Biology Module 2 – Organisation of Living things

Part 1 – Unicellular, Multicellular and Colonial Organisms

Unicellular Organisms:

- Are made of only one cell

- They are responsible for all its own life processes
- Unicellular eukaryotic organisms can carry out all the necessary life processes in a more
efficient manner than the prokaryotes by means of specialised organelles
- They are directly exposed to the external environment
- Yeast and Diatoms are examples of unicellular organisms

- They have a high surface-area-to-volume ratio due to their small size

- This enables all required substances (nutrients, gases, water) to move across the cell
membrane into all parts of the cell for its functioning.
- Wastes are efficiently removed from all parts of the cell by movement through the cell
membrane

Colonial Organisms:

- They are a group of identical single-celled organisms which are collectively called a colony
- All individuals are capable of carrying out each function necessary for life
- Some colonial organisms contain cells that have specialised functions tat coordinate without
other cells in the colony
- An Example of a colonial organism is a volvox
Multicellular Organisms:

- They are made up of different types of cells

- A community of cells working together to enable the organism to carry out life processes,
including reproduction
- The similar cells are grouped together and perform specialised functions that combine
together for efficient functioning of the organism
- Each specialised cell type is structurally suited to a particular function
- Cells cannot live independently unlike in unicellular and colonial organisms
- Example of multicellular organisms are humans and plant

Cell Structure and Function:

The structure of a cell is related to the function of that specialised cell

- For example red blood cells are very small and have a particular shape, allowing them to
pass through capillaries and maximise SA:V for efficient gas exchange.

- Another example is Elongate palisade cells in a leaf, as they are flattened to give greater
SA:V which maximises absorption of oxygen and water
How Cell Structure and Specialisation is related to function:

- Stems cells are undifferentiated cells with no specialised structure or function

- Specialised cells are formed when differentiation of the stem cells occurs and they develop
suitable structural features that allow them to carry out their specific functions
- The type of cell that is formed is determined by the location of the undifferentiated cells in
the organism and the particular genes that are switched on
- Stem cells can be either embryonic or adult stem cells. In plants, specialised cells are formed
by the differentiation of meristematic tissue.

Stem Cells

Stem cells are biological cells found in all multicellular organisms they can divide (through mitosis)
and differentiate into diverse specialised cell types they can self-renew to produce more stem cells,
there are two types:

Embryonic Stem Cells:

- They are pluripotent

- They can differentiate into all the specialised cells
- They give rise to every cell type in a fully formed body
- They are in very low numbers in adults

Adult Stem Cells:

- They are more specialised than the embryonic stem cells, they can generate different cell
types for the specific tissue or organ in which they live
- They have been identified in many organs and tissues for example in the brain, bone
marrow, peripheral blood, blood vessels, skin, teeth and they are thought to reside in a
specific area of each tissue.
- They are used to replenish dying cells and regenerate damaged tissues for example new skin
and muscles in adults

Formation of Specialised Cells:

- When cells become specialised, they differentiate – they develop structures enabling them
to carry out their function, making them different to other cells
- Specialised cells originate form stem cells, which are undifferentiated cells with the ability to
divide repeatedly
- Cell specialisation refers to the function of the cell, while differentiation is the process a
stem cell goes through to become specialised
- They enable organisms to grow larger while still efficiently carrying out processes
- Specialised cells cannot survive independently – they rely on other cells in the organism to
carry out function they cannot
- Communication between cells is vital
- In animals this is via the bloodstream and nervous system whereas in plants it is brought
about by chemical and physical contact between cells
Structural Organisation in Multicellular Organisms:

Levels of Organisation:

Atoms

Molecules

Organelles

Cells

Tissues

Organs

Systems

Organism
 Example Cardiac
Mitochondria Muscle Cardiac Heart
Cells Muscle Cardiovascular
Tissue System
Human

Differentiation and Specialisation

Cell Differentiation occurs when a young unspecialized cell develops into a more mature stake and
becomes specialized to carry out particular functions.

Less specialised cell changes to become a specialised

Cell Specialisation leads to a division of labour in multicellular organisms, allowing certain tasks to
be carried out more efficiently.

Specific function which a cell has, determined by their physiology and cellular structures
 - There are four main types of animal tissue: epithelial tissue, connective tissue and nervous
tissue and muscle tissue
- There are many different forms of each of these types of tissues
- The four main types of plant tissue are meristematic tissue, vascular tissue, dermal tissue
and ground tissue
- The arrangement of cells into tissue, organs and systems in multicellular organisms
maximises the efficient functioning of the organisms.
- The interaction and cooperation between cells, tissues, organs and systems provides
multicellular organisms with abilities that are beyond the limitations of a single cell.

Tissues

Are a group of cells that have a similar structure and act together to perform a specific function

Tissues in Humans

- Epithermal tissue  coats surfaces of the body including the digestive tract and skin. It is
composed of epithelial cells, which are specialised to perform secretion, excretion and
absorption functions.
- Nervous tissue  make up the nervous system, and is composed of neurons, cells which
process and pass along information in the form of electrochemical signals. Neurons have
specific structural features, including dendrites, an axon, and synapses, to help perform this
function.
- Connective tissue  supports the body and holds it together. Connective tissue also helps
to protect the body. E.g bone, cartilage, fat, tendons and ligaments
- Muscle tissue  makes up muscles, and is composed of myocytes, which are elongated cells
containing specialised cytoskeletons. These structures help the cells contract, aiding the
function of movement.
- Reproductive tissue  makes it possible to reproduce something
- Blood tissue  connective tissue that provides support to the body and protects the organs
- Fat tissue  loose connective tissue, stores energy in the form of fat, acts as a cushion and
insulates the body.

