Bio 统一小考—chapter 14

Support and locomotion in human and animals

Movement: same position
Locomotion: Different position
Types of skeleton
Endoskeleton 内骨骼
Exoskeleton外骨骼
made up of chitin 几丁质 or calcium
Ecdysis蜕皮
Ex: Lobster龙虾, Spider, Cicada 蝉
Hydrostatic skeleton
Musculoskeletal肌肉骨胳 system of human
Made up of 206 bones硬骨 and cartilage软骨
Function:
Enables movement
Provides shape and support for so body tissue
Protects internal organs
Produces blood cell
Stores certain minerals such as calcium and phosphate
Skeletal system
Axial skeleton 中轴骨
Skull 头骨
cranial bones颅骨 (x8)- protect the brain
facial bones面部骨骼(x14) - formed mouth and nose
Ribcage胸廓
Ribs肋骨
Costal cartilage肋软骨
Sternum胸骨
Vertebral column脊柱
made up of 33 small bones call vertebrae脊椎
extends from the base of the skull to the pelvic girdle骨盆带
Each vertebra is separated from each other by disc 阀瓣of cartilage called
intervertebral椎间 dics. The cartilage dics absorbs the impact of shock冲击
and serves as a flex point for bending.
Vertebral column is S-shaped and function:
support and balance the body
protect the spinal cord骨髓
support the skull
provide surfaces for the attachment of muscles
Cervical vertebrae 颈椎 （7）
Atlas vertebra (first cervical vertebra)
located in the neck
No centrum椎体
Has a large neural canal椎管
Has small transverse processes横突（長且尖細的橫突，為腰部原
來的肋骨退化而成）
Has a pair of transverse foramina颈椎横突孔（在颈椎椎体侧面，
由椎弓根，横突前、后根及肋横突板围成一个卵圆形孔）, one
on each transverse process
Has a short spinous process棘突：脊椎骨上的一种突起，位于椎
体后方，起到支持和保护脊髓的作用
Joins with the base of cranium 头盖骨to support the head and to
enable nodding of the head
Axial vertebra (second cervical vertebra)
Has a projection from the centrum called odontoid process 齿状突
（使头左右旋转）to airticulate with the atlas
Has small transverse processes
Has a pair of transverse foramina
Has a large spinous process
Joins with the atlas vertebra to enable the head to move from le
to right
Third to seventh cervical vertebra
Has a pair of transverse foramina which contain artery, vein and
nerve to carry blood to and from the brain
Has a short spinous process
Has a flat centrum
Has small and broad 广泛transverse process
Thoracic vertebrae胸椎（12）
located at the thorax胸腔
Extra facets at the end of transverse processes and sides of centrum to
articulate with ribs肋骨
 A long spinous process and tranverse process for the attachment of
back muscles
Has a thick and big centrum
Lumbar vertebrae腰椎（5）
Located at the waist腰
The biggest and strongest vertebra
Short spinous process
Thick and large centrum
Long transverse processes for muscle attachment
Sacrum骶骨(5)
located at the hip臀部
Sacral vertebrae fused to each other to form sacrum
Has four openings through which nerves leave the spinal cord
Triangle in shape
Neural canal gradually becomes narrower and finally disappear
Facet at the back of the first transverse processes on each side
articulates with the pelvic girdle
Coccyx尾骨（4）
4 vertebrae fused together to form coccyx(the tail)
Transverse process: provides a large surface area for attachment of
muscles and ligament
Articulating surface (facet): Provides surface which articulates with the
next vertebra
Spinous process: Provides a large surface area for attachment of muscles
and ligaments
Neural arch: Protects the spinal cord
Neural canal: Contains the spinal cord
Centrum: Provides support and absorbs shock.
Compare and contrast the types of vertebrae
 Appendicular skeleton附肢骨
Forelimb前肢
Humerus肱骨
Radius桡骨
Ulna尺骨
Carpals腕骨
Metacarpals掌骨
Phalanges指骨
Hindlimb后肢
Femur 股骨
Tibia胫骨
Fibula腓骨
Tarsals跗骨
Metatarsals跖骨
Pectoral girdle 肩带
Scapula
Clavicle
Pelvic girdle骨盆
Ilium髂骨
Ischium坐骨
Pubis耻骨
Compare and contrast the types of vertebrae
Similarities
All vertebrae have spinous and transverse processes, centrum (except the atlas
vertebra) and neural canal,
The neural canal of all the vertebrae contains the spinal cord脊髓.
 Differences
Spinous cord
Cervical vertebrae : Short
Thoracic vertebrae : Long
Lumbar vertebrae ：Short
Sacral vertebrae : None
Caudal vertebrae : None
Transverse process
Cervical vertebrae : Wide and short
Thoracic vertebrae : Long
Lumbar vertebrae ：Long
Sacral vertebrae : Becomes shorter gradually
Caudal vertebrae : None
Centrum
Cervical vertebrae : Small
Thoracic vertebrae : Big
Lumbar vertebrae ：Large
Sacral vertebrae :Centrum of sacral vertebrae fused to form the sacrum
Caudal vertebrae :Centrum of caudal vertebrae fused to form the coccyx
Transverse foramina
Cervical vertebrae : One transverse foramen at each transverse procss
Thoracic vertebrae :None
Lumbar vertebrae :None
Sacral vertebrae :None
Caudal vertebrae :None
Extra facets
Cervical vertebrae : None
Thoracic vertebrae :Facets at the end of transverse processes and sides of
centrum for articulation with the ribs
Lumbar vertebrae ：None
Sacral vertebrae :Facets at transverse processes of first sacral vertebrae to
join with the pelvic girdle
Caudal vertebrae : None
Joint
Immovable joint 不动连结
Gliding joint 微动连结
 the joint between vertebrae (by cartilage disc) at the vertebral column allow the
vertebral column to bend slightly forward, backward and to the sides
the joint between the ribs and the sternum胸骨 (by cartilage) that allow the ribs
to move slightly during the breathing process
Movable joint 活动关节

