Biology F4

Chapter 14:
Support and Movement in
Humans and Animals
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Types of Skeletons
1. Hydrostatic skeleton – The skeleton is the fluid in the soft body of animals such as earthworms
2. Exoskeleton – The skeleton is outside the body such as insects and crabs
3. Endoskeleton – The skeleton is inside the body such as humans and fish
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Necessity of Skeletal System in Animals and Humans

1. To provide locomotion
2. To give shape and support
3. To protect internal organs
4. To provide firm base for attachment of muscles
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Sternum

1. Body shape is important to enable the organs in the body to function properly.
2. Functions of skeletal system to humans:
i.
ii.

3. Animals with legs below the body able to lift their body mass above the ground to reduce friction
while moving.
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Musculoskeletal System of Humans

1. Axial skeleton 2. Appendicular skeleton
Skull Pectoral girdle
Vertebral column Pelvic girdle
Ribs and Sternum Upper limbs
Lower limbs
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Human Skeletal System
1. Axial skeleton
Skull Cranial bones
Facial bones
Upper and lower jaws
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Human Skeletal System
1. Axial skeleton
Vertebral column Cervical vertebrae 7 (neck)
Thoracic vertebrae 12 (thorax)
Lumbar vertebrae 5 (waist)
Sacral vertebrae 5 (pelvic girdle)
Caudal vertebrae 4 (pelvic girdle)

• Made up of 33 small bones (vertebra).

• Extends from the base of skull to pelvic girdle.
• Each vertebra is separated by disc of cartilage
(intervertebral disc) to absorb shock.
• Functions: Support and balance the body
Protect the spinal cord
Support the skull Fused bones
Provide surfaces for muscle attachment
Fused bones
Structure of a typical vertebra Spinous process
Site for muscles attachment
and ligaments

Transverse process
Site for muscles attachment Neural arch
and ligaments Protects spinal cord

Neural canal
Articulating surface (facet) Carries spinal cord
Provides surface which join with the
next vertebrae
Centrum
Provides support and absorb shock
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Cervical vertebrae
1. Atlas vertebra
2. Axial vertebra
3. Cervical vertebra
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1. Atlas vertebra (C1)
• No centrum
• Large neural canal
• Small transverse process
• Short spinous process
• A pair of transverse foramina –
contain blood vessels
• Join with the base of skull

2. Axial vertebra (C2)

• Odontoid process – join with atlas
• Large neural canal
• Small transverse process
• Large spinous process
• A pair of transverse foramina
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3. Cervical vertebrae (C3 – C7)

• Small centrum
• Large neural canal
• Small and wide transverse process
• Short spinous process
• A pair of transverse foramina
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Thoracic vertebrae
• Medium-sized centrum
• Long transverse process
• Long spinous process
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Lumbar vertebrae
• Biggest and strongest vertebra
• Big centrum
• Short transverse process
• Short spinous process
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Sacral vertebra - Sacrum

• 5 fused triangular bone

Caudal vertebra - Coccyx

• 4 fused triangular bone
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Differences
Aspect:
1. Spinous process
2. Transverse process
3. Centrum
4. Transverse foramina
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Joints
1. Immovable joints
✓ Points where the bones are fused together
✓ No movement
✓ Example: Suture
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Joints
2. Slightly movable joints
✓ Allows slight movement at the joint
✓ Example: Cartilage discs between vertebrae
Cartilage between ribs and sternum
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Joints
3. Freely movable joints
✓ Made up of cartilage, synovial membrane, synovial fluid,
capsule and ligament.
Ligament
Joins bone to bone
and holds the bones in
position Capsule
Encloses and protects
Synovial fluid the joint
Lubricant that reduces
friction between bones
Synovial membrane
Cartilage
Secretes synovial fluid
Cushion to absorb
into synovial cavity
shock and reduce
friction between bones

✓ Example: Hinge joint, ball-and-socket joint

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Ball-and-socket joint
✓ Allows movement in all planes.
✓ Allows rotational movement in all directions.
✓ Example: Shoulder joint, hip joint
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Hinge joint
✓ Allows movement in one plane.
✓ Example: Found at elbow, knee, phalanges
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Skeletal muscles
✓ Muscles that attach to bones
✓ Muscles contract to allow movement
✓ Exist as paired antagonistic muscles (if one muscle contracts, the other relaxes)
✓ When muscle contracts, it becomes shorter and thicker. A pulling force is produced to move the bones.
✓ Example: Biceps (flexor – causes bending of arm when it contracts)
Triceps (extensor – causes straightening of arm when it contracts)
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Tendon
✓ Connects muscles to bone
✓ Non elastic
✓ Function: Transmit pulling force produced during contraction of muscle to the bone, to pull the bone
and cause movement.