Tissues in plants

- Vascular tissue  xylem transports water, phloem transports sugars

- Epidermal tissue  protect plant tissues and prevent water loss
- Ground tissue  makes up a bulk of a plant mass
- Meristematic tissue  divide to produce new growth
- Mesophyll tissue  made up of mesophyll cells, containing chloroplasts to perform
photosynthetic functions
- Xylem tissue  made of tracheids, which are elongated and have thick cell walls, specialised
for allowing water flow
- Phloem tissue  vascular tissue, responsible for the transport of sugar from source tissues
Differentiation and Specialisation – Plant Tissue

Meristematic – Cells are found at the tips of rots and shoots and is where cell division occurs to
produce new growth

1. Meristematic
2. Vascular
3. Dermal
4. Ground

Vascular cells are responsible for the transport of substances around the plant and are found in the
roots, stems and leaves

Examples:

- Xylem
- Phloem

Differential and Specialisation – Animal Tissue

1. Epithelial
2. Muscle
3. Nervous
4. Connective

Epithelial cells cover many surfaces and linings of body cavities, acting as a protective layer and a
barrier against infection or water loss
Examples:

- Inside mouth (cheek cells)

- Outer layer of skin
- Stomach lining
- Surrounding outside of organs

Muscle specialised to convert chemical energy from ATP into mechanical energy for movement.
There are 3 types of muscle in the human body these are Cardiac muscle, Skeletal muscle and
Smooth muscle.

Neurons contain dendrites which puck up signals from the brain and send them out to other parts of
the body using impulses (electical signals)

Connective consists of an extracellular matrix with cells scattered throughout

Examples:

- Collagen fibres provide strength

- Elastin provides flexibility

Differentiation and Specialisation in Plant Tissue

1. Meristematic
2. Vascular
3. Dermal
4. Ground

Vascular

These cells are responsible for the transport pf substances around the plant and are found in the
roots, stems and leaves.

These are vessels throughout the plant

For example:

- Xylem
- Phloem
Dermal

These cells protect the plant and controls interactions with its surrounding. They are found on the
outer surface of stems and leaves.

Dermal forms a “skin” called the epidermis in nonwoody plant parts. It is the outer covering.

A waxy cuticle, which prevents water loss, coats the epidermis of the stems and leaves

Ground

These cells make up the rest of the internal plant structure, specialized for food storage, structural
support and photosynthesis.

It is the tissue that makes up the inside of the plant, it is specialized to:

- Carry out photosynthesis in the leaves

- Store photosynthetic products
- Support the plant

Ground tissue systems are considered the Body of the plant

Organs

Are a self-contained group of tissues that performs a specidic vital function in the organism

Organs in Plants

Roots - Are to keep the plant in the ground and take in water and nutrients from the soil

Leaves – Absorb sunlight and make food for the plant by photosynthesis. The waste product of
photosynthesis, oxygen, escapes through tiny holes within the leaves

Stem – Supports the leaves and flowers. It also transports water and nutrients between the roots
and the leaves

Flower – Reproductive organs - allows a plant to produce new plants

Systems

Are a group of organs that work together to perform one or more functions

Systems in Plants

Cellular Respiration – Breaks down sugar and turns it into energy the organ involved is the
Mitochondria
Photosynthesis – Harness energy from sunlight and turns it into chemical energy, the organ involved
is the Chloroplast

Differentiation and Specialisation – Organs

Organs are different types of tissues that are grouped together to perform a particular funcation

Heart

The heart is an organ that contains muscle tissue, connective tissue, nerve tissue and epithelial
tissue. These tissues are composed of specialized cells. The tissues work together (as the heart) to
ensure it functions efficiently and effectively.

Stomach

Works with the mouth, oesophagus, or food pipe and mall intestine to digest and food consumed.
The tissues involved are muscle, fat, nerve, blood and other tissues

Differentiation and Specialisation – Systems

Different organs are grouped together to form an organ system that is responsible for a particular
body function.

Cardiovascalar System
The cardiovascular system is the transport system responsible for the movement of oxygen,
nutrients and waste around the body. This system consists of several organs working
together(heart, veins, arteries)

Heterotrophs

Are living things that comsume organic material produced by others

- Rely on consuming other organism

- Must have a supply of organic molecules
- Obtrain nutrients from their living environment
- Consumers and decomposers in the chain or web
- Require systems that help them break down and absorb nutrients that they obtain by
ingesting other living things
- Include all animals and fungi

Autotroph

Are living things that produce their own organic materials

 - They produce their own organic compounds and energy from inorganic compounds from
their invrionment, such as carbon dioxide, water and inorganic materials such as nitrates,
phosphates and sulphates
- Can be divided into two groups
o Photoautoptrophs – use light energy  use energy from sunlight in process of
photosynthesis to make organic compound.
o Chemoautotrophs – use chemical energy  producers in the food chain or web:
green plants and algae

Types of Autotrophs:

- Vascular

Are most of plants on earth, have a transport system including the xylem and phloem

o Contains the organs: leaves, stem, roots, flowers, seeds

o Contain the systems: root, shoot, vascular system
- Non – Vascular

They do not posess a transport system therefore there is no xylem or phloem

o Non-vascular plants are those without a vascular system consisting of xylem and
phloem. Instead they may possess simpler tissues that have specialized functions fpr
the internal transport of water. Normally found in damp areas
o Need a constant supply of water to live and reproduce and do not have vein like
structures and must absorb water and nutrients through the surface of their leaves
o Reproduce by spores in capsules
o Nutrients absorbed and waste removed by diffusion and osmosis

What is the Vascular System

- The vascular system is responsible for the transport and distribution of organic compounds,
water, minerals and gases around the plant
- This system has 2 different types of tissue:
- Xylem which carries water and water soluble nutrients and minerals from the soil via the
roots
- Phloem which is composed of thin-walled cells that transport sugars (dissolved sucrose) and
other plant products from one part of a plant to another
Functions of Plant Structures – The Stem

