Sports Science Study (Topics 1 - 6)
1. The Skeletal System
Assessment statement
Distinguish anatomically between
the axial and appendicular skeleton
Distinguish between the axial and
appendicular skeleton in terms of
function.
State the four types of bone
Draw and annotate the structure of a
long bone
Apply anatomical terminology to
the location of bones
Outline the functions of connective
tissue
Define the term joint
Distinguish between the different
types of joint in relation to
movement permitted
Notes
Axial skeleton: skull, ribs, sternum and vertebral column consisting of
cervical (7 bones), thoracic (12 bones), lumbar (5 bones), sacral (5
bones fused as 1), coccyx (4 bones fused as 1)
Appendicular skeleton: pectoral girdle (scapulae and clavicles),
humerus, radius (thumb side), ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges
pelvic girdle (ilium, ischium and pubis), femur, patella, tibia (bigger),
fibula, tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges.
During activity, the primary function of the axial skeleton is to protect
the body’s vital organs, while the primary function of the appendicular
skeleton is to facilitate movement by providing attachments for
skeletal muscle. For example, in rugby the axial skeleton (ribs) protects
the vital organs (lungs) from injury in a tackle, while the appendicular
skeleton (femur) allows the player to contract and extend the muscles
in their leg (quadriceps, hamstrings) to run.
The primary function of the axial skeleton is to protect the body’s vital
organs from impact and thereby possible injury, for example the skull
protects the brain. However, the axial skeleton also has a variety of
other functions. It supports and maintains posture with the vertebral
column and provides attachment for skeletal muscle with the sternum.
The ribs also store and release minerals such as calcium and
phosphorous and also serve for blood cell production.
Long – femur Short – carpals Flat – sternum Irregular - vertebrae
Label: epiphysis, spongy bone, articular cartilage, diaphysis, compact
bone, bone marrow, marrow cavity, blood vessel, periosteum
Inferior = away from the head – opposite = Superior
Proximal = toward the trunk – opposite = Distal
Medial toward the midline of the body – opposite = Lateral
Posterior = back of the body – opposite = Anterior
Connective tissue: tendons (attach muscle to bones or structures
(eyeball)) – ligaments (attach bone to bone) – cartilage (padding in
between bones (vertebrae))
Major functions: binding and supporting, protecting, insulating, storing
fuel reserves, transporting substances within the body
A joint occurs where two or more bones articulate
Characteristic Fixed / Fibrous joint Cartilaginous joint
Synovial joint
Movement No movement Slight movement Lots of
movement
Stability Very Stable least
Joint cavity No No Yes
Example Sutures of the cranium Cartilage between vertebrae
Hip joint
Outline the features of a synovial Label: articular cartilage, synovial membrane, synovial fluid, bursae,
joint meniscus, ligaments, articular capsule

Articular cartilage, synovial fluid, bursae all reduce friction.

Joint cavity, ligament and meniscus all improve joint stability.
List the different types of synovial Hinge – knee joint Ball and socket – shoulder joint Pivot – between
joint C1 and C2 vertebrae Condyloid – wrist joint Gliding – between
carpal bones Saddle – trapeziometacarpal joint (thumb)

2. The Muscular System

 Assessment statement Notes

Outline the general characteristics Contractility = ability to contract and generate force
common to muscle tissue Extensibility = ability to be stretched beyond resting length
Elasticity = ability to return to original resting length
Atrophy = process of muscles becoming smaller due to inactivity
Hypertrophy = process of muscles become bigger due to activity
Muscle tissue is controlled by nerve stimuli and fed by capillaries
Distinguish between the different Feature Skeletal Cardiac Smooth
types of muscles Example Biceps brachii Heart Stomach lining
Movement Voluntary Involuntary involuntary
Striated Yes Yes No
Nucleus Multi Single Single
Nervous stimulation Somatic motor neurons Autonomic
Autonomic
Tension/stretch Receptors Yes No No

Annotate the structure of skeletal Label (in order of decreasing size): epimysium, perimysium,
muscle endomysium, muscle fibre (cell), myofibril, sarcomere, actin, myosin
(thick)

Epimysium is the outer surrounding layer of the muscle. The muscle is

then composed of bundles of muscle fibers which are surrounded by
perimysium. Each muscle fiber is surrounded by another layer called
endomysium. These all connect to a tendon which attaches to the bone
to allow the muscle to move. The muscle cell is composed of smaller
units called myofibrils. Each myofibril is composed of contractile
components (protein filaments) known as myosin (thick) and actin
(thin). Myofibrils are composed of sarcomeres which are the basic
(functional) unit of the muscle cell.
Define the terms origin and Origin = the attachment of a muscle tendon to a stationary bone
insertion of muscles Insertion = the attachment of a muscle tendon to a moveable bone

 Identify the location of skeletal
muscles in various regions of the
body
1. Structure and function of the ventilatory system
Assessment statement
List the principal structures of the
ventilatory system
Outline the functions of the
conducting airways
Define the terms pulmonary
ventilation, total lung capacity
(TLC), vital capacity (VC), tidal
volume (TV), expiratory reserve
volume (ERV), inspiratory reserve
volume (IRV) and residual volume
(RV)
Anterior: deltoid, pectoralis, iliopsoas, sartorius, quadriceps (rectus
femoris, vastus intermedius, vastus medialis, vastus lateralis), tibialis
anterior, abdominus rectus, external obliques, biceps brachii
Posterior: trapezius, triceps brachii, latissimus dorsi, gluteus maximus,
hamstrings (biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus),
gastrocnemius, soleus, erector spinae
Notes
Nose – mouth – pharynx – larynx – trachea – bronchi – bronchioles –
lungs – alveoli
1. low resistance pathway for airflow
2. defence against chemicals and other harmful substances that are
inhaled
3. warming and moistening the air
Pulmonary ventilation = inflow and outflow of air between the
atmosphere and the lungs (breathing) (tidal volume x respiratory rate)
Total lung capacity (TLC) = volume of air in the lungs after a
maximum inhalation (IRV + ERV + tidal volume + residual volume)
Vital capacity (VC) = maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after
a maximum inhalation (IRV + ERV + tidal volume)
Tidal volume (TV) = volume of air breathed in and out in any one
breath
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) = volume of air in excess of tidal
volume that can be exhaled forcibly
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) = additional inspired air over and
above tidal volume
Residual volume (RV) = volume of air still contained in the lungs after
a maximal exhalation

 Explain the mechanics of ventilation Inhaling (inspiration) Exhaling (Expiration)

in the human lungs Movement of air Into the lungs Out of lungs
Volume of thorax Increases Decreases
Pressure in chest cavity Decreases below atmospheric pressure
Increases above atmospheric pressure
Diaphragm muscle Contracts Relaxes
External intercostal muscles Contracts Relaxes
Internal intercostal muscles Relaxes Contracts
Contraction of accessory muscles (only at moderate to high
intensity exercise) Trapezius, scaleni, sternocleidomastoids
Abdominal muscles
Movement of diaphragm Contracts and flattens Relaxes and
curves
Rib cage movement Upward and outward Inwards and
downward

Describe nervous and chemical Breathing rate is controlled by the autonomic nervous system. During
control of ventilation during inspiration, nerve impulses are generated and sent via the phrenic nerve
exercise and intercostal nerves to the inspiratory muscles causing them to
contract. The rate and depth of breathing is increased after the
respiratory centre is stimulated by muscle proprioceptors. However,
ventilation is regulated by stretch receptors in the lungs, which prevent
over inflation and thereby injury.

