Cells

- Developing organism contains all the genetic instructions for producing complete organism
- Why do so many different and stable cell types form?
 Different cell types use different subsets of their genes
 Signals that are received by a cell during development cause certain genes to turn on and others to
turn off
 Genes: Turns on or becomes active when it is transcribed into mRNA for protein synthesis
 Turns off: Inactive when it is not transcribed
 Then how do cells become different during development?
 Muscle cells become long and ridged as they develop: Build extended filaments of protein that allow
them to contract
 Pancreatic cells: Secrete digestive enzymes that can reduce a turkey sandwich and piece of fruit into
useful nutrients
 Skin cells: Flat and scaly looking and produce pigments that absorb ultraviolet light

Embryo

- Shaken, poked at, turned upside down and treated with chemicals to see how these actions would affect
development
- What processes cause cells to express a specific subset of genes?
 Substance inside the cells differ (internal makeup of a cell can influence its pattern to gene expression)
 In some species: Molecules that can regulate gene expression are located in different portions of the
zygote’s cytoplasm
 As mitosis occurs -> Divisions of cytoplasm into offspring cells distributes these regulatory molecules
into some cells but not into others
 As these molecules begin to influence gene activity: Cells that received them follow one path of
development (cells that didn’t receive them follow another path)
 Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) embryos: Distribution of specific proteins in the embryo affects
how develops a distinct back and front
- Cytoplasmic regulation: Regulatory molecules are unequally divided during the development of some
organism (lead to different developmental fates for different cells)
- Induction: Gene products (proteins) released by one group of cells can cause a neighboring group of cells
to differentiate in a particular way
 Molecules secreted by this tissue contact cells that would have become skin tissue and change their
developmental path
 Develop: Human organs and systems (sweat glands, teeth, and limbs)
 Requires a sophisticated (정확하고 세밀하게) system of genetic instructions and controls
 What happens when mutations cause these genetic instructions or control systems to change?
 Changes in phenotype within a population can led to the evolution of a new adaptation or a new
species
 Transport

Vascular Tissues

- Plants are named are specialized to transport fluid

- Consist of long, narrow cells arranged end to end forming tubes
- 2 different types of vascular tissues:
 Xylem: Transports water and dissolved minerals from roots to stem and
leaves
 Consists of dead cells that lack end walls between adjacent cells
 Side walls: Thick and reinforced with lignin (makes them stiff and water proof)
 Phloem: Transports food (sugar dissolved in water) from photosynthetic cells to other parts of the plant
for growth or storage
 Consists of living cells that are separated by end walls with tiny perforations or holes

Evolution of Vascular Plants

- As vascular plants continued to evolve, early vascular plants became more plant like in other way
- Evolved true roots made of vascular tissues
 Compared with rhizoids: Roots can absorb more water and minerals from the soil
 Anchor plats securely in the ground (plants can grow larger without toppling over
- Evolved stem made of vascular tissues and lignin
 Lignin, stems are stiff: Plants can grow high above the ground (get more light and air)
 b/c stem keep even tall plants supplied with water (don’t dry out the air)
- Evolved leaves to collect sunlight
 Tiny and needle – like: Helped reduce water loss
 Later leaves were much larger and broader (plants could collect more light)
- With Vascular tissues and adaptations: Vascular plants had the edge over nonvascular plants
 Grow tall and take advantage of sunlight high up in the air
 Bryophytes: Photosynthetic pioneers onto land (vascular plants: photosynthetic pioneers into air)