The stem

Stem – transport between roots and leaves via xylem and phloem, structureal support

Functions of Plant Sturcture – The Root System

Anchoring plant

Absorbing water and inorganic nutrients from the soil

Large surface area to absorb efficiently

Large area is achieved through:

- Branching of roots
- Root hairs in younger part of root tips
- Epidermal cells protrude outwards into soil
- Flat nature of epidermal cells increase the exposed surface

Functions of Plant Structure – The Shoot System

For Photosynthesis:

- Water moves into roots through osmosis

- Mineral ions move into roots by diffusion
- No photosynthesis in root cells (no chloroplast/no sun)
- Aerobic respiration occurs
The Leaf

Leaf – absorbs sunlight, exchange gases, transpiration and carry out photosynthesis

- The leaf is the site of photosynthesis

- Chloroplasts – scattered green dots, that produce glucose
- Distinct cell wall – maintains a rigid structure
- Epidermis – outer layer, gas exchange, thickness varies
- Stomata in epidermis – act as pores, regulate amount of gas that enters with assistance from
guard cells
- Cuticle – waxy layer, protects from excessive loss of water or gas exchnage
- Below epidermis – 2 layers of mesophyll cells
o Palisade mesophyll (palisade parenchyma) – tightly packed, photosynthetic cells
o Spongy mesophyll (spongy parenchyma) – irregular and loosely packed
photosytnthetic cells  air spaces enable gas exchnage through stomata and
buoyancy
- Vascular bundles – deliver nutrients and water to cells

Shoot System (Leaves)

- Leacers are responsible for three important processes in plants these are:
o Photosynthesis – which absorbs sunlight and carbon dioxide during the day, release
oxygen, provide chlorophyll and to make and transport glucose
o Transpiration – release water to cool the plant, suction pull to lift water from the
roots to the top of the plant
o Exchange of gases – release of excess oxygen from photosynthesis and the release of
carbon diocide as a result of respiration which us used for photosynthesis. Note
cellular respiration occurs during the day and at night
- Leaves are arranged along the stems of the plants in a way that will expose them to the
maximum amount of sunlight possible. They are angles so that the sunlight srikes the upper
surface of the leaves
- Thin flat structure of leaves is suited for this function – no internal cell is too far from the
light. Large SA allows for maximum absorption
- Transparent epidermis allows for sunlight to penetrate the photosynthetic cells beneath
- Outermost layer cells, epidermis is tranparent to allow sun to reach photosynthtic cells
inside

The Stem

- Structural support for leaves

- Delivers substances via vascular bundles: xylem and phloem – seperated by cambium
- Epidermis – outer layer, acts as a protective layer
- Ground tissue – tissue surrounding the vascular bundles, composed of mostly parenchyma
cells
- Pith – towards the centre of the stem it is called pith
- Cortex – between the vascular bundles and the epidermis
Shoot System (Stem)

- Provides structural support and a transport pathway and is normally loacted above ground
- It consists of 3 main functions
o Dermal  outer layer provides protection, waterproofing and control of gas
exchnage
o Vasular  composed of the xylem and phloem within vascular bundles
o Ground Tissue  fills in around vascular tissue

The Roots

- Anchors plant into soil

- Water and nutrient collection
- Root hairs on exterior – large SA:V
- Substances enter by diffusion and osmosis
- Xylem – larger cells in the centre
- Phloem – smaller cells surrounding this central complex
- 3 sections:
o Zone of mutation – where mature cells, including xylem and phloem cells, are
found, providing basic structure for the rot
o Zone of elongation – where new cells are affed and begin to elongate
o Meristematic zone – where cells are constantly undergoing mitosis, and diving,
which creates new cells for the root to grow

Root System

- The function of this system is to anchor the plant and absorb water and inorganic nutrients
from the soil. Roots should be anchoring the plant and absorbing water and inorganic
nutrients from the soil.
- Very large surface area.
- Epidermal cells in the roots are responsible for absorption of water and dissolved inorganic
nutrients from the soil
- The flatten nature of these cells increases their exposed surface but as the surface area of
general epidermal cells is smaller than root hairs, less water is absorbed per cell than in the
root hair zone.
- Water moves across the root tissues from outer epidermal layer to vascular stele in the
centre of the root and into the xylem tissue
- Water moves through the roost via osmosis
- Mineral ions into the roots by diffusion, if concentration gradient too low facilitated diffusion
or active transport
- Root cells have no chloroplasts so no photosynthesis but carry out aerobic respiration where
oxygen diffuses into the cells from air pockets in the soil and carbon dioxide diffuses out

Outermost Layer – Epidermis

- Epidermis forms a single protective layer of cells on the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf.
It is transparent, so sunlight can readily penetrate through to the photosynthetic cells within
- Epidermal cells secrete a waterproof cuticle which prevents evaporation of water.
 - Contains guard cells that occur in pairs around the stoma (stomata) and these control
exchange of gases and loss of water from leaves

Middle Layer – Mesophyll

- These cells in the centre of the lead consist of two types:

o Palisade mesophyll cells are found most commonly in one or two rows below the
upper epidermis. They are regularly arranged, elongated cells packed with green
chloroplasts. It is in these cells that most of the plant’s photosynthesis occurs
o Spongy mesophyll cells are usually situated between the palisade cells and the lower
epidermis. They contain fewer chloroplasts than palisade cells and are irregularly
arranged with large spaces between them. This arrangement enables gases and
water vapour to move easily between the cells and stomata.