In addition, when the acidity of the blood increases due to the presence
of CO2 or lactic acid, chemoreceptors send nerve impulses to the
respiratory centre in the medulla of the brain which then increases the
rate of ventilation, making it faster and deeper.
Outline the role of haemoglobin in 98.5% of oxygen in the blood is transported by haemoglobin as
oxygen transportation oxyhaemoglobin within red blood cells.
Haemoglobin is the iron containing oxygen transport protein in red
blood cells. Haemoglobin can carry up to 4 molecules of oxygen as it
transports it from the lungs to the body’s cells and travels back to the
lungs after removing the oxygen and is now carrying carbon dioxide.
Explain the process of gaseous Deoxygenated blood from the heart (with blood plasma with a high
exchange at the alveoli concentration of CO2 and red blood cells with a low concentration of
O2), in a capillary, passes an alveolus. O2 diffuses from the alveolus
into the capillary as CO2 diffuses into the alveolus from the capillary
(leaving red blood cells with a high concentration of O2 and blood
plasma with a low concentration of CO2). The now oxygenated blood
returns to the heart to be redistributed to the rest of the body.

2. Structure and function of the cardiovascular system

Assessment statement Notes

State the composition of blood Blood is composed of cells (erythrocytes, leucocytes and platelets) and
plasma. Blood is also the transport vehicle for electrolytes, proteins,
gases, nutrients, waste products and hormones

 Distinguish between the functions
of erythrocytes, leucocytes and
platelets
Describe the anatomy of the heart
with reference to the heart
chambers, valves and major blood
vessels
Describe the intrinsic and extrinsic
regulation of the heart rate and the
sequence of excitation of the heart
muscle
Erythrocytes Leukocytes Platelets Plasma
Function Carries haemoglobin, thereby O2 and CO2 Combats
infection. Consists of antibodies. Performs phagocytosis. Assists
in the reparation of damaged blood vessels with clotting Carry
H2O, salts and enzymes.
Maintains body temperature by absorbing and realising heat
Transports waste
Blood volume 40-45% Less than 1% Less than 1% 55-65%
Chambers: left atrium, left ventricle, right atrium, right ventricle
Valves: mitral (bicuspid), aortic, tricuspid, pulmonary
Major blood vessels: vena cava, pulmonary vein, the aorta and
pulmonary artery
The heart has its own blood supply via the coronary arteries
Spread of cardiac excitation:
A cluster of cells that are located in the upper right atrium is termed the
sinoatrial node (SA) or pacemaker, which generates electrical impulses.
This is influenced by the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of
the autonomic nervous system and by adrenaline (this is the extrinsic
regulation of the heart). – These impulses move down cells (across the
atria) towards the atrioventricular (AV) node, another cluster of cells
located near the centre of the heart, between the bottom of the right
atria and the top of the ventricles. – The AV node delays the electrical
impulse for one tenth of a second (this is intrinsic regulation) long
enough to allow the ventricles to fill with blood. – the impulse finally
reaches the ventricles to contract and push the blood into the aorta and
pulmonary artery (after it passes through the bundle of His, the left and
right bundle branches and the Purkinje fibres).

 Outline the relationship between the Pulmonary circulation = the portion of the cardiovascular system which
pulmonary and systematic carries oxygen-depleted blood away from the heart, to the lungs, and
circulation returns oxygenated blood back to the heart.
Systemic circulation = the portion of the cardiovascular system which
carries oxygenated blood away from the heart, to the rest of the body,
and returns deoxygenated blood to the heart

The path taken by the blood around the heart:

Deoxygenated blood from the body enters the RA via the vena cava –
RA to RV via tricuspid valve – RV to lungs via pulmonary artery and
pulmonary valve – oxygenated blood returns to the heart at the LA via
pulomary veins – LA to LV via bicuspid (mitral) valve – LV to head,
neck and arms by the aorta

Describe the relationship between
heart rate, cardiac output and stroke
volume at rest and during exercise
Cardiac output = the amount of blood pumped from the heart per
minute
Stroke volume = amount of blood pumped by the left ventricle every
contraction
Cardiac output (Q) = stroke volume (SV) x heart rate (HR)
Graphically: SV has a horizontal asymptote and HR is linear with a
limit

 Analyse cardiac output, stroke Untrained Trained

volume and heart rate data for SV Lower Higher
different populations at rest and HR Higher Lower
during exercise Q Lower Higher

Explanation: a trained heart has experienced hypertrophy thus a more

powerful heart – more volume to be pumped with less contractions

Female Male
SV Lower Higher
HR Higher Lower
Q Similar (slightly less) Similar (slightly more)

Explanation: females have lower amounts of haemoglobin, less blood

volume and a smaller heart – males able to pump more blood with less
contractions

Young Elderly
SV Lower Higher
HR Higher Lower
Q Higher Lower

Explain cardiovascular drift
Define the terms systolic and
diastolic blood pressure
Explanation: the elderly have a lower heart rate as the electrical signals
are weaker, however a larger heart due to more activity.
Cardiovascular drift: the phenomenon that at a constant work rate,
heart rate will increase slightly.
As one sweats, a portion of this lost fluid comes from the plasma
volume. This decrease in plasma will increase blood viscosity, thus will
diminish venous return and stroke volume. To maintain a constant
cardiac output, the heart rate must increase to compensate for a
decreased stroke volume.
Systolic: the force exerted by blood on arterial walls during ventricular
contraction.
Diastolic: the force exerted by blood on arterial walls during
ventricular relaxation

 Analyse systolic and diastolic blood Rest vs Exercise

pressure data at rest and during
exercise Systolic blood pressure is the force exerted on arterial walls during
ventricular contraction. During exercise, more oxygenated blood is
needed around the body and therefore ventricular contraction increases
as well as the volume of blood being pumped through the arteries.
Therefore, systolic blood pressure increases with exercise intensity.

Diastolic blood pressure is the force exerted on arterial walls during

ventricular relaxation. During exercise, muscles are working at a
constant rate, meaning that despite an increase in intensity, there is no
increase force on the arterial walls during ventricular relaxation.

Static vs Dynamic

Systolic blood pressure is the force exerted on arterial walls during

ventricular contraction. Diastolic blood pressure is the force exerted on
arterial walls during ventricular relaxation.

During dynamic exercise, such as running, systolic blood pressure

increases drastically, as there is an increase in cardiac output and
thereby exerted pressure on the blood vessels. Diastolic blood pressure
remains relatively unchanged as muscles are generally working at a
constant rate of contraction and relaxation, with no increase in force on
the arterial walls during ventricular relaxation.

During static exercise, such as a plank, both systolic and diastolic

blood pressure increase, with systolic being higher, as a constant
isometric contraction of the muscles surrounding the arteries results in
an increase in pressure during both contraction and relaxation.

Discuss how systolic and diastolic Systolic BP (in comparison to rest) Diastolic BP (in
blood pressure respond to dynamic comparison to rest)
and static exercise Dynamic exerciseHigher Little or no change
Static exercise Much higher higher

 Compare the distribution of blood at Movement of blood in favour of working skeletal muscles
rest and the redistribution of blood
during exercise.