Plant Tissues

- Animals and humans is made of 4 types of tissues: Epithelial, Muscle, Nerve, Connective tissues
 Plants also have tissues but have different lifestyle derive form different kinds of tissues
- Dermal Tissue:
 Epidermis: Covers the outside of a plant in a single layer of cells
 Mediates most of the interactions between a plant and environment
 Epidermal cells: Secrete a cuticle (waxy substance): coats, waterproofs and protects the
above ground parts of plants
 Helps prevent water loss, abrasions, infections, and damage from toxins
 Pavement cells, large, irregularly shaped parenchymal cells (specialized): Lack chloroplasts make up
the majority of epidermis
 Thousands of pairs of bean – shaped schlerenchymal guard cells swell and shrink by osmosis to open
and close stomata
 Tiny pores control the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases and the release of water vapor
 Lower surface: Contain many stomata per cm3
- Ground Tissue: Makes up much of the interior of a plant and carries out basic metabolic functions
 Stems provides support and store food or water
 Roots also store food
- Vascular Tissue: Runs through the ground tissue inside a plant
- Body was able to grow from a single cell to perhaps 100 trillion cells b/c 21 days after fertilization
 Tiny heart began to pump blood throughput tiny self (hasn’t stopped since)
  Blood it pumps carries water oxygen and nutrients (trillions of cells, and removes CO2 and other
wastes)
 Vessels: transport water, minerals, and nutrients through the plant
 Consist of xylem and phloem (packaged together in bundles)

Root Systems

- Taproot system:
Taproot: Feature a single, thick primary root with smaller secondary roots growing out from the sides
Penetrate (관통) as many as 60m below the ground surface
Able to plumb very deep water sources and store a lot of food – Help plant survive drought and other
environmental extremes
 Anchors (고정) the plant very securely in the ground
- Fibrous root system
 Fibrous roots: Many small branching roots (but no large primary root)
 Huge number of threadlike roots increases the surface area for absorption of water and minerals
 Anchor the plant less securely

Root Structure and Functions

- Root cap: Tip of a root

 Consists of specialized cells that help regulate primary growth of the root at the tip
 Primary meristem: Growth in length occurs
 Roots hair: Root is covered with a single layer of epidermal cells – Increase the surface
area for the absorption of water and minerals from the soil
 Epidermis (ground tissues) filled with stored starch
- Bundles of vascular tissues: Form the center of the root
- Waxy layers: Waterproof the vascular tissues (don’t leak) making them more efficient at
carrying fluids
- Secondary meristem
 Located within and around the vascular tissues (growth in thickness occurs)
 Structure of roots helps them perform their primary functions
- What do roots do?
1. Absorbing water and minerals: Thin – walled epidermal cells and roots hairs are well suited to absorb
water and dissolved minerals from the soil
A. Roots many plants have mycorrhizal relationship with fungi for greater absorption
2. Anchoring and Supporting the plant: Root systems help anchor plants to the ground – allowing plants
to grow tall without toppling over
A. Tough covering replace the epidermis in older roots: Making them ropelike and even stronger
B. Some roots have usual specializations for anchoring plants
3. Storing food: Ground tissues in roots store food produced by leaves during
photosynthesis

Stem Tissues & Functions

- Roots, the stems of vascular plants are made of dermal, vascular, and ground tissues
 Single celled layer of epidermis protects and waterproofs the stem and controls
gas exchange
 Bark: Combination of tissues that provides a tough, woody external covering on stem
 Inner part: Alive and growing
 Outer part: dead and provides strength, support, and protection
 Bundles of vascular tissue run through the ground tissue of a stem and transport fluids (plants vary in
how these bundles are arranged
13.24 Heart

The Circulatory System

- Allow the transport of materials from one place to another


Main components: Heart, Blood vessels and blood

Materials carried by the circulatory system: hormones, oxygen, cellular wastes and
nutrients (from digested food)
 Homeostasis: Capacity of the body to maintain the stability of diverse internal
variables (tem., acidity)
 Homeostasis: Transport of all the materials is necessary
- Compared to a system of interconnected
 One way roads that range from superhighways to back alleys

The heart

- Consists of cardiac muscle tissue and pumps blood through blood vessels by
repeated (rhythmic contractions)
- Four chambers: 2 upper atria and 2 lower ventricles
- Valves between chambers keep blood flowing through the heart in one direction

Blood Flow Through the Heart

- Blood flows through the heart in 2 separate loops – Left & right side loop
 Right side: Collects oxygen – poor blood from the body and pumps the blood to the lungs -> Lung:
Carbon dioxide is released and oxygen obtained by the blood
 Left side: Carries oxygen – rich blood back from the lungs and pumps it to the rest of the body ->
Blood: Delivers oxygen to the body’s cells -> Returning the oxygen – poor blood back to the heart
1. Blood from the body enters the right atrium of the heart
A. Right atria pumps the blood to the right ventricle (pumps it to the lungs)
2. Blood from the lungs enters to the left atria of the heart
A. Left atria pumps the blood to the left ventricle (pumps it to the body)
- Extra Information:
 Frist pump: Carries oxygenated poor blood to the lungs (unloads carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen
 Second pump: Delivers oxygen-rich blood to every part of the body