Photosynthesis

Carbon Dioxide + Water  Glucose + Oxygen

6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + gO2

- The main function of the leaf is to absorb sunlight and carry out photosynthesis to produce
the organic compound glucose.
- The thing, flat structure and orientation of the leaf maximise surface area for absorption of
sunlight
- A waxy cuticle minimises water loss from the leaf
- Palisade cells containing many chloroplasts are lined up vertically near the upper surface of
the leaf to absorb sunlight
- Transport tissue in the lead is organised into veins. This provides support as well as a
pathway for the movement of water and the products of photosynthesis
- Guard cells, which are often more numerous on the underside of the leaf, change shape to
open and close ‘pores’ known as stomata.
- The gases oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the inside and outside of the
leaf through stomata
- All plant cells carry out cellular respiration both at night and during the day
- Oxygen produced in photosynthesis is used in the process of cellular respiration
Radioisotopes

Radioisotopes are forms of an element that emit radiation, which can be detected. They act as
tracers and are used to follow the pathways of molecules involved in photosynthesis

- They are used to determine that oxygen produced in photosynthesis came from the water
molecule and not the molecule of Carbon Dioxide
- Carbon-14 added to the carbon dioxide supply traced the movement of the glucose
produced through the plant
- New technologies can be used to produce 3D images of the structures and pathways
involved in the movement of products of photosynthesis
- Plants that were given water that contained radioactive atoms of oxygen showd that all of
the radioactive oxygen atoms from the water molecules were released as oxygen gas,
showing that water (and not carbon dioxide) was the source of oxygen gas released during
photosynthesis

Isotopes are different forms of the same element.

Radioisotopes = isotopes that emit radiation – said to be radioactive (therefore they emit
radioactive waves or particles to try to achieve a stable state)

- The pathway of the glucose produced in photosynthesis can also be traced using
radioisotopes
o Carbon-14 is added to the carbon dioxide supply of a plant
o This carbon-14 then takes part in the reactions of photosynthesis and is
incorporated into the glucose molecules produced
o The pathway of movement of glucose molecules can be traced using the radiation
being emitted by the carbon-14 and recorded in an autoradiograph
o This can be achieved by placing the experimental plant against photographic film:
the dark areas on the film show where the cabron-14 has accumulated
- Modern computer software can convert the information into 3D images so that investigators
can ‘see’ where the radioactivity labelled chemicals are moving or stored in living organisms
- Real-time radioactive imaging system (RRIS) is a non-destructive imaging system that
visualises the movement of substances in the phloem

Gas Exchange

There are 3 requirements for efficient gas exchange:

- Large surface area

- Moist gas exchange membrane: gas must dissolve in water before diffusing
- Close contact between the gas exchange membrane and the blood supply: diffusion is only
efficient over a short range
- Greater concentration of required gas on one side of the membrane

In mammals, gases are exchanged in the lungs. These surfaces are protected from desiccation by
being inside the body’s waterproof covering. The surface area of contact between the blood and air
is increased by the convolution of the lungs into lobes, by the branching of the bronchioles into
smaller and smaller tubules, and by the division of the tubules into clusters of tiny air sacs called
alveoli.
Gas exchange occurs across the thin walls of the alveoli. Alveoli are:

- The tiny air sacs in our lungs

- There are millions in each lung and they have, moist thin walls
- They massively increase the surface area inside our lungs
- They have a lot of tiny blood vessels called capillaries.

Gas Exchange in Plants

Gas exchange occurs through the stomata and lenticels in plants

- It is when guard cells fill with water, they bend outwards and open the stoma, allowing for
gas exchange
- When the water is lost from the guard cells they straighten and close, preventing both gas
exchange and water loss
- Plants have to balance their requirement for gas exchange and the necessity for water
conservation
- Stomata opens in light and closes in the dark
- The lenticels are pores through which gaseous exchange occurs in the woody parts of plants,
such as the trunks and branches of trees and woody shrubs

Respiration in Mammals

- The nasal cavity is a large, air-filled space behind the nose responsible for warming,
moisturizing and filtering the air using hair and mucus. The pharynx is a passageway leading
from the nasal cavity to the esophagus and larynx.
- Epiglottis is a flap above the trachea that prevents the food from entering the windpipe
- Larynx (voice box) is involved in breathing, producing sound and protecting the tracheae
from food aspiration. Trachea is a tubular structure responsible for transporting air
- The trachea splits into two structures called bronchi leading into each lung. Bronchi then
branch off into bronchioles that deliver air to tiny sacs called alveoli
- Alveoli are the gas exchange surface. The alveoli walls consist of flattened cells that are only
one cell thick. Capillaries are blood vessels that surround the alveoli sacs so O 2 can enter and
CO2 can leave. When oxygen binds with a red blood cell it is called oxyhemoglobin
- The diaphragm is a muscle below the lungs that contracts and expands causing the lungs to
inhale and exhale.
- Site of gas exchange, where blood releases carbon dioxide and takes in oxygen
- The alveoli are the site of this gas exchange
- Air enters the lungs through the trachea which is connected to the mouth
- The trachea branches into two bronchi stem (one for each lung)
- These then branch into increasingly smaller tubes called bronchioles, which connect to
alveolar ducts, and end in alveoli air sacs
- Of the two lungs, right lung has 3 sections, called lobes, whereas the left lung only has 2
lobes
- Between the lungs in the diaphragm – a sheet of muscle which contracts to perform the
breathing function, letting air in and out of the lungs