Sub-maximal exercise

Body part Reasoning

Skeletal muscle – massive increase in blood flow
(20 ! 60%) Working muscles are being used the most. Thus,
increase in blood flow brings oxygen and removes waste products.
Skin – small increase in blood flow to the skin during exercise
Temperature regulation
Kidneys / Liver / Stomach – significant reduction in blood flow
Non-essential function during exercise
Brain – receives similar volume of blood (but different percentage as
cardiac output has increased) Need constant supply of oxygen for
the body to function properly
Heart – blood flow is maintained Needs constant supply from
coronary arteries to distribute blood to the working skeletal muscles

The redirection of blood flow is achieved by ‘shunting’ =

vasoconstriction and vasodilation of blood vessels

During maximal exercise, percentage of blood distributed to all body

parts decreases, except for the heart, while working skeletal muscle
increases (88%)

 Describe the cardiovascular
adaptations resulting from
endurance exercise training
Explain maximal oxygen
consumption
Discuss the variability of maximal
oxygen consumption in selected
groups
Discuss the variability of maximal
oxygen consumption with different
modes of exercise
3.1 Nutrition
Assessment statement
List the macronutrients and
micronutrients
Adaptation Explanation
Increased left ventricular volume An increased left ventricle size,
allows the left ventricle to stretch more and thus fill with more blood,
resulting in more blood being pumped for each contraction.
As this stroke volume increases, while maintaining a constant cardiac
output, the resting heart rate is now lower (as Q = SV x HR)
Increased capillarisation Means that blood / oxygen can be
transported to the muscle more efficiently
Increased arterio-venous oxygen (A-VO2) difference The muscles are
able to extract a greater volume of oxygen from incoming blood as
there is increased blood plasma, red blood cell volume and
haemoglobin.
Maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max) represents the functional
capacity of the oxygen transport system and is sometimes referred to as
maximal aerobic power or aerobic capacity.
VO2 max is determined by 1) the chemical ability of the muscular
cellular tissue system to use oxygen in breaking down fuels 2) the
combined ability of the cardiovascular and pulmonary systems to
transport the O2 to the muscular tissue systems
Can be measured in either ml kg-1 min-1 (most common) to allow for
more accurate measurements as oxygen and energy needs differ
relative to size – used for measuring VO2 max in weight bearing events
(running), or L min-1 which is used when total power output is
important (running) and in non-weight bearing events (cycling)
VO2 max is more useful as an indicator of a person’s aerobic potential
or upper limit than as a predictor of success in endurance events
Training improves physiological features such as capillarisation,
maximal heart rate, stroke volume, arteriovenous oxygen difference,
which will improve VO2 max
Generally, males have a higher VO2 max (ml kg-1 min-1) than females
(smaller hearts and bodies, less muscle mass), but females are slightly
higher before puberty.
VO2 is proportional to the strength and efficiency of the heart and
vascular system, therefore, the younger and the trained have higher
VO2 max.
Rowing > Running > Cycling > Arm ergometry
VO2 max is proportional to quantity of activated muscle mass although
skill level, training and experience can increase the values for all
activities
Notes
Macro: lipid (fat), carbohydrate, water and protein
Micro: vitamins and minerals

 Outline the functions of
macronutrients and micronutrients
State the chemical composition of a
glucose molecule
Identify a diagram representing the
basic structure of a glucose
molecule
Explain how glucose molecules can
combine to form disaccharides and
polysaccharides
State the composition of a molecule
of triacylglycerol
Distinguish between saturated and
unsaturated fatty acids
State the chemical composition of a
protein molecule
Distinguish between an essential
and non-essential amino acid
Lipid – main energy store in humans, cushioning of vital organs,
conservation of body heat
Carbohydrate – primary energy source
Protein – provide structure to build tissues
Water – lubricant, thermoregulation, medium for chemical reactions,
transports chemicals
Vitamins – regulate metabolic processes
Minerals – cofactors for enzyme and protein function
C6H12O6 C, H and O (1:2:1)
A condensation reaction is a chemical process by which two molecules
combine to form a more complex molecule with the removal of H2O.
The smallest sub-unit of a glucose molecule is a monosaccharide
which is able to react in such a condensation reaction with another
monosaccharide to produce a disaccharide. The bond formed after
H2O has been removed is a glycosidic bond. Disaccharides also react
with other monosaccharides and disaccharides to form
polysaccharides. These polysaccharides contain tens and hundreds of
monosaccharides.
One glycerol and three fatty acids
Saturated Unsaturated
No double bonds between individual carbon atoms of the fatty acid
chain. Contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms of
the fatty acid chain
Originate from animal sources
Red meat, poultry, full-fat dairy products
Originate from plant sources
Palm, coconut oil Originate from plant-based sources
Olive oil, olives, avocado, peanuts, cashew nuts, canola oil and seeds,
sunflower oil, rapeseed oil
C, H, O and N
Essential amino acids cannot be synthesised by the human body and
must be obtained from diet
Non-essential amino acids can be synthesised by the human body

 Describe current recommendations
for a healthy for a healthy balanced
diet
State the approximate energy
content per 100 g of carbohydrate,
lipid and protein
Discuss how recommended energy
distribution of the dietary
macronutrients differs between
endurance athletes and non-athletes
3.2 Carbohydrate and fat metabolism
Assessment statement
Outline metabolism, anabolism,
aerobic catabolism and anaerobic
catabolism
State what glycogen is and its major
storage sites
State the major sites of triglyceride
storage
Explain the role of insulin in the
formation of glycogen and the
accumulation of body fat
Recommendations vary by country / age / gender / height / weight /
RMR / activity level. Calorie intake should be 2000-3000 for males
and 1600-2400 for females
Carbs: 40-70% of diet. Provide 4 calories per gram / 1760 kj per 100
grams
Proteins: 10-30% of diet. Provide 4 calories per gram of 1720 kj per
100 grams
Lipids: 10-30%. Fats provide 9 calories per gram / 4000 kj per 100
grams
Everyone should have reduced sodium intake, consume less than 10%
of energy from saturated fatty acids, consume less than 300mg of
dietary cholesterol per day. Adequate water consumption is also
recommended.
Energy content per 100 g are: proteins – 1720 kj, carbs - 1760 kj, lipids
– 4000 kj
The highly trained endurance cyclist will need to consume more
macronutrients than an untrained endurance cyclist. They will consume
more carbohydrates to meet the energy demands of their training. The
trained endurance cyclist will consume more protein to build, maintain
and repair muscle and connective tissue. They will also consume
slightly more fats as they are good sources of energy but will not
consume significantly more as they can impact the efficiency of the
cardiovascular system. An athlete will also consume more water, as
they will lose more fluid as sweat.
Notes
Metabolism = All the biomechanical reactions that occur within an
organism, including anabolic and catabolic reactions
Anabolism = Energy requiring reactions whereby small molecules are
built up into larger ones
Catabolism = Chemical reactions that break down complex organic
compounds into simpler ones, with the net release of energy. Aerobic =
in the presence of O2 (glycogenolysis), anaerobic = without
(glycolysis)
Glycogen is a polysaccharide built from glucose molecules. It is the
storage form of glucose. Storage sites = skeletal muscle + liver
Adipose tissue and skeletal muscle
Insulin is released from the pancreas when blood glucose is too high. It
stimulates the uptake of glucose by the liver and muscle cells as
glycogen (glycogenesis) and accelerates the diffusion of glucose into
cells. Inhibits gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, glucagon, lipolysis.
Therefore, diets high in sugar and fat will result in increased amounts
of insulin, and therefore increased fat and glycogen stores.

 Outline glycogenolysis and lipolysis Glycogenolysis: Glucagon acts on the liver to stimulate glycogenolysis
which is the breakdown of glycogen to glucose
Lipolysis: One triglyceride breaks down to form glycerol and three
fatty acids
Outline the functions of glucagon Exercise
and adrenaline during fasting and During exercise adrenaline is released
exercise Adrenaline stimulates glycogenolysis for glucose to be used
Adrenaline stimulates lipolysis for fat to be used

When glucose levels in blood drop during exercise glucagon is

released to stimulate glycogenolysis

Fasting
Fasting can cause hypoglycaemia
Adrenaline is released to increase glycogenolysis

Fasting reduces blood glucose which stimulates the release of glucagon

to stimulate glycogenolysis

If fasting persists it can stimulate gluconeogenesis in the liver and

Explain the role of insulin and
muscle contraction on glucose
uptake during exercise
kidneys and can stimulate the conversion of amino acids into glucose
As muscle contraction occurs during exercise, the skeletal muscles
require more energy to be produced from glucose, thus necessitate
glucose uptake and high levels of blood glucose. Therefore, muscle
contraction reduces the secretion of insulin from the pancreas, and thus
its function in glucose transport, while secreting more glucagon to
stimulate glycogenolysis, forming glucose from glycogen. As muscles
take in glucose for energy production, more glucose will need to be
produced, yet the amount of glucose needed to be taken in by muscles
is related to the magnitude of exercise in terms of duration and
intensity.