also known as synovial joint

made up of cartilage, synovial membrane, synovial fluid, capsule and ligament
Ligament
joins bone to bone and holds the bones in position
Elastic and can be stretched to allow movement at the joint
Holds the bone together at the joint
Prevents dislocation of bones and gives support and strength to the
joint.
Synovial fluid - fills the cavity between the bones, acts as a lubricant to
reduce friction between the bones at the joint
Cartilage - at the surface of bones that meet and absorb shocks and
reduces frictions between bones
Capsule-the fibrous connective tissue that encloses and protects the joint
Synovial membrane
located at the joint cavity
secretes synovial fluid into synovial cavity
The synovial fluid acts as a lubricant to reduce friction between the
bones at the joint
Ex:
Hinge joint
 allows movement in one place
found at the elbow, knee and phalanges趾骨
Ball and socket joint
allows movement in all planes - allow rotational movement in all
directions
Found at the shoulder joint and hip joint.
Mechanism in Human Forearm
Bending of the arm
Biceps contracts while triceps relaxes.
A pulling force is produced by the contraction of the biceps
This force is transmitted through the tendon to the radius
The radius is pulled upwards and cause the arm to bend at the elbow
The forearm moves upwards
Straightening of the arm
Triceps contracts while biceps relaxes
A pulling force is produced by the contraction of the triceps
This force is transmitted through tendon to the ulna
The ulna is pulled downwards and causes the arm to straighten at the elbow joint
The forearm moves downwards
Mechanism in Human Leg
Leg movement is produced by the action of the antagonistic muscle in the leg:
The biceps femoris as the flexor muscle
The quadriceps femoris as the extensor muscle
These muscles in the leg act to
bend the leg at the knee and to raise up the femur for the leg to move forward
lower the femur and straighten the leg at the knee
过程
脚尖碰地
The right calf muscle contracts to straighten the leg at the ankle
The heel of the foot is raised from the ground
脚抬起
The flexor muscle of the thigh called biceps femoris contracts while the extensor
muscle called quadriceps femoris relaxes to bend the leg at the knee
The foot is raised up and the body thrusts forward
脚往前走
 The quadriceps femoris contracts while the biceps femoris relaxes to straighten
the leg
The tibialis at the shank contracts to lower the heel of the foot onto the ground.
Mechanism of Locomotion in Earthworm
wall of earthworm is made up of a pair of antagonistic muscles
Circular muscles - surround the body of earthworm
Longitudinal muscles - extend from one end of body to the other
The circular muscles contract , Longitudinal muscles relax and the body become thin
and long
The circular muscles relax, longitudinal muscles contract and the body become thin and
short
The peristaltic wave along the body of the earthworm enables the earthworm to move
forward
Mechanism of locomotion of fish
has an endoskeleton for the attachment of muscles
muscles in fish are in the form of segmental blocks calles myotomes on both sides of the
flexible backbone
fish move forward due to the contraction and relaxation of myotomes on either side of
the body
Myotomes act antagonistically
when myotomes on the right contract , myotomes on the l relax
the body bends to the right
the alternate contractions of right and le myotomes cause the body and the tail to
sweep from side to side
this produces a forward thrust that propels the fish forward in a straight path
the lateral thrusts produced in opposite directions cancel off each other
fish has fins to balance the body in the water and to control the direction of
movement
Mechanism of locomotion of grasshopper