Alveoli

- In order to perform aerobic respiration, oxygen is transported into the blood in the lungs
and then carried to the cells
- Carbon dioxide (by-product of aerobic respiration) is then diffused into the blood  then
carried back to the lungs to be exhaled
- Membranes of the alveoli = surface for gas exchange (oxygen into the blood and carbon
dioxide out of the blood)
- Alveoli = clusters of air sacs, which air flows into from the bronchioles of the lungs (alveolus
= single air sac)
- Blood capillaries are wound around alveoli
- Where their thin membranes touch – gas can diffuse based upon concentrations on either
side of the membranes
 o When deoxygenated blood travels from to the lungs carrying carbon dioxide, the
carbon dioxide will diffuse into the alveoli as there is a high concentration of carbon
dioxide in the blood and low concentration in the lungs
o Diffuses passively across concentration gradient
- The efficiency of this gas is ensured by a number of structural features
- Alveoli have a large surface area (approximately 90m 2) – across which gas can diffuse
- Very thin walls (similar to capillaries, they are only a single cell thick) – gases can flow more
easily between spaces
- Covered in many capillaries – ensuring a large blood supply of gases to be exchanged with
- Surface is kept moist – enables oxygen and carbon dioxide to more easily diffuse, as they do
so more rapidly when dissolved in water

Respiration in Fish

- Fish have a much more efficient respiratory system than humans since they need to extract
maximum amount of oxygen from water and diffusion is slower in liquids than air
- The gills are the respiratory organ for fish. The gills are protected by an operculum or gill
cover. Fish keep a constant flow of water moving across the gill filaments for efficient gas
exchange
- The flow of the capillaries is in the opposite direction to the flow of water to create a
concentration gradient. It is called a counter current and causes 95% of oxygen to be
obtained from the water passing over the gills
- Gills (or branchia)  organ aquatic organisms use to respire
- Responsible for extracting dissolved oxygen from water, and excreting carbon dioxide
- Secondary lamellae are orientated parallel to the flow of water, which flows into the gills
from gill slits in the side of the fish
- De-oxygenated blood flows into the secondary lamellae, oxygen is absorbed into the
lamellae, and into the blood, and carbon dioxide is released
- The blood is pumped around the fish by its heart
- There are many secondary lamellae in the gills, providing a large surface area over which gas
can exchange

Respiration in Insects
 - Tracheae
- Invertebrates have open respiratory systems
- Gas exchange occurs directly onto cells of the organism
- Spiracles = small openings on insect body
- Allow air flow into tracheae, which branch into tracheoles
- These continue to branch throughout the body, becoming as small as a few micrometres
- Tracheoles penetrate cells, creating a site where oxygen and water can diffuse by passive
diffusion or active ventilation
- Insects respiratory system is called a tracheal system and consists of holes called spiracles
that form a row along both sides of their body. The spiracles are connected to tubes called
tracheae
- Tracheae lead into smaller tubes called tracheoles which reach the surface of most cells of
the body where gas is exchanged

Respiration in Reptiles

- Occurs in different ways

- Gills  a newly hatched tadpole’s gills are external. The gills take in oxygen when water
passes over time. As the tadpole

matures, the
gills are absorbed by the body and
become an internal part of the tadpole’s anatomy
- Lungs  after mature frog loses its gills, they bring oxygen into their bodies via lungs.
Because they lack a diaphragm to help regulate the pressure in their lungs, frogs must use
their throats, nostrils and mouths together to bring in and expel gases
- Skin  the moisture on the skin dissolves oxygen from the air and water surrounding the
frog and transmits it into the blood
- Mouth  additional surface for respiration, the most lining of the mouth

Types of Digestion
Chemical Digestion

- Involves the action of specialised proteins called enzymes

- Enzymes break down complex chemical compounds into smaller molecules so they can be
absorbed into the blood

Physical Digestion

- Cutting and mashing of the food that occurs by chewing food in the mouth
- Break the food down into smaller parts to increase the SA:V ratio so it can be attacked by
enzymes
- Incisors  cutting or shearing food into small chewable pieces
- Canines  ripping and tearing at tough foods
- Premolars  chewing and grinding food
- Molars  chewing and grinding food

Carnivores Herbivores Omnivores

Diet Meat Plant Materials Animals and Plants
Teeth Prominent Canines Incisors Canines and incisors –
same size
Exampl
e

Dog Sheep
Human

Digestion in grazing herbivores

- Large grinding canine that crush the food  increase the surface area for digestion
- Diets high in complex carbohydrates (e.g. cellulose) – requires a complex digestion system
- Caecum (contained in digestive system) assists to break down complex carbohydrates
- Process of cellulose digestion = fermentation (may occur before or after the stomach)
- Foregut fermenters (many farm animals)
- 3 or 4 stomach compartments to deal with their diet
- Largest compartment = rumen (consequently called ruminant animals)
- Ruminant animals require water, carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals in
their diet
- Animals use carbohydrates to provide energy
- All animals can make use of sugars and starches in food, but only ruminants make full use of
the complex carbohydrate
- Other main group of grazing herbivores = hindgut fermenters
- E.g. horses, rabbits and possums
- They carry out cellulose digestion in an organ after the stomach called the caecum
 - In rabbits the caecum has the capacity ten times the stomach and it fills most of the
abdomen

Digestion in Carnivores

- Teeth are adapted to catching and holding prey and then ripping it to pieces
- Prominent, large canines
- E.g. dogs, cats and the Tasmanian devil
- Simple digestive system
- Large intestine of carnivores is relatively shorter then herbivores
- Food source  animal cells e.g. muscle cells
o These do not have a cell wall and can be digested rapidly
- Muscle cells in meat are high in protein so carnivores do not need to eat large amounts of
food to gain the same amount of nutrients that a herbivore requires
- Muscle cells are also higher in energy content and takes less energy to digest than the food
of herbivores

Digestion in nectar feeders

- The length and structure of the intestines will cary accordingly to the diet of the organism
- More complex the substances that enter the intestines = longer digestive tract
- Nectar feeders that eat simple carbohydrates
- Shorter digestive tract overall compared to carbohydrate eaters such as the herbivores and
carnivores
 - Due to the fact that their primary food source is simple sugars which are easily digested or
broken down