Process Description Categorisation

Glycolysis The breakdown of glucose by enzymes, releasing energy and Catabolism
pyruvic acid
Glycogenesis The formation of glycogen from glucose Anabolism
Glycogenolysis Glycogen is broken down into glucose Catabolism
Gluconeogenesis Formation of glucose from lactate and pyruvate Anabolism
Lipolysis Breakdown of triglyceride to form one glycerol and 3 fatty acids Catabolism

3.3 Nutrition and energy systems

Assessment statement Notes

Annotate a diagram of the
ultrastructure of a generalised
animal cell
Annotate a diagram of the
ultrastructure of a mitochondrion
Define the term cell respiration
Explain how adenosine can gain and The breakdown of ATP to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) releasing a
lose a phosphate molecule
Explain the role of ATP in muscle
contraction
Describe the re-synthesis of ATP by
the ATP-CP system
Label: ribosomes, rough endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, Golgi
apparatus, mitochondrion and nucleus
Golgi apparatus process and package proteins and fats. Lysosomes
digest cellular macromolecules. Ribosomes synthesis proteins. Rough
endoplasmic reticulum produces proteins for cellular function. Nucleus
controls and regulates cellular activities. Mitochondria – energy
production.
Label: cristae, inner matrix and outer smooth membrane
Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy in the form of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from organic compounds in cells.
phosphate molecule, occurs when instructed to by an enzyme (ATPase)
When the body is resting and energy is not immediately needed, the
reverse reaction takes place and the phosphate group is reattached to
the molecule using energy obtained from food
The breakdown of ATP to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) releasing a
phosphate molecule, provides energy for muscle contraction. This
triggers the myosin heads to trigger the contraction process.
Creatine phosphate (CP), a high energy molecule, is broken down to
provide a phosphate molecule which is then used for the re-synthesis
of ATP that has been utilised already used for energy production. (1 CP
= 1 ATP)

 Describe the production of ATP by The lactic acid system produces energy through anaerobic glycolysis.
the lactic acid system Glucose molecules are broken down into pyruvate producing 2ATP
molecules for every glucose molecule broken down. Due to the limited
amount of oxygen available, pyruvate will then be reduced to lactic
acid. This energy system is used generally for high to medium intensity
exercise such as a 400m sprint.
Explain the phenomena of oxygen Oxygen deficit is the initial stages of exercise where there is not
deficit and oxygen debt enough oxygen in the body to support the aerobic system. Thus, the
anaerobic energy systems are not used until enough oxygen is in the
body. It can be simply calculated as the difference between the oxygen
required to complete an action and the oxygen consumed.

Oxygen debt is known as excess post-exercise oxygen consumption

(EPOC). Even though the activity has ceased, oxygen demand does not
immediately decrease so as to repay the oxygen deficit.
Describe the production of ATP In the presence of oxygen, glucose is broken down into pyruvate which
from glucose and fatty acids by the is processed by the Krebs cycle, liberating electrons that are passed
aerobic system through the electron transport chain and producing energy (ATP). Fatty
acids can be broken down to produce energy in the form of ATP during
Beta oxidation. The fatty acids are broken down into Acetylcholine
which then goes into the Krebs cycle. In the presence of oxygen, and
in extreme cases, proteins are also utilised.
Discuss the characteristics of the 3 Systems Fuel Duration Yield of ATP Speed of production
energy systems and their relative Intensity and duration By-products
contributions during exercise ATP-CP CP 0-10 sec 1 Very fast Maximal, short ADP,
phosphate and heat
Anaerobic Glycolysis Glucose 20-120 secs 2 Fast
High, medium Lactate (fatiguing) and heat
Aerobic system Glucose – Fats (at rest) – Proteins (in extreme
circumstances) 55-onwards mins 36 for carbs,
460 for fats Slow Low, long CO2, H2O and heat

Evaluate the relative contributions Application of assessment statement above

of the 3 energy systems during
different types of exercise Note that all energy systems work in a continuum during physical
activity depending on the intensity, duration, fuel ability and oxygen
availability

4.1 Neuromuscular Function

Assessment statement Notes

Label a diagram of a motor unit
Explain the role of neurotransmitters Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter that initiates muscle contraction.
in stimulating skeletal muscle
contraction
Explain how skeletal muscle
contracts by the sliding filament
theory
Label: dendrite, cell body, nucleus, axon, motor end plate, synapse,
muscle
Its role is to open a motor-end plate channel and allows an electrical
impulse to pass from the nerve to the muscle. It binds to post synaptic
receptors, increasing permeability to sodium ions which causes
calcium ions to be released into the muscle cell.
Cholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine, immediately repolarises the
membrane which stops synaptic transmission of impulse and allows
the muscle to relax.
Sodium ions enter the muscle and change the polarisation in the
myofibril, the sarcoplasmic reticulum then releases calcium ions which
bind to troponin. ATP binds to myosin heads causing them to detach
from binding sites. Tropomyosin complex exposes the binding site on
actin and the myosin head creates a cross-bridge with the actin. Power
stroke then takes place as the heads of myosin tilt and drag the actin
filaments. The cross-bridge breaks as ATP splits. Z lines come closer
together as the H zone disappears. Myosin then reattaches to a new
active site further along the actin filament. This process continues until
the ends of the myosin filaments reach the ends of the z-lines, or until
cholinesterase breaks acetylcholine down.

 Explain how slow and fast twitch Characteristic Slow twitch Fast twitch type 2a Fast
fibre types differ in structure and twitch type 2b
function Mitochondria in fibres Large amount Small amount
Smallest amount
Capillary to volume ratio Greater Smaller smallest
Metabolism of ATP Slow Fast Fastest
Function Endurance Medium Quick bursts
Energy system Aerobic Partially aerobic Anaerobic
Fatigue resistanceHigh Low Lowest
Fibre diameter Small Medium Large
Glycogen content Small Medium High
Power output Small Medium High
No. of fibres per motor neuron Least Moderate High
Fibre length Long Short shortest
Activity 3k run 400m run 100m run

4.2 Joint and movement type

Assessment statement Notes

Outline the types of movement of Movement Description Example Opposite movement
synovial joints Flexion Decrease in the angle b/w articulating bones Bending the
trunk forward Extension
Abduction Movement of a bone away from the midline Moving
the humerus laterally Adduction
Elevation Upward movement Closing the mouth
Depression
Inversion Movement of the foot medially N/A
Eversion
Dorsiflexion Bending of the foot at the ankle in an upward
direction Running Planter flexion
Supination Movement of the forearm so that the palm is turned
upward Getting ready to catch a ball Pronation
Rotation Movement of the bone around a longitudinal axis Swivel
of the head
Circumduction When the end of the bone makes a circle and the
bone makes the shape of a cone Swimming

Outline the types of muscle Isotonic = the joint angle / muscle length changes
contraction Concentric = muscle shorten while developing tension
Eccentric = muscle lengthens while developing tension
Isometric = joint angle and muscle length remain stable (handstand)
Isokinetic = tension developed in the muscle is maximal throughout the
whole range of motion (with the velocity of the lengthening and
shortening of muscle being constant) (Cybex machine)
Explain the concept of reciprocal Reciprocal inhibition = a neuromuscular reflex that inhibits opposing
inhibition muscles to enable voluntary movements at the same time. Muscles
work in antagonistic pairs – a contracting muscle is the agonist, a
relaxing muscle is the antagonist.
Analyse movements in relation to Exercise Movement Concentric Eccentric
joint action and muscle contraction Bicep curl Flexion Biceps Triceps
Jumping in high jump (at the foot) Plantar flexion Gastrocnemius
Tibialis anterior
Winding up to kick a soccer ball Flexion Hamstrings
Quadriceps

