The skeleton

1 2 3
The skeleton forms the framework of the body, protects vital organs, and works with the muscular system to
produce movement . The human adult skeleton is composed of 206 bones . It is divided for study into the
axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton .
1 2 3 4
The axial skeleton consists of the skull, the spinal column, the ribs, and the sternum. The skull consists of eight
cranial bones and the 14 bones of the face . Skull bones are joined by nonmoveable joints (sutures), except for the
joint between the lower jaw (mandible) and the temporal bone of the cranium, the temporomandibular joint (TMJ).
The 26 vertebrae of the spinal column are divided into five regions: cervical (7); thoracic (12); lumbar (5); the
sacrum (5 fused); and the coccyx (4 to 5 fused).Between the vertebrae are discs of cartilage that add strength and
tail bone
flexibility to the spine.
3 4
1 2
The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the arms and legs, the shoulder girdle, and the pelvis. Each of
the two pelvic bones is formed of three fused bones . The large, flared, upper bone is the ilium.
1 2 3

Cranium
Facial bones
Mandible
Sternum
Vertebral column
Sacrum
Ribs
Clavicle
Scapula
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Carpals
Metacarpals
Phalanges
Ilium
Pelvis
Femur
Patella
Fibula
Tibia
Tarsals
Calcaneus
Metatarsals
Phalanges
 Frontal Nasal
Parietal Zygomatic
Occipital Maxilla
Temporal Mandible
Sphenoid Hyoid
Lacrimal

CervicaI vertebrae Coccyx

Thoracic vertebrae lntervertebral disc
Lumbar vertebrae (centrum) Body vertebra
Sacrum
 Sacrum Pubis
Ilium Pubic symphsis
Ischium Acetabulum

Bone Formation

Bone is formed by the gradual addition of calcium and phosphorus salts to cartilage , a type of dense connective
tissue.
Form a bone <-----------
This process of ossification begins before birth and continues to adulthood . Although bone appears to be inert,
it is actually living tissue that is constantly being replaced and remodelled throughout life.

Three types of bone cells are involved in these changes:

1
osteoblasts are the cells that produce bone
2
osteocytes are mature bone cells
3
osteoclasts are involved in the breakdown of bone tissue to release needed minerals or to allow for reshaping and
repair.

The process of destroying bone so that its components can be taken into the circulation is called resorption. This
process occurs normally throughout life; in disease states, resorption may occur more rapidly or more slowly than
bone production.

Structure of a Long Bone

synonym
A typical long bone has a shaft or diaphysis composed of compact bone tissue . Within the shaft is a medullary
cavity containing the yellow form of bone marrow, which is high in fat.

The irregular epiphysis at either end is made of a less dense, spongy bone tissue containing the blood-forming red
bone marrow.

A thin layer of cartilage covers the epiphysis and protects the bone surface.

Between the diaphysis and the epiphysis at each end of the bone, in a region called the metaphysis, is the growth
region or epiphyseal plate.

When the bone stops growing in length, this area becomes fully calcified but remains visible as the epiphyseal line.
The thin layer of fibrous tissue that covers the outside of the bone, the periosteum, nourishes and protects the 1
bone , also generates new bone cells for growth and repair. 2
Long bones are found in the arms, legs, hands, and feet. Other types of bones are described as flat (i.e.,
cranial bones), short (i.e., wrist and ankle bones), or irregular (i.e., facial bones and vertebrae).
Ex 1 Study the picture . Describe the picture to your partner who should draw a sketchy picture of the bone
structure, reflecting all the layers.

The joints

Ex Read the text and answer the questions

1. What does ROM stand for? What does it describe?

2. What terms can be used to describe the joints between the bones of the skull?
3. What range of motion is possible in the sacro-coccygeal joint?
4. Which joints allow the greatest range of movement?
5. What movement is possible in the hinge joint?
6. Can you extend, flex and rotate the ellipsoidal joint?
7. Where are the saddle joints situated in the body?
8. Which of the joints do we use when we shake our head to answer no

1. ROM stand range of motion, and it is measured in degrees

2. The sutures between the bones of the skull are an example of fixed joints also known as
synarthroses

3. clavicle or the sacro-coccygeal joint are slightly movable and the term for such joints is
amphiarthroses or cartilaginous joints

4. A ball-and-socket joint, like the hip and the shoulder, allows the greatest range of
movement.

5. A hinge joint, like the elbow or finger joints, allows bending and straightening

6. An ellipsoidal joint, like the one between the forearm and the wrist, can be fairly freely
bent and straightened with only limited rotation.

7. The only saddle joint is situated at the base of the thumb.

8. The joint between the first and second vertebrae is a pivot joint
Sheath---> a cover for the blade of
a knife or sword.

articulation = joint

A joint, also known as an articulation, is the point where two or more bones are joined. For example, the
knee connects the femur and the tibia.

One of the criteria used to classify joints is their mobility or the range of motion (ROM). It is the range, measured in
degrees, through which the joint can be extended and flexed. According to this criterion joints may be divided into
three categories: immovable (with no ROM), slightly movable (with limited ROM), and freely movable (with full
1 2 3
ROM)
1
The sutures between the bones of the skull are an example of fixed joints also known as synarthroses.