Heartbeat

- Sympathetic nervous system: control the heart rate

- Cardiac muscle: Contracts without stimulation by the nervous system
- Specialized cardiac muscle cells: Send out electrical impulses that stimulate(자극) the contractions
- Result: Atria and ventricles normally contract with right timing to keep blood pumping efficiently through
the heart

13.25 Blood Vessels

Blood vessels

- Form a network throughout the body to transport blood to all the body cells
 Arteries: Muscular blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart
 Thick walls: Can withstand the pressure of blood being pumped by the heart
 Carry oxygen – rich blood
  Aorta (largest artery): Receives blood directly from the heart
 Veins: Blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart
 No longer under much pressure – Veins have valves that prevent backflow of blood
 Carry deoxygenated blood
 Inferior vena cava (largest vein): Carries blood from the lower body to the heart
 Superior vena cava: Brings blood back to the heart from the upper body
 Capillaries (smallest type of blood vessels): Connect very small arteries and veins
 Exchange of gases and other substances between cells and the blood takes place across the thin walls
of capillaries

Blood Vessels & homeostasis

- Blood vessels: Help regulate (통제) body processes by constricting (becoming

narrower) or dilating (becoming wider)
 Actions occur in response to signals from the autonomic nervous system or
endocrine system
 Constriction: Muscular walls of blood vessels contract – Reduces the amount of blood that flow through
the vessels
 Dilation: Walls relax – Increases blood flows through the vessels
 Allow the circulatory system to change the amount of blood flowing to different organs
- Extra Explanation
 During a fight – fight response
 Dilation and constriction of blood vessels: Allow more blood to flow to skeletal muscles and less to
flow to digestive organs
 Dilation of blood vessels (skin): Allows more blood to flow to the body surface so the body can lose
heat
 Constriction of blood vessels: Opposite effect and helps conserve body heat

Blood Vessels & Blood Pressure

- Blood pressure: Force exerted(발휘) by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels
 Highest in arteries and lowest in veins
 When blood pressure checked – Blood pressure in arteries is measured
 Hypertension (high blood pressure): Serious health risk but controlled with lifestyle changes or
medication

13.26 Circulatory System

Pulmonary circulation

- Part of the circulatory system that carries blood between the heart and
lungs
- Deoxygenated blood: Leaves the right ventricle through pulmonary
arteries (transport it to the lungs)
 In the lungs  Blood gives up carbon dioxide and pick up oxygen
- Oxygenated blood: Returns to the left atrium of the heart through
pulmonary veins

Systemic Circulation

- Part of the circulatory system that carries blood between the heart and body
 - Oxygenated blood: Leaves the left ventricle through the aorta  Aorta and other arteries transport the
blood throughout the body (gives up oxygen and picks up carbon dioxide)
- Deoxygenated blood: Returns to the right atrium through veins

13.27 Cardiovascular Diseases

Plaque: Artery can restrict the flow of blood

Cardiovascular Disease (CVD): Diseases of Heart and blood vessels

- Cardiovascular Disease  atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis: Buildup of plaque inside arteries

- Plaque consists of cell debris, cholesterol and other substance (include a high – fat
diet and smoking)
 As plaque builds up  Narrows the arteries and reduces blood flow
- Causes: High – fat diet, high cholesterol, smoking, obesity and diabetes
- Becomes a threat to health when the plaque buildup prevents blood circulation in the heart or brain
- Blocked blood vessel in the heart can cause a heart attack (blockage of the circulation in the brain can
cause a stroke)
- Prevent:
 Eating healthy foods
 Getting plenty of exercise
 No smoking

Coronary Heart Disease

- Coronary heart disease: Atherosclerosis of arteries that supply the heart muscle
 As disease progresses: Increased risk of heart attack
 Occurs when the blood supply to part of the heart muscle is blocked and cardiac
muscle fibers die
 Loss of oxygen to the heart muscle because that part of the tissue to die

Stroke

- Stroke: Loss of brain function due to a blockage of the blood supply to the brain
- Risk: Old age, high blood pressure, having a previous stroke, diabetes, high cholesterol, and smoking
- Reduce: Low blood pressure

13.28 Blood

What is exactly is blood?