Explain delayed onset muscle
soreness (DOMS) in relation to
eccentric and concentric muscle
contractions
4.3 Biomechanics
Assessment statement
Define the terms force, speed,
velocity, displacement, acceleration,
momentum and impulse
DOMS results primarily from eccentric muscle action and is associated
with structural muscle damage, inflammatory reactions in the muscle,
overstretching and overtraining.
DOMS is minimised by reducing the eccentric component of muscle
actions during early training, starting training at a low intensity and
gradually increasing the intensity, and warming up before exercise,
cooling down after exercise.
Notes
Force = push or pull on an object
Speed = rate at which an object covers distance
Velocity = rate at which an object changes position
Displacement = overall change in the position of an object
Acc toeleration = rate of change of velocity per second
Momentum = the amount of motion possessed by a moving object
Impulse = force applied over time

 Analyse velocity-time, distance- Distance-time

time force-time graphs of sporting
actions

Velocity-time

Force-time

 Define the term centre of mass
Explain that a change in body
position during sporting activities
can change the position of the centre
of mass
Distinguish between first, second-
and third-class levers
Label anatomical representations of
levers
Define Newton’s three laws of
motion
Explain how Newton’s 3 laws of
motion apply to sporting activities
State the relationship between
angular momentum, moment of
inertia and angular velocity
goal
Explain the factors that affect
projectile motion at take-off or
release
The point at which the mass and weight of a body/object are balanced
in all directions or evenly distributed
The centre of mass changes if the shape of the object changes as the
weight distribution has changed
High Jump
Fosbury flop – centre of mass below the body
Scissor technique – centre of mass above the legs
Basketball
When shooting, centre of mass remains inside the body
First = load – fulcrum – effort
Second = fulcrum – load – effort
Third = fulcrum – effort – load
Triceps-elbow Calf-ankle Biceps-elbow
Lever 1 2 3
Movement extension Plantar flexion flexion
Fulcrum Elbow Ankle elbow
Load Dumbbell Body weight Dumbbell
Effort Triceps Gastrocnemius biceps
1st law = a body will remain at rest or continue in a state of constant
motion unless acted upon by an external force
2nd law = the rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to
the force causing it (f=ma)
3rd law = for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
Swimming is a good example that can be applied to all 3 laws
Angular momentum = angular velocity x moment of inertia
Large moment of inertia = difficult to move
Angular velocity = rate of change of angular position
Moment of inertia is indirectly proportional to angular velocity
A figure skater can increase their moment of inertia by moving their
limbs away from the centre of their body. They can increase their
angular velocity by moving their limbs closer to the centre of the body
Speed of release = faster means further distance can be gained
Height of release = if take-airoff is higher up, more distance can be
gained
Angle of release = differing optimal angles for various shots and in
different sporting scenarios
Golf is a good example

 Outline the Bernoulli principle with
respect to projectile motion in
sporting activities
5.1 The Characteristics and Classification of Skill in Sport
Assessment statement
Define the term skill
Describe the different types of skill
Outline the different approaches to
classifying motor skills
Compare skill profiles for
contrasting sports
Outline ability
Distinguish between Fleishman’s
physical proficiency abilities and
perceptual motor abilities
The relationship b/w airflow velocity and air pressure is an inverse
one, and is expressed in Bernoulli’s principle
Golf/tennis:
The pressure difference causes the spinning golf ball to experience a
force directed from the region of high air pressure to the region of low
air pressure. A golf ball with backspin will experience higher air
pressure on the bottom of the ball and lower air pressure on the top of
the ball, causing a lift force. Top spin would create a ‘drop’ force with
high pressure on the top and low-pressure underneath. The lift/drop
force is perpendicular to the direction of motion.
Notes
Skill is the consistent production of goal-oriented movements, which
are learned and specific to the task (McMorris 2004)
Cognitive = decision making in game play and contribute to success on
the field. E.g. Chess
Motor = voluntary movement with a predetermined result. E.g.
weightlifting
Perceptual motor = motor response after the interpretation of
environmental stimuli. E.g. catching a ball
+ Gross ! fine = large movements using large muscle groups ! small
and intricate movements. E.g. Kicking a ball ! Throwing a dart.
+ Open ! closed = skill is performed in an unstable environment !
closed environment. E.g. receiving in tennis ! serving in tennis.
+ Discrete ! serial ! continuous = brief and defined actions that have
a definitive start and end to their movement ! a sequence of discrete
skills joined together ! no obvious beginning or end. E.g. handstand
! tumbling routine in gymnastics ! running
+ External ! internal = environment controls pace of skill !
performer controls pace of skill. E.g.
+ Individual ! coactive ! interactive = performed in isolation ! in
conjunction with people however without contact ! performed with
others directly involved. E.g. archery ! running race ! game of
football
Simple classification of different motor skills to the sport, although
must provide a reason for each classification
Ability = a general trait or capacity of the individual that is related to
the performance and performance potential of a variety of skills or
tasks
Fleishman (1972)
Physical proficiency abilities = gross motor skills ! physical factors
Perceptual motor abilities = a combination of how we make sense of
our environment and how we act (~perceptual motor skills) !
psychomotor factors

 Define the term technique Technique = “way of doing”

Technique in sport = “way in which that sports skill is performed”
State the relationship b/w ability, Skill = ability + selection of an appropriate technique
skill and technique
*Discuss the differences b/w a Factor Skilled Performer Novice Performer
skilled and a novice performer Consistency High Low
Accuracy of decisionsou High Low
Learned nature Good (autonomous) Poor (cognitive)
Control High Low
Efficiency High Low
Fluency Smooth Erratic
Goal directed Good Poor

5.2 Information Processing

Assessment Statement Notes

Describe a simple model of Information processing in the system by which we take information
information processing from our surrounding environment, use it to make a decision and then
produce a response: [input ! processing + decision making ! output]
All the approaches to information processing are only models and can
only be models as the decision-making process cannot be observed or
assessed like the input and output
Describe Welford’s model of
information processing

1. Input detection occurs

2. Information can come from intrinsic (kinesthesis) and extrinsic
(other players or environment) sources (~feedback)
3. Relevant information is then perceived
4. Necessary information goes to the short-term memory
5. A decision is then made by comparing the information in the short-
term memory and with previous experiences stored in the long-term
memory.
6. The effector control then carries out this decision
7. Actions and results are stored for future reference as feedback
8. Process begins again
Outline the components associated Exteroceptors ! provide info about the external environment through
with sensory input visual, auditory and tactile perception. E.g. feel of a wet ball
Proprioceptors ! provide info about position and posture of the body
through awareness of body position in space and tension in muscles.
Interoceptors ! provide information about events in internal organs.
E.g. pH, lung stretch, body temperature and pain.