The joints at both ends of the clavicle or the sacro-coccygeal joint are slightly movable and the term for such
2
joints is amphiarthroses or cartilaginous joints.

The knees, elbows, wrists, shoulders and ankles are examples of joints with full ROM and they are called
diarthroses or synovial joints. 3
4
Another classification of movable joints is based on the way they move. A ball-and-socket joint, like the hip and
the shoulder, allows the greatest range of movement. In health, a person may bend, straighten, move sideways
and rotate the hips and shoulders.
5 More than one bone
A hinge joint, like the elbow or finger joints, allows bending and straightening.
6
The elbow joint is in fact a compound hinge synovial joint which consists of the humeroradial articulation and the
humeroulnar articulation which function as a unit.

7 Slightly
An ellipsoidal joint, like the one between the forearm and the wrist / Meta Carpal , can be fairly freely bent and
straightened with only limited rotation.
 8
The only saddle joint is situated at the base of the thumb. We can move the thumbs backwards and forwards and from side to
side, but their rotation is limited.

9
Gliding joints, like the joints in the foot and wrist, allow limited movement.

10
The joint between the first and second vertebrae is a pivot joint. It allows rotation of the head and its movement from side to
side.

Exercise 2 - Synovial joints

Read these descriptions of parts of the synovial joint . Use the labelled diagram to describe the synovial joint structure.

A. Articular cartilage

Hyaline cartilage covers the ends of bones. In the knee these are the ends of the femur and tibia. Hyaline cartilage is smooth and
strong. It is wear-resistant and reduces friction during movement.
---------> to resist material loss
B. Bursa (pl. bursae)

The fluid-filled sac which provides cushioning and protects the joint against pressure and rubbing.

C. Joint capsule

Fibrous tissue which completely surrounds a joint. It holds the joint together but is flexible enough to allow movement.

D. Ligaments
Cross
Strong bands of fibrous connective tissue which strengthen joints. The cruciate ligaments of the knee stabilize the joint and
prevent dislocation of the tibia. connects bone to bone

E. Meniscus {pl. menisci)

Two pads of cartilage (lateral meniscus and medial meniscus) between the femur and the tibia in the knee joint. They act as
cushions and shock absorbers.

F. Synovial fluid

Secreted by the synovial membrane (synovium), it fills and lubricates the joint space and is essential to proper functioning
of the joint.

G. Synovial membrane (synovium)

Smooth lining of the capsule covering a joint. It secretes the fluid which lubricates the joint.

H. Tendon

A tough band of fibrous connective tissue that usually connects muscle to bone.
Joint capsule
Articular cartilage
Bursa
Synovial membrane (synovium)
Ex3 Listening. Listen to the radio programme on osteoporosis. Answer the
questions.
1. What is the role of osteoblasts and of osteoclasts?
2. What does Tomek mean when he says 'Bone is not static'?
3. What imbalance between bone formation and bone loss does osteoporosis
produce?
4. What adjectives can you use to describe osteoporotic bone?
5. In what bones do osteoporosis-associated fractures usually occur?
6. What sign of advanced osteoporosis is shown in the picture?
7. What are the two general terms for the physical activity which stimulates
bone growth?
8. What activities in particular can stimulate bone growth?

1. Osteoblasts : are the cells that produce bone

Osteoclast : are the cells involved in breakdown of the bone

2. Static : not changing

So its changing the answer is

3.results from osteoclastic bone resorption not compensated by osteoblastic

bone formation. This causes bones to become weak and fragile, thus increasing
the risk of fractures. = bone breakdown is faster than bone making. = osteoclast
cells are faster osteoblasts cells

4. Thin , Light
, brittle = hard but liable to break easily.
, Spongy , Porous

5. Spine , hip , ribs , wrist

6. Asymptomatic = means there are no symptoms

7. weight-bearing and strength-training exercises.

8. Walking , jogging. , hiking , dancing.

 Analyzing the dieses

1.etiology
What do etiology means?
The cause or origin of disease

2. The Symptoms
an indication of the existence of something, especially of an undesirable situation.

3. Diagnostic tools

4. Treatment : to deal with the symptoms.or fight them not 100%

To be Cured To heal or restore health; a treatment to restore health.100%

Incurable Is best than Untreatable

For example, osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a metabolic bone disease
1. The lack of calcium and the imbalance of the hormones.
2.Asymptomatic : Formality of the spine and the pores in the bones
3. X ray examination diemography , blood test ,
4. A good diet.
Get active.
Do not smoke
Limiting alcohol consumption
Ex3 Listening. Listen to the radio programme on osteoporosis. Answer the questions.

1. What is the role of osteoblasts and of osteoclasts?

2. What does Tomek mean when he says 'Bone is not static'?
3. What imbalance between bone formation and bone loss does osteoporosis produce?
4. What adjectives can you use to describe osteoporotic bone?
5. In what bones do osteoporosis-associated fractures usually occur?
6. What sign of advanced osteoporosis is shown in the picture?
7. What are the two general terms for the physical activity which stimulates bone growth?
8. What activities in particular can stimulate bone growth?