Digestion in Omnivores

- Mix of herbivore and omnivore digestion

Digestive System

- Animal cells are heterotrophic meaning they obtained their food from an external
environment and the digestive system breaks it down and obtains the nutrients
- There are three kinds of digestive enzymes:
o Amylases, which act on carbohydrates
 o Proteases, which act on protein
o Lipases, which act on lipids

Human Digestive System

Function
Mouth Mechanical digestion where chewing by teeth to break food into smaller
pieces so increases surface area. Chemical digestion which introduces the
enzyme via salivary amylase. Epiglottis covers the trachea and tongue creates
a bowl.
Oesophagus The tube between the mouth and stomach and it pushes the food along to
the stomach.
Stomach In the stomach, chemical digestion of food, particularly proteins begin.
Mechanical digestion also occurs through the churning of food. The length of
time food spends in the stomach of the mammal is related to the diet.
Carnivores have a simpler stomach when compared to herbivores.
Small Intestine Much of the process of chemical digestion occurs in the small intestines
which is made up of duodenum, jejunum and ileum. The main function of the
small intestine is absorption of nutrients and minerals from food.

The inside of the small intestine is constructed of folds called villi (singular
villus). The epithelial cells on the surface of the villi have small finger-like
projections called microvilli.

These folds and projections provide a large surface area, enabling material in
the small intestine to be absorbed quickly. Small molecules diffuse or are
actively transported through the walls of the villi into the capillary or lymph
vessels to be distributed through the body.
Liver Digested food, once absorbed into the bloodstream, travels to the liver,
which is the centre of food metabolism. It plays an important role in keeping
sugars, glycogen and protein levels in balance in the body. It also detoxifies
the blood.
Large Intestine Water and salts are absorbed in the large intestine. Materials that remain
undigested and unabsorbed, together with bacteria, cellular material from
the walls of the intestines, and some water and salts, are eliminated from the
digestive system as faeces.
Caecum
The main functions of the caecum are to absorb fluids and salts that remain after completion of
intestinal digestion and absorption and to mix its contents with a lubricating substance, mucus. The
internal wall of the caecum is composed of a thick mucous membrane, through which water and
salts are absorbed.

Guts
- Plant matter is more difficult to digest than animal tissues. Plant cells have tough cellulose
cell walls that must be broken down before the cell contents can be released. Animals are
not able to do this unaided.
- Herbivores use microorganisms that live symbiotically in their digestive systems to help
them. The breakdown of cellulose occurs during a fermentation process in a specialised part
in the digestive tract. These structures are found in either the fore-gut or the hind-gut of
different parts of the digestive system

Transport

Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration

 Site Chloroplast – in the leaves Mitochondria - every cell
Time Daytime (needs sunlight) All the time

Introduction of Transport System

Effective transport systems in multicellular plants and animals all possess

- A system of vessels in which substances are transported

- A suitable transport medium
- A driving mechanism to ensure substances move in the correct direction

Differences are in type of structure present, substances transported and the driving mechanism

- Simple plants such as certain algae and moss  no specialised transport tissues and the
movement of substances relies on diffusion and active transport through all cells.
- Advanced plants such as ferns, conifers and flowering plants  special tissues have
developed for transport
- These transport tissues are the vascular tissues are the vascular tissues and there are two
types – xylem and phloem.

Distribution of Vascular Tissue in Flowering Plants

- In roots, xylem is found in the centre of roots, usually in a star or cross shape with phloem
tissue between the arms of the xylem
- In the stem, the xylem and phloem tissue divide into vascular bundles
- Bundles of vessels of xylem and phloem continue from the stem up leaf stalks, forming the
veins in leaves.

Xylem

- Xylem is one of the two types of transport tissue in vascular plants, the other being the
phloem. The basic function of the xylem is to transport water from the roots to the stems
and leaves in a plant, but it also transports nutrients
- Xylem tissue consists of two main types of elements – xylem tracheids and xylem vessels,
with other cells such as parenchyma and fibres in between. Movement upwards from root
and across
- The walls of xylem vessels and tracheids are reinforced with lignin thickenings laid down in
rings, spirals or other regular patterns. These thickenings prevent the vessels from
collapsing, and help the easy movement of water and dissolved substances.
- Fibres give support to the xylem tissue and the parenchyma tissue conducts materials from
one region of xylem to another and may function in storage.
- The function of xylem is to transport water and dissolved inorganic nutrients, from the roots
up the plant to the leaves and the reproductive structures such as flowers.
 - The movement of water up the xylem vessels occurs mainly as a result of a transpiration
stream that develops: as water evaporated through the stomata of leaves, it sets up a
concentration gradient across the leaf, creating a suction pull on the water and dissolved
minerals in the xylem tissue.

Phloem

- The phloem is a specialized tissue that transports products of photosynthesis from the
leaves to the rest of the plant. There are two types of phloem cells: sieve tube cells and

companion cells.
o Sieve Tubes: Sieve tube cells are long, thin cells that have large pores and perforated
cell walls called sieve plates. They do contain mitochondria and ER but no other
organelle.
Sieve tube cells are connected end to end and share cytoplasm to form a channel so
sugar and other products can flow.
 - Companion Cells: Companion cells are found alongside sieve tubes and contain a nucleus
and other organelles that the sieve tube lacks. They assist the effectiveness of sieve tubes as
they provide ATP and nutrients and
assist the loading and unloading of
sugars into the sieve tube.