- Oxygen is the final electron acceptor during cellular respiration

- Blood cells flow through the vessels of the human circulatory system
- Transport oxygen and other functions

Blood

- Blood: Fluid connective tissue

 Circulates throughout the body through blood vessels by pumping action of the heart
  In Arteries: Carries oxygen and nutrients to all the body’s cells
 In veins: Carries carbon dioxide and other wastes away from the cells to be excreted
- Defends the body against infection, repairs body tissues, transports hormones, and controls the body’s pH

Composition of Blood

- Plasma (Watery golden – yellow liquid): Contains many dissolved substances and blood cells
1. a cells: Blood plasma carry oxygen
A. Contain hemoglobin – Protein with iron that binds with oxygen
B. Made in the marrow of long bones, rib bones, skull, and vertebrae
C. Mature red blood cells: Lack a nucleus and other organelles – Allowing for more hemoglobin
(more oxygen are carried)
2. White blood cells: Larger than red blood cells but far fewer in number
A. Defend the body against foreign bacteria, viruses and other pathogens
B. Phagocytes: Swallow and destroy microorganisms and debris in the blood
C. Lymphocytes: fight infections caused by bacteria and viruses
3. Platelets: Cell fragments involved in blood clotting
A. Stick to tears in blood vessels and to each other (forming a plug at the site of injury
B. Release chemicals that are needed for clotting to occur

Blood type

- Antigens (on the surface of red blood cell): Genetic characteristic associated with the presence or absence
of certain molecules
- ABO blood type: A person may have blood type A (antigen A), B (Antigen B), AB (both antigens), O (no
antigens)
- Rhesus blood type: determined by one common antigen
 Person may either have the antigen (Rh) or lack the antigen (Rh)
- A person who needs a blood transfusion must receive blood that is the same type as his or her own
13.34 Digestive System Organs

Q: Where does our energy comes from?

- Cells need glucose for cellular respiration

 Glucose: Simple sugar that comes from the food we eat
- To get glucose from food – Digestion must occur

Overview

- Digestive system: Consists of organs that break down food and absorb nutrients (glucose)
- Digestion: Process of breaking down food into components the body can absorb
1. Mechanical Digestion (mouth & stomach): Physical breakdown of chucks of food into smaller pieces
2. Chemical digestion: Chemical breakdown of large, complex food molecules into smaller, simpler
nutrient molecules that can be absorbed by the blood
A. Begins in the mouth and stomach (occurs in the small intestine)
- Most of the organs make up the gastrointestinal tract – (Accessory organs: Rest of the organs)

Gastrointestinal Tract

- Long tube that connects the mouth with the anus (9m)
- Adults: includes the esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines
- Food enters the mouth  Passes through the other organs of the GL tract  leaves the body through anus
- Mucous membranes: Secrete digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients
 Covered by layers of muscles that enable peristalsis
 Peristalsis: Involuntary muscle contraction that moves rapidly along an organ like a wave

Functions of the Digestive System

- 3 main functions:
1. Digestion of food
2. Absorption of nutrients
3. Elimination of solid food waste
- Absorption: Process in which substances pass into the bloodstream (circulate throughout the body)
 Occurs mainly in the small intestine
- Elimination: Any remaining matter from food that can’t be digested and absorbed passes into the large
intestine as waste

13.35 Digestive System

The Start of Digestion: Mouth to Stomach

Mouth:

- Sight: Smell, taste or food stimulates the release of digestive enzymes (by salivary glands)
- Amylase: Begins chemical digestion of carbohydrate by breaking down starch into sugar
- Process of mechanical digestion: Sharp teeth in the front of the mouth cut or tear food when we bit into it
 Food is easier to chew because it is moistened by saliva from the salivary glands
 Tongue helps mix the food with saliva and help swallow