Ex 5 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION- DEFINITIONS- Match the definitions with the terms below.

A joint; adjective, articular;

A calcified form of dense connective tissue; osseous tissue; also an individual unit of the skeleton made of such tissue
(root oste/o) ; Bone Bony

The soft material that fills the cavities of a bone. Yellow marrow fills the central cavity of the long bones; blood cells
are formed in red bone marrow, which is located in spongy bone tissue (root myel/o); Bone marrow

A fluid-filled sac that reduces friction near a joint (root burs/o); Bursa

A type of dense connective tissue that is found in the skeleton, larynx, trachea, and bronchi. It is the precursor to
most bone tissue (root chondr/o); Cartilage

A freely movable joint; also called a synovial joint (adjective, diarthrotic); Diarthrosis

The shaft of a long bone; The Diaphysis

The irregularly shaped end of a long bone; Epiphysis

The growth region of a long bone; located in the metaphysis, between the diaphysis and epiphysis. When bone
growth ceases, this area appears as the epiphyseal line; Epiphyseal line or Plate

The large, flared, upper portion of the pelvic bone; adjective, iliac (root ili/o) ilium

The junction between two bones; articulation (root arthr/o); Joint

A strong band of connective tissue that joins one bone to another ; Ligament

The region of a long bone between the shaft and epiphysis end; during development, the growing region of a long
bone; metaphysis

The formation of bone tissue (from Latin os, meaning “bone”) ossification

A cell that produces bone tissue; osteoblast

A cell that destroys bone tissue; osteoclast

A mature bone cell that nourishes and maintains bone tissue; osteocyte

The fibrous membrane that covers the surface of a bone ; periosteum

Removal of bone by breakdown and absorption into the circulation; resorption

The bony framework of the body, consisting of 206 bones. The axial portion (80 bones) is composed of the skull,
spinal column, ribs, and sternum. The appendicular skeleton (126 bones) contains the bones of the arms and legs,
shoulder girdle, and pelvis. skeleton

An immovable joint, such as the joints between the bones of the skull; suture

A slightly movable joint; symphysis

The fluid contained in a freely movable (diarthrotic) joint; synovia (root synov/i); synovial fluid

A freely movable joint; has a joint cavity containing synovial fluid; a diarthrosis; synovial joint

A fibrous band of connective tissue that attaches a muscle to a bone; tendon

ossification/ resorption/ symphysis /osteoblast /osteoclast /osteocyte/ periosteum /skeleton /bursa

suture /synovial fluid /articulation /synovial joint /tendon /epiphysis /bone /bone marrow/ diarthrosis /cartilage

diaphysis /epiphyseal plate/ilium /joint /ligament /metaphysis

Ex 6 Fill in the blanks:

bone
1. The term osteoid means resembling __________________________________.

Joint
2. Arthrodesis is fusion of a(n) __________________________________.

cartilage
3. A chondrocyte is a cell found in __________________________________.

bursa
4. A bursolith is a stone in a(n) __________________________________.

Ex 7 Define each of the following words: SIS ----> Specific disease

Formation of bone
5. osteogenesis Pathy ----> Any Disease
6. arthroplasty Plastic repair of a joint

7. peribursal Around the bursa

8. myeloid
Resembling the bone marrow
Ex 8 Word building. Write a word for each of the following definitions:

9. deficiency (-penia) of bone tissue Osteopenia

10. inflammation of bone and bone marrow Osteomyelitis

11. any disease of a joint Arthropathy

12. tumor of bone marrow

Myeloma

13. pertaining to or resembling cartilage Chondroid

14. instrument for examining the interior of a joint
Arthroscope
15. narrowing (-stenosis) of a joint
Arthrostenosis
16. inflammation of a synovial membrane Synovitis
The word ostosis means “bone growth.” Use this as a suffix for the following two words:

17. excess growth of bone

Hyperostosis
18. abnormal growth of bone
Dysostosis
Ex 9 Write the adjective that fits each of the following definitions:

1. pertaining to (-al) the skull Cranial

2. pertaining to (-al) a rib Costal

3. pertaining to (-ic) the pelvis Pelvic

4. pertaining to (-ac) the ilium Iliac
5. pertaining to (-al) the spinal column
Vertebral
6. pertaining to (-al) the sacrum
Sacral

Ex 10 Define each of the following terms:

7. craniometry Pertaining to the procedure of cranial measurement

8. endocranial Pertaining, to something inside the cranium

9. prevertebral Pertaining to the area in front of the spine

10. suprapelvic
Pertaining to the area above the pelvis
Word building. Write a word for each of the following definitions:

11. incision of the cranium craniotomy

12. inflammation of the vertebrae (use spondyl/o) Ankylosing spondylitis

13. surgical excision of a rib costectomies

14. pertaining to the sacrum and ilium sacroiliac

15. pertaining to the cranium and sacrum craniosacrial

16. near the sacrum coccyx

17. excision of the coccyx Coccygectomy

18. pertaining to the ilium and coccyx

iliococcygeal
19. below (infra-) the ribs
Floating ribs