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Graphical Approach to Precalculus with Limits 6th Edition Hornsby Solutions Manual

Section 2.1 69

Chapter 2: Analysis of Graphs and Functions

2.1: Graphs of Basic Functions and Relations; Symmetry
1. (,  ).

2. (,  ); [0,  )

3. (0, 0)

4. [0, ); [0,  )

5. increases
6. (, 0]; [0, )
7. x-axis
8. even
9. odd
10. y-axis; origin
11. The domain can be all real numbers; therefore, the function is continuous for the interval (, ) .

12. The domain can be all real numbers; therefore, the function is continuous for the interval (, ) .

13. The domain can only be values where x  0; therefore, the function is continuous for the interval [0, ).

14. The domain can only be values where x  0; therefore, the function is continuous for the interval (, 0].

15. The domain can be all real numbers except 3; therefore, the function is continuous for the interval
(, 3)  (3, ).
16. The domain can be all real numbers except 1; therefore, the function is continuous for the
interval (,1)  (1, ).

17. (a) The function is increasing for the interval  3,  

(b) The function is decreasing for the interval  ,3

(c) The function is never constant; therefore, none.

(d) The domain can be all real numbers; therefore, the interval (,  ).

(e) The range can only be values where y  0; therefore, the interval [0, ).

18. (a) The function is increasing for the interval  4, 

(b) The function is decreasing for the interval  , 1

(c) The function is constant for the interval  1, 4 

(d) The domain can be all real numbers; therefore, the interval (,  ).

(e) The range can only be values where y  3; therefore, the interval [3, ).

19. (a) The function is increasing for the interval  ,1

(b) The function is decreasing for the interval  4, 

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 70 Chapter 2: Analysis of Graphs of Functions

(c) The function is constant for the interval 1, 4 

(d) The domain can be all real numbers; therefore, the interval (,  ).
(e) The range can only be values where y  3; therefore, the interval (,3].
20. (a) The function is never increasing; therefore, none.
(b) The function is always decreasing; therefore, the interval (,  ).
(c) The function is never constant; therefore, none.
(d) The domain can be all real numbers; therefore, the interval (,  ).
(e) The range can be all real numbers; therefore, the interval (,  ).
21. (a) The function is never increasing; therefore, none
(b) The function is decreasing for the intervals  , 2  and  3,  

(c) The function is constant for the interval (2,3).

(d) The domain can be all real numbers; therefore, the interval (,  ).
(e) The range can only be values where y  1.5 or y  2; therefore, the interval (,1.5]  [2, ).
22. (a) The function is increasing for the interval (3, ).
(b) The function is decreasing for the interval (, 3).

(c) The function is constant for the interval  3,3

(d) The domain can be all real numbers except 3; therefore, the interval (, 3)  (3, ).
(e) The range can only be values where y  1; therefore, the interval (1, ).

23. Graph f ( x)  x 5 . See Figure 23. As x increases for the interval (, ), y increases; therefore, the
function is increasing.
24. Graph f ( x)   x3 . See Figure 24. As x increases for the interval (, ), y decreases; therefore, the
function is decreasing.
25. Graph f ( x)  x 4 . See Figure 25. As x increases for the interval  , 0  y decreases; therefore, the

function is decreasing on  , 0 

26. Graph f ( x)  x 4 . See Figure 26. As x increases for the interval  0,   , y increases; therefore, the function

is increasing on 0,  
[-10,10] by [-10,10] [-10,10] by [-10,10] [-10,10] by [-10,10] [-10,10] by [-10,10]
Xscl = 1 Yscl = 1 Xscl = 1 Yscl = 1 Xscl= 1 Yscl = 1 Xscl = 1 Yscl= 1

Figure 23 Figure 24 Figure 25 Figure 26

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 Section 2.1 71

27. Graph f ( x)   | x | . See Figure 27. As x increases for the interval  , 0  , y increases; therefore, the

function is increasing on  , 0  .

28. Graph f ( x)   | x | . See Figure 28. As x increases for the interval  0,   , y decreases; therefore, the

function is decreasing on  0,   .

29. Graph f ( x)   3 x . See Figure 29. As x increases for the interval (, ), y decreases; therefore, the
function is decreasing.

30. Graph f ( x)   x . See Figure 30. As x increases for the interval  0,   y decreases; therefore, the

function is decreasing.