Esophagus: form pharynx

- Long, narrow tube that passes food from the pharynx to the stomach by peristalsis
 - End of the esophagus: Sphincter controls the entrance to the stomach
 Sphincter opens to let food into the stomach and then closes again to prevent food from passing back
into the esophagus

Stomach:

- Sac – like organ: Food is further digested both mechanically and chemically
- Churning movements of the stomach’s thick
 Muscular walls complete the mechanical breakdown of food
 Mix food with digestive fluids secreted by the stomach
 Hydrochloric acid: Kills bacteria in food and gives the stomach the low pH needed by digestive
enzymes that work in the stomach
 Pepsin: Chemically digests protein
- Stores digested food until the small intestines is ready to receive it
- Small intestine (empty): Sphincter opens to allow the partially digested food to enter the small intestine

13.39 Food & Nutrients

Food: Promotes good health and provides energy for growth and activity  healthful foods are rich in nutrients

Nutrients: Substances the body needs for energy, building materials, and control of body processes

- Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, water, vitamins, and minerals

Macronutrients:

- Nutrients the body needs in relatively large amounts

- Energy ins food is measured in a calorie
- Carbohydrates (sugar, starches and fiber): 1g of carbohydrates provides 4cal of energy
 Fiber: found in plant food: can’t be digested but needed for good health
 Sugar & Starch: Used by the body for energy
 Starch: Complex carbohydrate found in vegetables and grains (made of thousands of glucose units
bonded together
 Lactose, fructose & glucose – find in fruits and mils (simple & small carbohydrates)
- Proteins: Broken down during digestion to provide the amino acids needed for protein synthesis
 1g of proteins – 4 cal
 Eating protein provides the amino acids: Produce antibodies, muscle fibers and enzymes
- Lipid: Provide body with energy and serve other vital functions
 Protecting neurons & Providing the membranes that surround all cells
 1g of lipid – 9 cal
 Large amount of lipid: Can be harmful due to saturated fatty acids from animal foods
- Water: Essential to life b/c biochemical reaction take place in water

1.17 Enzymes

Enzymes & Biochemical Reaction

- Body temperature of most organisms too low for reactions to occur quickly enough to carry out

13.36 Small Intestine

 Digestion and Absorption; The Small Intestine

- Small intestine: Narrow tube about 7m long (for adults)

- Consists for three parts: Duodenum, Jejunum and ileum

Digestion in the Small intestine

- Duodenum: first and Shortest part of the small intestine


Most chemical digestion takes place

Manty digestive enzymes are active in the duodenum

Some duodenum itself but others are produced by the pancreases and secreted into the duodenum

Bile breaks up large globules of lipids into smaller globules that are easier for enzymes to break down
- Liver: Organ of both digestion and excretion
 Produces bile (secreted into the duodenum)
 Some bile goes to the gall bladder – sac – like organ that stores and concentrates bile and then
secretes it into the small intestine
 Reduces the acidity of food entering from the highly acidic stomach
 Important: Digestive enzymes that work in the duodenum need a neutral environment
 Pancreas: Contributes to the neutral environment by secreting bicarbonate – basic substance that
neutralizes acid

Absorption in the Small Intestine

- Jejunum: Second part of the small intestine

Most nutrients are absorbed into the blood
Mucous membrane: Lining the jejunum is covered with villi (millions of microscopic, fingerlike
projections)
 Villi: Contain may capillaries and nutrients pass from the villi into the bloodstream through the
capillaries
 Greatly increase the surface area for absorption (make the inner surface of the small intestine as
large as a tennis court
- Ileum: Third part of the small intestine
 Few remaining nutrients are absorbed
 Inner surface of the ileum is covered with villi that increase the surface area for absorption

13.37 Large Intestine

The Large Intestine and It’s functions

- Remaining food wastes in small intestine pass into the large intestine
- Wide tube that connects the small intestine with the anus
- Consists of three parts: Cecum, colon, rectum