Xylem Phloem
Structure Xylem Vessels Phloem fibres
Lignin (Spirals) Sieve cells and companion cells
Substance Water Sugars (glucose), minerals, other nutrients
Transport Unidirectional: roots to leaves Bi-directional: wherever sugars are required
Direction
Transport Passive transport Translocation: Active Transport Pressure–Flow Theory:
Theory 1. Root pressure: transverse osmotic pressure 1. Nutrients moved into phloem by active
within the cells of a root system that causes transport from ‘source’ (leaves)
sap to rise through a plant stem to the 2. Water floes by osmosis, creating pressure
leaves gradient
2. Capillarity: movement caused by the 3. Nutrients move passively down phloem,
attraction of molecules of the liquid to the following pressure gradient
molecules of the solid 4. Sugar actively transported out of phloem at
3. Cohesion: water molecules bond to each ‘sink’
other
4. Adhesion: water molecules bind to walls of
xylem tubes
5. Transpiration: evaporation from leaves
pulls water through xylem

Stomata

Stomata are tiny openings or pores that

enable gaseous exchange. Stomata are
usually found in plant leaves, but they can
also be found in some stems. Stomata
regulate gas exchange between the plant and
environment and control of water loss by
changing the size of the stomatal pore.

Lenticels

A lenticel is a porous tissue consisting of cells

with large intercellular spaces in the
periderm of the secondarily thickened
organs and the bark of woody stems and
roots of dicotyledonous flowering plants. It
functions as a pore, providing a pathway for
the internal tissues and atmosphere through
the bark, which is otherwise impermeable to
gases.
Cuticles

Plant cuticle is the outermost layer

of plants, which covers leaves,
fruits, flowers, ad non-woody stems
of higher plants. It protects plants
against drought, extreme
temperatures, UV radiation,
chemical attack, mechanical
injuries, and pathogen/pest
infection.

Open and Closed System

A circulatory system is classified as closed or open, depending on the floor of its transport fluid. In a
closed system the transport fluid flows in vessels only but in an open system, at some stages of
circulation the transport fluid leaves the vessels and enters spaces of cavities in the body bathing the
organs directly. In both an open and closed circulatory system, the blood vessels are responsible for
the transport of blood and its contents, but the capillary networks (closed system) or fluid in the
body cavity (open system) carry out the other functions such as the exchange of nutrients and
wastes, and maintaining a stable internal environment in the body of the organism.

Open System:

- Open circulatory systems are systems where blood, rather than being sealed tight in arteries
and veins, suffuses the body and may be directly open to the environment at places such as
the digestive tract.
- Open circulatory systems use hemolymph instead of blood. This “hemolymph” performs the
functions of blood, lymph and intestinal fluid – which are three different, highly specialized
fluids in animals with closed circulatory systems.
- Instead of a complex and closed system of veins and arteries, organisms with open
circulatory systems have a “hemocoel”. This is a central body cavity found inside most
invertebrate animals where both digestive and circulatory functions are performed. This
hemocoel may have “arteries” through which the blood can reach tissues – but these
arteries are not closed and do not circulate blood as quickly as closed, muscle–assisted
arteries.
- Arthropods (invertebrates with exoskeletons, such as insects) have open circulatory system.

Closed System:

- A closed circulatory system is characteristic of all vertebrates such as fish, frogs, reptiles,
birds and mammals (including humans).
- The transport fluid is blood which is contained in vessels at all times and never flows through
body cavities.
- The heart is a muscular organ that pumps the blood around the body. In mammals, the heart
may be two-chambered (e.g. fish), three-chambered (e.g. frogs and some reptiles), or four-
chambered as in other reptiles, all birds and mammals.
- Blood flows through three types of blood vessels:
o Veins which carry blood from body organs towards the heart
o Arteries which carry blood away from the heart to the organs
o Capillaries which form a link between arteries and veins
- The arteries branch into smaller arterioles which subdivide further into a network of
capillaries. These capillaries branch extensively throughout the tissues, so that no cell is very
far from a capillary. The exchange of nutrients, wastes and gases takes place between blood
in the capillaries and fluid surrounding the cells which the capillaries supply.
- Blood remains in the capillaries at all times, but any chemical substances required by cells
leave the capillaries in a dissolved form – the fluid containing the nutrients, gases, and
wastes is called tissue fluid or interstitial fluid. (The tissue fluid makes internal organs appear
‘wet’)
- Capillaries join up to form venules, which in turn join up to form veins, returning blood to
the heart.
- In a closed circulatory system, the muscular heart pumps blood under high pressure,
ensuring efficient transport, which suits large, active animals such as vertebrates.
- A four chambered heart is the most efficient pumping mechanism, as it jeeps oxygenated
and deoxygenated blood separate. (Not all vertebrates have a four-chambered heart – fish
have a heart with only two chambers)
Blood Vessels

There are 3 types of blood vessels which include arteries, veins and capillaries. All are long and
hollow structures.

- Arteries carry oxygenated blood to the body from the heart and are under high pressure.
Walls of the arteries are thicker to withstand this pressure. The walls are also elastic so it can
expand when a pulse of blood moves through. This contraction also propels blood forward.
The arteries later branch into smaller arterioles
- Veins carry deoxygenated blood to the heart from the body and are under low pressure.
Walls of the veins are thinner and not elastic and the lumen is wider for easy flow. When
muscles in tissues contract, walls of the vein are compressed propelling the blood. Veins
have valves preventing blood from flowing backwards. Valves open to allow blood to flow
backwards causes them to shut.
 - Capillaries are tiny vessels that bring blood into close contact with tissues where the
exchange of chemical substances. Wall consists of only one layer for efficient diffusion.
Diffusion is a slow process so the structure of capillaries is suited to slowing down the flow
of blood and increasing their exposed surface area. Blood remains in the capillaries, but any
chemical substances required by cells leave the capillaries in a dissolved form tissue fluid.
Capillaries join up to form venules.

Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system is a network of tissues and organs that help rid the body of toxins, waste and
other unwanted materials. The primary function of the lymphatic system is to transport lymph, a
fluid containing infection-fighting white blood cells, throughout the body.