The antagonistic flexor and extensor muscles are attached to the inner surface of the
exoskeleton
The flexor muscle bends a joint while the extensor straightens it
The hind legs of a greasshopper are long and muscular especially adapted for jumping
First , the hind legs are folded in the shape of Z due to the contraction of the flexor
muscles. The hind legs are fully flexed and prepared for jump
Then, the extensor muscle contracts while the flexor muscle realxes. The hind legs
are extended and straightened
 A force is produced downwards and backwards. This causes an upward and forward
force which propels the grasshopper to jump into the air.
Mechanism of locomotion of bird
Flight in bird is due to the action of the large and strong breast muscles
Pectoralis major - lower part of the humerus
Pectoralis minor - upper part of the humerus
Muscle act antagonistically enables the wings to flap downwards or upwards during
flight
flapping of the wings is due to the antagonistic action of the breast muscles
Downstroke of wings
When the pectoralis major on both wings contrascts, pectoralis relaxes
Wings are pulled dowmwards and backwards
Air resistance produces an upthrust on the wings
The upthrust is transmitted from the wings to the coracoid to li up the whole
body upwards and onwards
Upstroke of wings
The pectoralis minor on both wings contracts, the pectoralis major relaxes.
Wings are pulled up.
Air resistance is low
The wings return to the starting position.
Health Issues Related to the Human Musculoskeletal System
Osteoporosis
bone disorder due to the thinning of bone mass or low bone mass
有这种病的人：light , so and porous bones
导致bones become brittle and fragile.
通常发生在年老的妇女身上
the rate of calcium loss is higher compared to the rate of calcium absorption.
This results in a loss of bone mass.
In women who reach menopause, the oestrogen level is low. Oestrogen is
required to help the body to absorb calcium and reduce calcium loss from the
bone. Hence, a low level of oestrogen can reduce bone mass due to the loss of
calcium from the bones.
Causes
Insufficient intake of calcium and phosphorus
Insufficient intake of vitamin D which helps in the absorption of calcium
Lack of exercise
Symptoms
 Fractures of the vertebrae, wrist or hips, loss of height and stooped posture
Prevention
Diet rich in calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D
Regular exercise
Osteomalacia
due to the so ening of bones in adults
caused by a severe vitamin D deficiency during the bone maturing process in
children and young adults
these so ened bones can lead to bowed legs and fracture
Causes
Lack of calcium and phosphorus to build strong bones
Lack of vitamin D to help in the absorption of calcium and phosphorus
Symptoms
Dull, aching pain in the lower back, pelvis, hips, legs and ribs
Decreased muscle tone and leg weakness cause difficulty in walking
Treatment
Sufficient intake of vitamin D and calcium to strengthen the bones
Rickets
so ening and weakening of bones in children
due to the lack of vitamin D and calcium which is needed to build strong bones
The bones especially in the legs are bowed because they are weak and cannot
support the body
Cause
Lack of vitamin D due to lack of exposure to sunlight or a diet deficient in
vitamin D
Lack of calcium during formation of bones in children
Can be due to genetic factors in some cases
Symptoms
Pain at the affected bones causes difficulty in walking in children
Thickening of the ankles, wrists and knees, bowed legs, so skull bones
Stunted growth due to poor growth and development of the skeleton
Bones can becomes weaker and prone to fractures in severe cases
Treatment
Intake of food rich in calcium and vitamin D
Take vitamin D supplement

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