 Explain the signal-detection process Often referred to as the detection – comparison – recognition process
(DCR)
It is the process by which the brain interprets and makes sense of the
information it is receiving from the sensory organs
Essentially is Welford’s model of information processing with
variables

Variabthe sle Explanation

Background noise => non-essential information
- Prohibits effective signal detection
Intensity of the stimulus - Stronger intensity in comparison to
background noise allows for signal detection
Efficiency of the sense organs - More efficiency allows for better
signal detection
- Arousal level affects this
Early signal detection - Selective attention of cues can lead to
early detection
Improving signal detection- Practice and learning can assist a person’s
ability to detect a signal

Distinguish b/w the characteristics

of short-term sensory store, short- Characteristics Short-term sensory store Short term memory
term memory and long-term Long term memory
memory Capacity Large Limited unlimited
Duration Short ~medium long
Retrieval Cannot retrieve previous information
Retrieves only similar stimuli from past experiences Can retrieve
information from the past

Describe the relationship b/w Selective attention (SA) operates in the short-term sensory store
selective attention and memory (STSS). Only the relevant information is passed to the short-term
memory (STM) where it is held for several seconds. SA ensures that
the information overload does not occur and prevents confusion, as the
brain would not be able to cope with streams of information. A filtering
mechanism operates, which separates the relevant information from the
irrelevant (noise) information so that athletes concentrate on one cue or
stimulus (for example, the ball, position of player in a game of tennis)
to the exclusion of others. SA is very important when accuracy or fast
responses are required and can be improved by learning through past
experience and interaction with long-term memory.
Compare different methods of
memory improvement Method Explanation
Rehearsal Information is repeatedly processed mentally or
physically
Coding Labelling sets of information to make it easier to learn
Brevity Learning small amounts of information at a time
Clarity Ensure information being processed is clear and distinct
Chunking When information is grouped together
Organization When the learning process is organized
Association Ensuring new information is linked to what players
already know
Practice ~rehearsal; both establish a memory trace

Define the term response time Response time = reaction time + movement time

 Outline factors that determine Response time is an ability, having individual and group variance (for
response time example, gender and age)
Reaction time includes stimulus transmission, detection, recognition,
decision to respond, nerve transmission time and initiation of action

As the number of stimuli increases, the reaction time increases =

Hick’s law
Evaluate the concept of the When a stimulus is closely followed by a second stimulus, the first
psychological refractory period stimulus must be cleared before the second stimulus can be processed.
(PRP) S2 only becomes relevant when S1 is finished being processed !
single channel hypothesis. The delay in reaction time to a second
stimulus is called the psychological refractory period.

Examples include ‘dummies’ in sport

Describe a motor programme Motor programme = a set of movements stored as a whole (executive
programme) in the memory regardless of whether feedback is used in
their execution

A motor programme consists of subroutines

Examples include gymnastics routine and swimming

Compare motor programmes from
both open- and closed-loop Open loop Closed loop
perspectives Does not use feedback Uses feedback
A fast movement. E.g. a golf swing Relatively slower movement. E.g.
following the flight path of a soccer ball in the air before jumping to
head the ball
Skills are well learnt Skill is relatively not as well learnt
Control centre provides all the information for effectors to carry out
movement Control centre uses information to effectors to
initiate movement
Stimulus ! memory trace ! motor action Stimulus ! memory trace
! memory trace initiates motor programme ! perceptual trace
controls movement ! motor action ! feedback detects errors !
memory trace

Outline the role of feedback in

information processing models Intrinsic Received from inside the performer via proprioceptors
Extrinsic Received from outside the performer via
exteroceptors
Knowledge of performance Info about execution of
performance Knowledge of results Info about the outcome of
the performance
Positive Encourages good behaviour Negative
Discourages bad behaviour
Concurrent Received during the activity Terminal
Received after the activity

Outline the role of feedback with the Reinforcement of learning, motivation, adaptation of performance,
learning process punishment

5.3 Principles of skill learning

Assessment statement Teacher’s notes

 Distinguish b/w learning and Learning is a relatively permanent change in performance brought
performance about by experience, excluding changes due to maturation and
degeneration

Performance is a temporary occurrence, fluctuating over time

A change in performance over time is often used to infer learning

Describe the phases (stages) of Cognitive/verbal phase ! the activity is completely new to the
learning learner and athletes learn through labels and physical
demonstrations, needs external feedback, learners less likely to self-
correct, quick rate of improvement

Associative/motor phase ! movements are regularly practised and

refined, associates their movements with the mental image of the
skill, starts to self-correct performance

Autonomous phase ! skills appear automatic, reaction time is

shorter as motor programmes are well learnt, does not need external
feedback, skill is performed with a greater level of skill,
consistency, accuracy, fluency etc.

Outline the different types of Positive acceleration | negative acceleration | linear | plateau
learning curves
Discuss factors that contribute to Physical maturation | physical fitness | individual differences of
the different rates of learning coaches | age | difficulty of task | teaching environment | motivation
Define the concept of transfer Transfer = the effect of learning one skill on the learning of another
Can be positive, negative or zero transfer
Outline the types of transfer
Type of transfer Explanation Example
Skill to skill b/w 2 skills Rugby league skills to rugby
union
Practice to performance Performers develop skills through
practice in a competitive environment 3 v 3 training to a 5 v 5
basketball game
Abilities to skillsAbilities to skillsBalance as an ability to balance
on the beam in gymnastics
Bilateral Limb to limb Kicking a football with either
foot
Stage to stage Skills that are learned in the cognitive stage will
develop until the associative stage

~motor skill development Adding a flip to a gymnastics

routine
Principles to skill Principles to skills Principles of
defensive play in soccer

 Outline the different types of
practice
Explain the different types of
presentation
Outline the spectrum of teaching
styles
6.1 Statistical analysis
Assessment statement
Outline that error bars are a
graphical representation of the
variability of data
Calculate the mean and standard
deviation of a set of values
Type of practice Explanation Example
Distributed practice Practice interspersed with rest of an
activity Shooting free throws throughout basketball training
Massed practice Little or no rest b/w simple skills 30 minutes of
shooting in basketball
Fixed (drill) Continual repetition of the same skill in. a closed
environment Free throws
Variable practice Practicing a skill in a variety of different contexts
Shooting in games, shooting free throws, shooting with time
constraints
Mental practice Mental or cognitive rehearsal of a skill
Running through plays in head
Type of presentation Explanation Example
Whole Skill is demonstrated and practised as a whole Javelin
throwing
Whole-part-whole Whole skill is demonstrated and practised
first, before being broken down into its constituent parts and then
progressed back to the whole skill Implementing a new play in
basketball
Progressive part Parts of the skill are practise individually before
being linked together Kicking and breathing taught before
swimming
Part Parts of the skill are demonstrated and practised
individually 100 m sprinter practices the start only
Command ! authoritarian style, teacher makes all decisions,
learner is dependent on coach, beneficial for beginners
Reciprocal ! peer coaching, generally more positive feedback,
gives confidence
Problem solving approach ! teacher presents a problem with task
and lets learner find a solution, more independence, experience is
required
Each spectrum of teaching style may be more suited to different
stages of learning
Notes
The distribution of data values is often represented by showing a single
data point, representing the mean value of the data, and error bars to
represent the overall distribution of the data
Calculator
State that the statistic standard
deviation is used to summarise the
spread of values around the mean,
and that within a normal distribution
approximately 68% and 95% of the
values fall within plus or minus one
or two standard deviations
respectively.
Explain how the standard deviation
is useful for comparing the means
and the spread of data between two
or more samples
Outline the meaning of coefficient
of variation
Deduce the significance of the
difference between two sets of data
using calculated values for t and the
appropriate table
Explain that the existence of a
correlation does not establish that
there is a causal relationship
between two variables
6.2 Study Design
Assessment statement
Outline the importance of
specificity, accuracy, reliability and
validity with regard to fitness
testing.
Discuss the importance of study
design in the context of the sports,
exercise and health sciences
Outline the importance of the
Physical Activity Readiness
Questionnaire (PAR-Q)
Evaluate field, laboratory, sub-
maximal and maximal tests of
human performance
6.3 Components of Fitness
The statistic standard deviation is used to summarise the spread of
values around the mean, and that within a normal distribution
approximately 68% and 95% of the values fall within plus or minus
one or two standard deviations respectively.
A small standard deviation indication that the data is clustered closely
around the mean value. Conversely, a large standard deviation
indicates a wider spread around the mean
Coefficient of variation is the ratio of the standard deviation to the
(μ)
σ
mean expressed as a percentage
A t-test can be used to determine if two sets of data are significantly
different from each another
Two-tailed test t-test = tests the possibility of the relationship in both
directions. The critical area of a distribution is two-sided and tests
whether a sample is greater than or less than a certain range of values
Paired t-test = designed to compare the means of the same group under
two separate scenarios
Unpaired t-test = compares the means of two independent or unrelated
groups.
A correlation does not necessarily establish a causal relationship
between two variables. They can only indicate how or to what extent
variables are associated with each other
Notes
Specificity = extent to which a test reflects a scenario
Accuracy = degree to which a measurement is correct
Reliability = degree that repetition can give the same result
Validity = extent that a test measures what it claims
Demonstration of causality in experimental results by the inclusions of
control groups, randomisation, placebos, blinding and double-blinding
and statistical analysis.
Very important as it verifies the health and well-being of the possible
test subjects, as to not put their health or lives at risk. Assesses the
readiness for an individual to participate in a general training program.
It also is important to meet the ethical criteria of a study.
Field = conducted in the ‘field’ ! not accurate or reliable as Lab =
conducted in the lab ! better than field
Maximal = performance at max rates ! primary data and more reliable
than sub-maximal, however sub-maximal tests are more applicable in
some cases