Ligament
✓ Connects bone to bone
✓ Elastic
✓ Function: Prevent dislocation of bones and gives support and strength to joints.
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1. Axial skeleton:
2. Function of cartilage:
Function of synovial fluid:
3. Tendon is inelastic while ligament is ……………..
Tendon connects …………. to bone while ligament connects ………… to bone.
4. Hinge joint allow movement of bones in one plane while ball-and-socket joint ……………………
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Bending of the arm

✓ Biceps contracts while triceps relaxes.
✓ A pulling force is produced by the contraction of biceps.
✓ The pulling force is transmitted to the radius through the
tendon.
✓ The radius is pulled upwards and causes the arm to
bend.
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Straightening of the arm

✓ Triceps contracts while biceps relaxes.
✓ A pulling force is produced by the contraction of triceps.
✓ The pulling force is transmitted to the ulna through the
tendon.
✓ The ulna is pulled downwards and causes the arm to
straighten.
Text Book Page 273 Antagonistic muscles during walking
✓ The right calf muscle contracts to
straighten the leg at the ankle.
✓ The heel of the foot is raised from the
ground.
✓ Biceps femoris contracts while quadriceps
femoris relaxes to bend the leg at the
knee.
✓ The foot is raised up and the body thrusts
forward.
✓ Quadriceps femoris contracts while biceps
femoris relaxes to straighten the leg.
✓ Tibialis contracts to lower the heel of the
foot onto the ground.
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Fish
✓ Has an endoskeleton for the attachment of muscle.
✓ Muscles in fish are in the form of W-shaped
segmental blocks called myotomes on both sides of
the backbone.
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Myotomes act antagonistically
✓ Fish moves forward due to the contraction and
relaxation of myotomes on either side of the
body.
✓ When myotomes on the right contract,
myotomes on the left relax.
✓ The body bends to the right.
✓ The alternate contractions of right and left
myotomes cause the body and the tail to sweep
from side to side.
✓ This produces a forward thrust that propels the
fish forward.
✓ Fish has fins to balance the body in the water
and to control the direction of movement.
 Bird
Text Book Page 275 ✓ Flight in bird is due to the action of
the large and strong of breast
muscles: pectoralis major
pectoralis minor
✓ These muscles act antagonistically
to enable the wings to flap
downwards / upwards during flight.

Downstroke of wings
▪ Pectoralis major contracts,
pectoralis minor relaxes.
▪ Wings are pulled downwards.

Upstroke of wings
▪ Pectoralis minor contracts,
pectoralis major relaxes.
▪ Wings are pulled up.
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Earthworm
✓ Wall of earthworm is made up of a pair of
antagonistic muscles:
circular muscle
longitudinal muscle
✓ When circular muscle contracts, longitudinal muscle
relaxes, the body becomes thin and long.
✓ When longitudinal muscle contracts, circular muscle
relaxes, the body becomes thick and short.
✓ Alternate contractions and relaxations of the
antagonistic muscles result in a peristaltic waves
along the body of earthworm to enable the
earthworm to move forward.
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Longitudinal muscle contracts,

Circular muscle relaxes.

Circular muscle contracts,

Longitudinal muscle relaxes.
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Grasshopper
✓ Antagonistic muscles:
flexor muscle
extensor muscle
✓ Flexor muscle bends a joint while extensor straightens it.
✓ Long and muscular hind legs are adapted for jumping.
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Flexor contracts,
Hind legs are folded in Z shape
and ready to jump.

Extensor contracts,
Hind legs are straightened.

This causes an upward and forward force

which propels grasshopper to jump.
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1. Hollow bones are light which allow them to fly.

2. Bending of arm
Biceps contracts, triceps ………
Pulling force produced by the contraction of biceps is transmitted by ………… to the radius.
The radius is pulled upwards.
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3.
• Fish moves forward due to the contraction and relaxation of myotomes on either side of the body.
• When myotomes on the right contract, myotomes on the left relax.
• The body bends to the right.
• The alternate contractions of right and left myotomes cause the body and the tail to sweep from side
to side.
• This produces a forward thrust that propels the fish forward.
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4.
• At rest, the flexor on the hind leg …….., pulling the leg towards the body. In this position, the hind
leg is folded into a Z shape and the grasshopper is ready to jump.
• When the extensor contracts, the hind leg is straightened backwards.
• The hind legs projects the grasshopper forward and up into the air.
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Osteoporosis
✓ Low bone mass.
✓ Light, soft, porous bones.
✓ Causes: Insufficient intake of calcium, phosphorus, vitamin D
Lack of exercise
Low oestrogen during menopause – loss of calcium
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Osteomalacia (adults) / Rickets (children)

✓ Softening of bones.
✓ Causes: Lack of calcium, phosphorus, vitamin D
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Arthritis
✓ Decreased synovial fluid.
✓ Wear and tear of cartilage.
✓ Joints become swollen, painful and less flexible.
✓ This restricts movement.
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Scoliosis
✓ Spine curves to the side.
✓ Caused by genetic factors or
abnormal growth of backbone.
✓ Treatment: Braces to prevent
further curvature of spine.
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Practices to maintain a healthy
musculoskeletal system
✓ Exercise
✓ Balanced diet
✓ Good body posture
✓ Suitable clothes
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1. Have a balance diet.

Correct body posture.

2. Braces can be used to prevent further curvature of spine and to support the backbone.

3. Osteoporosis is a disease where the bones becomes thin, porous and break easily. It can be
prevented by taking calcium, phosphorus and Vitamin D.

4. Wear proper attire.

Maintain good posture.
Exercise regularly.
CHAPTER 14
TOP CLASS PELANGI
SECTION B
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