Absorption of Water & Elimination of Wastes

- Cecum: first part of the large intestine


Wastes enter from the small intestine (liquid state)
- Colon: Second part – Excess water is absorbed (remaining solid wastes: feces)
- Rectum (feces accumulate): Fills the feces become compacted
 After a certain amount of feces accumulate: Eliminated from the body
 Sphincter controls the anus and opens to let feces pass through

Bacteria in the large Intestine

- Without bacteria in large intestine – we wouldn’t be able to survive without them

- Some bacteria: Produce vitamins
- Other functions of intestinal bacteria:
 Controlling the growth of harmful bacteria
 Breaking down indigestible food components
 Producing substance that help prevent colon cancer
 Breaking down toxins before they can poison the body
Leaf Structure and Capturing Light Energy
Electromagnetic Radiation
- Electromagnetic radiation: Energy that travels in waves across space and through matter from the sun
 Electromagnetic waves: Characterized by certain wavelengths and wave frequencies
 Shorter wavelength  Higher frequencies (more energy)
 Wave frequency: Number of waves that pass a fixed point on a given amount of time
 Visible light: Portion of light in the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to humans
 Infrared light (longest wavelength): Energy that invisible to human eyes but that we can feel as heat
 Ultraviolet light: Makes black – light posters glow
 Sunlight: Consists of different kinds of electromagnetic radiation from harmless radio waves to gamma
rays
 Earth’s atmosphere: Prevents most of the harmful radiation from reaching Earth’s surface

A Spectrum of Electromagnetic Waves

- Electromagnetic Spectrum: Full range of electromagnetic
radiation
 Visible the waves of electromagnetic spectrum
 Radio waves & Microwaves: Have the longest
wavelengths and lowest frequencies of all
electromagnetic waves (few amount of energy)
 X – rays & Gamma rays: Shortest wavelengths and
Highest frequencies of all electromagnetic waves (most energy)

Wavelength and Color

- Wavelength: Distance between 2 corresponding points on adjacent
wave
 Wavelength of visible light determines the color that the light
appears
 Red: Longest wavelength ; Violet: Shortest wavelength
Colors of Objects
- Opaque: Reflects or absorbs the light
 Wavelengths that are reflected determine the color that an object appears to the human eye
 Ex: Leaves: Reflects one or a few wavelengths of visible light and absorb the rest
 Leaves appear green because they reflect green light and absorb light of other wavelengths
- Transparent & Translucent: Transmits some or all the light
 Light passes through the materials rather than being reflected by it
 Wavelength: Transmitted light determines the color that the object appears
 Ex: If only blue light strikes green leaves – the blue light is absorbed and no light is reflected
Pigments
- Pigment: Substance that colors materials by reflecting light of certain wavelengths and absorbing light of
other wavelengths
 Found in chlorophyll (dark green) and manufactured products (color paints, ink)
 Primary colors = Secondary colors of light: Cyan, Magenta and yellow
 These color can be combined in different ratios to produce all other colors