 Assessment Statement Notes

Distinguish b/w the concepts of
health-related fitness and
performance-related (skill-related)
fitness
Health-related fitness includes body composition, cardio-respiratory
fitness (aerobic capacity), flexibility, muscular endurance, strength
Performance-related fitness includes agility, balance, coordination,
power, reaction time and speed.

Some components of performance-related fitness (agility, balance,

Outline the major components of
fitness identified in 6.3.1
coordination) could become health-related for certain groups such as
the elderly and those suffering from hypokinetic diseases.
HRF
Aerobic Capacity = the rate of energy release by aerobic respiration
Flexibility = the ROM which a joint can move through
Body Composition = the proportions of bone, muscle and fat
Muscular Endurance = the ability of a muscle to perform repeated
actions or to maintain an isometric action for an extended period of
time
Strength = the maximal force that a muscle can generate in one
maximal effort

PRF

Power = the ability to perform a maximum effort within the shortest

period of time
Reaction time = the time it takes one to initiate a response to a
particular stimulus
Agility = a rapid, whole body movement with change in speed or
direction in response to a stimulus
Balance = maintaining equilibrium
Coordination = control of body parts to complete a sequence of
movements
Speed = the rate of motion
Outline and evaluate a variety of
fitness tests

Aerobic capacity

Fitness test Procedure Advantages Limitations Overall Validity

Multistage fitness test/ A measure of aerobic
bleep test capacity of 20m shuttle
runs. On time with
beeps periodically
increasing. Maximal
test
Simple to set up and Environmental factors can High
conduct affect results
More than one athlete Hard to monitor if done
can be tested at once with a lot of people
Can be administered Lack of motivation can
indoors and outdoors hinder results

Limited expertise needed Only predicts VO2 Max

Score is known by the

participants

Need to be well rested

before the test

Safety/ethics must be
considered

 Cooper’s 12 minute run Assistant gives the
command “GO”, starts
the stopwatch and the
athlete commences the
test. The assistant keeps
the athlete informed of
the remaining time at
the end of each lap
(400m). The assistant
blows the whistle when
the 12 minutes has
elapsed and records the
distance the athlete
covered to the nearest
10 metres
Minimal equipment Specific facilities required Medium/High
required. – 400m track
Simple to set up and Assistant required to
conduct administer the test
More than one athlete Requires correct pacing
can participate at once
The test can be
administered by the
athlete

Harvard Step Test The assistant gives the Minimal equipment Assistant required to Medium
command “GO” and required administer the test
starts the stopwatch.
The athlete steps up and Simple to set up and Prediction does no account
down onto a standard conduct for individual variation in
gym bench once every heart rate
two seconds for five Can be conducted almost
minutes (150 steps). anywhere Reliance on heart rate
The assistant stops the values
test after 5 minutes. The Suitable for more
assistant measures the participants
athlete’s heart rate
(bpm) one minute after
finishing the test –
Pulse 1. The assistant
measures the athlete’s
heart rate (bpm) two
minutes after finishing
the test – Pulse 2. The
assistant measures the
athlete’s heart rate
(bpm) three minutes
after finishing the test –
Pulse 3.

Flexibility

Sit and reach Participant removes Minimal equipment Assistant required to High
shoes. The athlete sits on required administer the test
the floor with their legs
fully extended with the Simple to set up and Specialist equipment
bottom of their bare feet conduct required
against the box. The
athlete places one hand
on top of the other,
slowly bends forward
and reaches along the top
of the ruler as far as
possible holding the
stretch for 2 seconds.
Performed 3 times and
averaged to give result

Muscular Endurance

 Max sit ups The athlete lies on the Minimal equipment Assistant required High
mat with the knees bent,
feet flat on the floor and Simple Only testing the
their hands on their ears muscular endurance of
where they must stay Can be conducted nearly one area of the body
throughout the test. The anywhere
assistant holds the
athlete’s feet on the
ground and gives the
command “GO” and
starts the stopwatch. The
athlete sits up touching
the knees with their
elbows, then returns
back to the floor and
continued to perform as
many sit-ups as possible
in 30 seconds, while the
assistant continues to
inform the athlete of the
time remaining.

Max push ups The athlete lies on the No equipment required Only testing the High
ground, places their muscular endurance of
hands by the shoulders Simple one area of the body
and straightens the arms.
The athlete lowers the Can be conducted Good technique is
body until the elbows anywhere required
reach 90 degrees and
then extends to return to Assistant
the starting position.
This action is continued
with no rest until they
are unable to continue.

Flexed arm hang The athlete raises their Minimal equipment Only testing the Medium/High
chin above the bar and muscular endurance of
uses this flexed arm hang Simple one area of the body
position with the palms
of the hand facing them. Assistant
Assistant starts the
stopwatch and stops it Bodyweight affects
once the athlete’s chin
has dropped below the
bar or 30 seconds has
elapsed

Agility

Illinois Agility Test The athlete lies face Minimal equipment Difficult to set up High
down on the floor at the
start cone. The assistant Simple Assistant
gives the command
“GO” and starts the Test can be administered Timing inconsistencies
stopwatch. The athlete by the athlete
jumps to his/her feet and
negotiates the course Conducted anywhere
around the cones
following the red line
route shown in the
diagram to finish. The
assistant stops the
stopwatch and records
the time from start to
finish

Strength

 Hand grip dynamometer The athlete using their Minimal equipment Specialist equipment High
dominant hand applies as required
much grip pressure as Simple
possible on the Assistant
dynamometer. The Conducted anywhere
assistant records the Only strength of the
maximum reading (kg) forearm
and the test is repeated 3
times with the highest Requires calibration
recorded value being
used

Speed

40 meter sprint The athlete sprints the 40 Minimal equipment Assistant High
metres as fast as
possible. The athlete Simple to test Environment affects
rests for 30 seconds and
performs these 5 more Indoors or outdoors
times and the time is
recorded by the assistant
each time

Body Composition

BMI Simple Does not take into Low

account muscle
Cheap
Does not account for
differences in population

Anthropometry Anthropometry is a Easy Works best on people Medium

simple reliable method with only average to low
for quantifying body size Cheap body fat
and proportions by
measuring body length, Skill of the person with
width, circumference the callipers is required
(C), and skinfold
thickness (SF)

Underwater weighing Relies on the density of Expensive High

muscle and body fat,
thereby accounts for Equation assumes that
muscle fat mass and fat-free
mass is constant for all
Can be tested on all people
types of bodies
Specialised equipment

Balance

Stork Stand Stand on one foot and Simple Never occurs in a real- Low
balance as long as life sporting situation
possible
Environment will affect

Coordination

Hand Ball test Bounce a ball and catch Simple Technique affects Medium
it as many times in 30
seconds Minimal equipment Only measures hand-eye
coordination

Only applicable to
specific scenario

Reaction time

 Drop Test Assistant holds a ruler Simple Assistant Medium

and participant hovers
fingers griped at base of
the ruler with arm
perpendicular. When the
assistant drops the ruler,
the participant catches as
fast as possible and
distance is measured

