 Involved in clotting of the blood
 Do not have a nucleus
 About 2-3μm diameter
 Fluid in which blood cells are suspended
 Made of water, proteins, dissolved nutrients, dissolved gases
 Composes about 55% blood
 Straw-yellow in colour when separated from cells

Substances are transported in a number of different ways in blood:

 Nutrients  transported in plasma

 Oxygen  transported bound to haemoglobin as oxyhaemoglobin
 Carbon dioxide  transported in 3 different ways: dissolved directly into plasma, bound to haemoglobin, or
as a bicarbonate molecule
  Hormones 
 Antibodies 
 Nitrogenous waste (urea)  transported as urea in the plasma
 Heat 

Transpiration

 When stomates are open – gases (e.g. carbon dioxide) can diffuse into a plant
 Water molecules can diffuse into the air because of the higher water concentration inside the plant
 Water evaporates from the cell surfaces, diffuses through the intercellular spaces and out through the
stomates  evaporation
 Potometer = instrument to measure the rate of transpiration

External factor How it affects transpiration rate

High temperatures Increases
High humidity (level of water vapour in the air) Decreases
High wind Decreases
High light intensity Increases
High water concentration in the soil increases

Open and closed circulatory systems

Type Closed circulatory system Open circulatory system

Diagram

Description Uses blood vessel to transport nutrients to
cells, with blood pumped around the system
by the heart. Exchange of nutrients from the
blood into cells happens when the blood flows
into vessels with very thin walls, where
nutrients are able to move in and out by
diffusion. This enables the organism to have
more control over blood flow. All vertebrates
have close circulatory systems.
Example
Blood flows freely around the body, with blood
surrounding tissues (kind of like soaking a
sponge, where the cells are the sponge), and
oxygen flows directly to the cells from the
respiratory tract. It’s kind of like giving the
tissues a bath in dissolved nutrients and gases.
Arthropods (invertebrates with exoskeletons,
such as insects) have open circulatory systems.

Changes in transport medium composition

Organ Function Composition of blood going into Composition of blood

organ leaving organ
Lungs Gas exchange High: carbon dioxide High: oxygen
Low: oxygen Low: carbon dioxide
Kidney Filtration of water, salts High: urea, salts, glucose High: carbon dioxide
and urea Low: Low: urea, oxygen
Small intestine Digestion of carbohydrates,
proteins and fats
Brain Controls voluntary and
involuntary actions
High:
Low: glucose, amino acids, fatty
acids, glycerol
High: oxygen, glucose
Low: carbon dioxide
High: glucose, fatty acids,
amino acids, glycerol,
carbon dioxide
Low: oxygen
High: carbon dioxide
Low: oxygen, glucose