Factories for Photosynthesis

- Photosynthesis: Process that uses energy from the sun, carbon dioxide and
water to make glucose and oxygen
 Primary role: Make the carbohydrate, suggesting that oxygen (released
back into atmosphere) and waste product
  Transportation system that supplies it with raw materials and carries away the finished product
- Specialized tissues that work together to make food by photosynthesis
1. Mesophyll: Makes up most of the leaf’s interior (photosynthesis occurs)
A. Consists mainly of parenchyma with chloroplasts
2. Veins: Made primarily of xylem and phloem
A. Transport water and minerals to the cells of leaves and carry
away dissolved sugar
3. Epidermis: Consists of a single layer of tightly- packed dermal cells
A. Secrete waxy cuticle to prevent evaporation of water from the
leaf
B. Stomata: Control transpiration and gas exchange with the air
i. Stomata must control the transpiration of water vapor and exchange of carbon dioxide and
oxygen for photosynthesis
ii. Flanked by guard cells (swell or shrink by taking in or losing water through osmosis)
 Photosynthesis and Limiting Factors
The Process of Photosynthesis
Sunlight, Carbon Dioxide + Water  Glucose + Oxygen
- Photosynthesis takes in chloroplasts
- Chloroplasts: Contain chlorophyll
 Thylakoids: Flattened sacs of membrane
 Energy from sunlight is absorbed by pigment chlorophyll in
the thylakoid membrane
 2 separate parts of chloroplast
 Thylakoid space (lumen): Inner compartments inside the thylakoids – first part of
photosynthesis
 Stroma: Interior space that surrounds the thylakoids is filled with a fluid (carbon
dioxide is used to produce glucose)
Photosynthesis occurs in two stage
① Energy from sunlight is absorbed by the chloroplast (water is used and oxygen is
produced)
② Carbon dioxide is used and glucose is produced
The Reactants
Reactants: what goes into the plant cell to start photosynthesis
- Sunlight, carbon dioxide and water – necessary for photosynthesis
How does these 3 components get into the leaf?
- Sun: Chlorophyll is the green pigment in leaves that captures energy
 Chlorophyll molecules are located in the thylakoid membranes inside chloroplast
- Veins in plants carry water from the roots to the leaves
- Stomata: Carbon dioxide enters the leaf from the air through special openings
The Products
Products: What is produced by the plant cell during photosynthesis
- Glucose (food of plants) Used to store energy in the form of large carbohydrate
molecules
 Simple sugar mole (combined with other glucose molecules to form large
carbohydrates - starch)
- Oxygen: Waste product of photosynthesis
 Released into the atmosphere through the stomata
The Chemical Reaction
- Chemical reaction for photosynthesis: 6 molecules of carbon dioxide and water –
produce one molecule of glucose and 6 moles of oxygen
 6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 +6O2
- Photosynthesis is a series of chemical reactions divided into two stages (light reactions
and Calvin cycle)
The Light Reactions (beginning)
Energy from sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll in the thylakoid membranes of the
chloroplast
- Energy transferred to 2 molecules: ATP & NADPH
 Electron transport chains
- Water is used and oxygen is produced (occurs during daylight)
The Calvin Cycle (second stage)
- Production of glucose from carbon dioxide
- Uses CO2 and the energy temporarily stored in ATP and NADPAH to make sugar
glucose
Factors limiting photosynthesis
- All the reaction has the same reaction if the factors increase also the rate of
photosynthesis increases
 Factors working at the lowest level -> limiting factor
- Temperature
 Photosynthesis is controlled by enzymes  Becomes denatured (if the temperature is
high)
 At optimum temperature: The rate of photosynthesis decreases
- Light intensity
- Carbon dioxide
 ②.15 Cellular Respiration
- Cellular respiration: Energy in food is changed into energy that used by the body’s cells
 Sugar (or polysaccharide)  Glucose (monosaccharide)
 Glucose: Sugar produced by the plant during photosynthesis
- After cellular respiration  Passed to the organism that eats the plant
 During cellular respiration: Glucose (presence of oxygen) is converted Carbon
dioxide and water
 Glucose + Oxygen  Carbon dioxide + Water
 In photosynthesis: carbon dioxide and water are the starting product of
photosynthesis
 About 36 to 38 ATP molecules are produced for every glucose molecule
- ATP (adenosine triphosphate): Chemical energy the cell can use
 Molecule that provides energy for cells to perform work (ex: moving muscles)
 Energy stored in glucose (cellular respiration) is transferred to ATP
 Energy is stored in the bonds between phosphate groups (PO4-) of the
ATP molecule
 ATP broken down into ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and inorganic
phosphate (energy is released)
 ADP and inorganic phosphate are joined to form ATP (energy is
stored)

What happens during cellular respiration?

- C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (stored in ATP)

②.16 Cellular respiration Process

Process of Cellular respiration:

- Cellular respiration: Process of extracting (적출) energy in the form of ATP (from
glucose in the food we eat)
- Steps of cellular respiration happen inside of the cell
1. Glycolysis: Glucose is broken down (in the cytoplasm) of the cell in process
2. Pyruvate molecules are transported into mitochondria
a. Mitochondria: Organelles energy “powerhouses” of the cells
b. In the mitochondria (pyruvate) (converted into a 2 – carbon molecule)  Enter the
Krebs cycle

②.17 Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis

- Process of photosynthesis: glucose + oxygen  Carbon dioxide + Water
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