Computer simulation High

Power

Vertical Jump Start with hand Minimal equipment Hard to control chalk Low
outreached. Us a ruler
taped to the wall. With Simple Difficult to jump with an
chalk jump and draw as outstretched arm
high as possible Can be administered by
the athlete Only tests leg power

Conducted anywhere Requires timing of the

participant to mark at the
Can be relevant to some peak of their jump
sports that require lower
limb power Performance could
improve with practice

Can only test one person

at a time

Fatigue affects reliability

Standing broad jump Jump as far as possible Minimal equipment Leg length varies High
from a standing start
Administered by the Body weight
athlete
Technique is important
Simple
Environment (sand pit vs
hard ground)

6.4 Principles of training programme design

Assessment statement Notes

 Describe the essential elements of a
general training programme
Discuss the key principles of training
programme design
Warm-up and stretching should be included in a general training
program and should be the first thing done, before the main event is
carried out. Prepares the body for the more strenuous exercise that
is about ready to occur with an elevated heart and breathing rate,
warming the body.
Endurance training is required to bring the body to the desired state
for use in a particular sport which will help to prevent injury and
simply improve performance.
Cool down and stretching should also be implemented to slowly
reduce the intensity of the activity done as the main event. Prevents
muscle soreness due to a build up of the by-product of lactic acid.
Maintains flexibility and help keep muscles loose.
Flexibility training aims to improve the range of motion and
movement of joints which prevents injury, improves biomechanical
efficiency, which improves the health and performance of the
athlete
Resistance training increases muscle strength which improves
overall performance but also improves bone health, controls body
fat and decreases the risk of injury
The incorporation of recreational activities and sports into the
schedule will keep the performer enjoying sport and keep relaxed
an healthy. Better physical and mental wellbeing
Progression = gradually increasing the amount of exercise to
maintain progression after biological adaptations
Overload (frequency, intensity and duration) = to increase the
difficulty which allows for consistent progression
Specificity = the process of replicating the characteristics of
physical activity in training to ensure it is benefiting performance
Reversibility = how long it takes you to lose that base fitness
Variety = providing different activities, formats and drills in
training while still addressing the aims of the training program.
Decreases boredom and allows for consistent progression
Periodisation = a structured, organised approach

 Outline ways in which exercise Heart rate is used based upon its relationship with oxygen uptake,
intensity can be monitored that is, target heart rate that coincides with a given percentage of
maximal oxygen uptake

Karvonen method is a mathematical formula that helps you

determine your target heart rate (HR) training zone.

Target HR = [(max HR – resting HR) x %intensity] + resting HR

example

Training heart rate range/zone is used to determine the range of

HR values based upon intensity

220 – 20 (Age) = 200

195 – 45 (Rest. HR) = 150
150 x .60 (Min. Intensity) + 45 (Rest. HR) =

220 – 20 (Age) = 200

195 – 45 (Rest. HR) = 150
150 x .70 (Max. Intensity) + 45 (Rest. HR) =

Ratings of perceived exertion (Borg/OMNI/CERT scale)

Borg scale associates numbers to your perceived exertion and

determines the heart rate by multiplying that number by 10

OMNI scale associates numbers from 0-10 with categories starting

at extremely easy to extremely difficult

CERT is similar to OMNI

All designed for younger kids to articulate their level of intensity

 7.1 The skin system
Assessment statement
Annotate a diagram of the
generalised structure of the skin
Describe the functions of the skin
7.2 Structure and function of the brain
Assessment statement
Label the location of the principal
structures of the brain
Label the location of the principal
lobes of the cerebrum
Outline the blood supply to the
brain
Describe the principal source of
energy for brain cells
Notes
Label: epidermis, dermis, fat, sweat gland, sebaceous gland, hair
follicles
Regulation of body temperature: if the body is too hot, vasodilation
will occur, and the skin will release fluid as sweat to cool the skin. If
the body is too cold, vasoconstriction will occur, and the arrector pili
muscles will contract.
Protection and immunity: from pathogens, UV and mechanical damage
Sensation: all for the ability to sense; touch, pressure, vibration,
temperature, pain
Excretion: allow for excretion
Synthesis of vitamin D: UV strikes epidermis, striking some molecules
of 7-dehydrocholesterol, creating vitamin D3
Notes
Label: the brain stem (medulla), the diencephalon, the two hemispheres
of the cerebrum, the cerebellum
Label: frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, limbic (underneath
temporal)
Left / Right vertebral arteries supply blood to brain stem + back of
brain with the basilar artery. Left / Right carotid arteries supply blood
to 1) external: face / scalp 2) internal: cerebrum
Brachiocephalic trunk supplies blood to right arm, head and neck
The blood brain barrier protects the brain from ‘foreign substances’
and maintains a constant environment by separating blood from
extracellular fluid in the CNS
The brain obtains energy using glucose and oxygen, which pass rapidly
from the blood to the brain cells. Glucose and oxygen are used to make
ATP inside the brain by the process of aerobic respiration.
Carbohydrate storage in the brain is limited, so the supply of glucose
must be continuous. If blood entering the brain has low glucose or
oxygen levels, mental confusion, dizziness, convulsions, and loss of
consciousness may occur.

 Explain the function of the principal
parts of the brain
8 The endocrine system
Assessment statement
Label the location of the major
endocrine organs in the human body
Describe the role of circulation
(blood) and local hormones
Explain how circulating hormones
are regulated
Explain the relationship between the The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland are together responsible for
hypothalamus and the pituitary
gland
Brain stem - respiratory and cardiovascular control centres.
Diencephalon: Thalamus – perception of sensations and cognition,
Hypothalamus – control of autonomic nervous system (ANS), heart
rate and blood pressure, pituitary gland, body temperature, appetite,
thirst, fluid and electrolyte balance, circadian rhythms.
Cerebrum – responsible for high-level brain functions such as thinking,
language and emotion and motivation. Divided into 3 broad areas:
sensory, association and motor.
Frontal lobe – many aspects of association such as reasoning and
motivation, planning, emotions and problem-solving. Also contains the
speech and movement motor areas.
Parietal lobe – somatic sensory and motor areas linked to movement,
body awareness, orientation and navigation. Also contains symbolic
and speech association areas
Occipital lobe – visual sensory and association area; many aspects of
long-term visual memory.
Limbic lobe – concerned with association processes such as emotion
behaviour, motivation and long-term memory.
Cerebellum – helps to smooth and coordinate sequences of skeletal
muscle contractions, regulates posture and balance, makes possible all
skilled motor activities.
Notes
Label: hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland,
adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries and testes
Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands to regulate and coordinate
a range of bodily functions. Release of most hormones occurs in short
bursts, although some are secreted over longer periods of time in order
to stimulate permanent changes to the body. Hormones affect only
specific target cells by (chemically) binding to specific receptors.
Circulating hormones travel around the body in the blood. Examples
include adrenaline and testosterone. Local hormones act on
neighbouring cells without entering the bloodstream and are usually
inactivated quickly. Examples include glucagon and serotonin.
They are regulated by complex feedback loops that may be influenced
by 1) signals from the nervous system, such as adrenaline 2) chemical
changes in the blood, such as insulin 3) and other hormones, such as
human growth hormone (HGH)
homeostasis. The hypothalamus is the part of the brain that controls the
pituitary gland. The pituitary gland is an endocrine gland located in the
brain below the hypothalamus. Neurohormones, such as GHRH and
somatostatin from the hypothalamus, directly influence the pituitary
gland. Nerve impulses from the hypothalamus also stimulate the
pituitary gland.
The pituitary gland secretes hormones, such as Antidiuretic hormone
(ADH) and human growth hormone (HGH), that help regulate a wide
range of bodily functions including growth, and water and temperature
regulation