Blood

Main transport medium of the body. Is a transport medium, carries nutrients needed by the body,
wastes to be excreted, gases and other chemicals

- Red Blood Cells

o Red blood cells (erythrocytes) transport oxygen and form in the bone marrow from
adult stem cells. As the cell matures the nucleus disintegrates so more red pigment
called haemoglobin can fit. Red blood cells are round, biconcave and flattened
towards the centre. This shape makes them more pliable so they can fit through
capillaries. They have a diameter of 7 micrometres and a lifespan of 4 months. There
are approximately 46 million red blood cells per mL of blood.
o Red blood cells contain a protein called haemoglobin, which carries oxygen from the
lungs to all parts of the body.
- White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
o White blood cells (leukocytes) play an important role in the defense of the body and
are produced in the bone marrow. They are found in tissue and blood can pass
through capillaries. There are several types of white blood cells with each a specific
function. White blood cells are 50% bigger than red blood cells. They have a nucleus
and there are approximately 400011000 white blood cells per mL of blood.
o Are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against
both infectious disease and foreign invaders.
- Platelets
o Platelets (thrombocytes) function in the clotting of blood and are produced in the
bone marrow. They are crescent shaped and half the size of red blood cells. There
are about 400000 platelets per mL of blood. When there’s a wound platelets stick to
each other and to the fibres. The contact between fibres and platelets causes them
to break open and release an enzyme called thromboplastin which aids in the
clotting of blood.
o Your platelets will clot (clump together) to plug the hole in the blood vessel and stop
the bleeding
- Plasma
o Plasma is fluid that is 90% water and 10% proteins that makes most of the volume of
blood. It carries substances dissolved or suspended from. Besides blood cells it also
carries:
 Plasma protein: clotting factors, immunoglobulin, albumen and enzymes
 Nutrients: amino acids, glucose, glycerol, fatty acids and cholesterol
 Gases: oxygen and carbon dioxide
 Excretory waste products: area, uric acid and ammonia
 Ions: sodium chloride, calcium and magnesium phosphate
 Regulatory substances: hormones
 Other substances: vitamins
 o Plasma carries water, salts and enzymes.
The main role of plasma is to take
nutrients, hormones and proteins to the
parts of the body that need it.

The Heart

The heart pumps the blood around the body. In mammals, the heart has 4 chambers. Top 2
chambers are called atria and bottom 2 are called ventricles. Valves are present between chambers
to maintain one directional flow.

Deoxygenated blood returns to the right atrium via the vena cava and inferior vena cave. It then
moves to the right ventricle where it is pumped via the pulmonary artery to the lungs. After the
oxygenated blood returns from the lungs to the left atrium via the pulmonary vein it moves to the
left ventricle where it is pumped via the aorta to all areas of the body. The left ventricle has the
thickest wall since it has to pump the blood to the rest of the body. The circulation of blood in the
rest of the body is called systemic circulation while the circulation of blood between the heart and
lungs is called pulmonary circulation.

Composition of Blood

The composition of blood changes as it moves around the body and depends on the organ it is
moving through. In all organs and tissues except the lungs, blood loses oxygen and gains carbon
dioxide. In the lungs, it gains oxygen and loses carbon dioxide

In all organs except the small intestine, blood loses nutrients, such as the products of digestion, and
gains wastes. Blood gains are products of digestion in the small intestine. In the kidneys, blood has
less urea when it leaves, and the concentration of water and slats will have changed according to the
needs of the body.

How substances are transported

Substances are transported in a number of different ways in blood:

- Nutrients  transported in plasma

- Oxygen  transported bound to haemoglobin as oxyhaemoglobin
- Carbon dioxide  transported in 3 different ways: dissolved directly into plasma, bound to
haemoglobin, or as a bicarbonate molecule
- Hormones
- Antibodies
- Nitrogenous waste (urea)  transported as urea in the plasma
- Heat
Transpiration

- When stomates are open – gases (e.g. carbon dioxide) can diffuse into a plant
- Water molecules can diffuse into the air because of the higher water concentration inside
the plant
- Water evaporates from the cell surfaces, diffuses through the intercellular spaces and out
through the stomates  evaporation
- Potometer = instrument to measure the rate of transpiration

External factor How it affects transpiration rate

High temperatures Increases
High humidity (level of water vapour in the air) Decreases
High wind Decreases
High light intensity Increases
High water concentration in the soil increases

Changes in transport medium composition

Organ Function Composition of blood Composition of blood

going into organ leaving organ
Lungs Gas exchange High: carbon dioxide High: oxygen
Low: oxygen Low: carbon dioxide
Kidney Filtration of water, High: urea, salts, High: carbon dioxide
salts and urea glucose Low: urea, salts,
Low: carbon dioxide glucose
Small Intestine Digestion of High: oxygen High: glucose, fatty
carbohydrates Low: glucose, fatty acids, ammino acids,
proteins and fats acids, ammino acids, glycerol, carbon
glycerol, carbon dioxide
dioxide Low: oxygen
Brain Controls voluntary High: oxygen, glucose High: carbon dioxide
and involuntary Low: carbon dioxide Low: oxygen, glucose
actions
 Plant and animal vascular system

Feature Animal Plant

Transport Cardiovascular system Vascular system
system
Diagram

Components Heart, lungs, blood, arteries, veins and capillaries
Processes The contractions of the double chambered heart
involved
functions The high-pressure forces movements both with and
against gravity. As a result, both arteries and veins
have thick walls to withstand this high pressure.
Veins also have valves which stop the backflow of
blood
Xylem, phloem, water, sugar
The CAT and source to sink theory are
processes which cause the movement of
substances to move in the xylem and
phloem
The cohesion, adhesion transpiration
(CAT) process occurs in the xylem, a
unidirectional structure which moves
water from the roots to the plants main
structure. The source to sink process
occurs in the phloem where dissolved
substances are transported throughout
the plant via a bidirectional tube. This
allows the photosynthetic source
material (from leaves) to be transported
to necessary features of the plant such as
the flowers, stem or roots