[-10,10] by [-10,10] [-10,10] by [-10,10] [-10,10] by [-10,10] [-10,10] by [-10,10]

Xscl = 1 Yscl = 1 Xscl = 1 Yscl = 1 Xscl= 1 Yscl = 1 Xscl = 1 Yscl= 1

Figure 27 Figure 28 Figure 29 Figure 30

31. Graph f ( x)  1  x 3 . See Figure 31. As x increases for the interval (, ), y decreases; therefore, the function is
decreasing.
32. Graph f ( x)  x 2  2 x. See Figure 32. As x increases for the interval 1,   y increases; therefore, the

function is increasing on 1,   .

33. Graph f ( x)  2  x 2 . See Figure 33. As x increases for the interval  , 0  y increases; therefore, the

function is increasing on  , 0  .

34. Graph f ( x) | x  1 | . See Figure 34. As x increases for the interval  , 1 y decreases; therefore, the

function is decreasing on  , 1 .

[-10,10] by [-10,10] [-10,10] by [-10,10] [-10,10] by [-10,10] [-10,10] by [-10,10]

Xscl = 1 Yscl = 1 Xscl = 1 Yscl = 1 Xscl= 1 Yscl = 1 Xscl = 1 Yscl= 1

Figure 31 Figure 32 Figure 33 Figure 34

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Amphibole slip-fiber asbestos has lately been mined on a small scale in
Maryland, near Pylesville. It is used for filters. Several years ago a small
production was recorded from Dalton, Massachusetts, and New
Hartford, Connecticut.
Anthophyllite asbestos occurs in Idaho, near Kamiah. It is not of
spinning grade, is of low tensile strength, and is inferior to all but the
lowest grades of chrysotile. The deposit is evidently large, but the
production is almost negligible.
Canada and Newfoundland.—The most important asbestos-
producing deposits of the world are those of the province of Quebec,
Canada, chiefly in the region of Thetford and Broughton. Asbestos
occurs in serpentine of Cambrian age, the area in which the important
mines are found extending from southern Vermont to Gaspé, in the
Province of Quebec. The serpentine lies in three prominent belts. The
Danville-Eastman-Vermont serpentine belt is about 62 miles long. The
scattered outcrops probably are connected beneath the heavy drift
deposits and forest growth. Prospects have been worked in six places,
but the production attained is small. The belt is an uncertain quantity,
that gives fair promise of a large future supply.
The Thetford-Black Lake area is the important area of Quebec and
now the most productive asbestos district of the world. In 1917 there
were 17 active mines in the district. In 1918 the quantity of rock mined
was 2,445,745 tons, and the total asbestos production was 159,225 tons,
valued at $9,053,945. The Broughton and the central and eastern
Thetford areas are mainly slip-fiber asbestos. The West Thetford, South
Ireland, and North Coleraine Township deposits constitute the vein-fiber
belt which yields the high-grade spinning asbestos that has a world-wide
reputation.
Serpentine rocks bearing chrysotile asbestos are reported near Port au
Port, in Newfoundland, probably representing a continuation of the
Quebec belt. The possibility of commercial development is uncertain.
Mexico, Central and South America.—Asbestos deposits have been
reported in Brazil, but aside from this no commercial deposits have been
noted in South America.
There is no record of asbestos deposits in Mexico or in Central
America.
Europe.—The asbestos deposits of Russia probably rank next to those
of Canada. The principal mines are 57 miles north of Ekaterinburg, in the
Ural Mountains. The quarries can be worked only from May to
November in each year. Transportation is over the Perm Railroad, and
the output is exported via Riga. The fiber is of the same type as the
Canadian, a chrysotile asbestos, chiefly of the cross-fiber type. The
richest ore yields 42 to 55 pounds of asbestos per cubic yard. Production
has also been reported by the South Urals Asbestos Co., operating in the
Orsk district, in Orenburg. Russian asbestos is said to be harsher than
Canadian and less suitable for spinning, but a great deal of high-grade
fiber has been produced and Russia is likely to be an important future
source of asbestos.
The asbestos of Italy is of the anthophyllite variety. There are three
main districts: the Susa Valley deposits, near the French border, which lie
6,000 to 10,000 feet above sea level and are, therefore, not readily
available; the Aosta Valley deposits, of wide extent, with long-fibered,
strong, and soapy product; and the deposits in Lombardy, also of great
extent. Italian asbestos may be used to some extent as a substitute for
Canadian fiber, or to mix with it, but the supply of high-grade fiber is not
great, and it is more difficult and expensive to work than the Canadian
material. The United Asbestos Co., of London, England, is the largest
producer.
Large deposits of asbestos are known on the island of Cyprus. The
material is derived from serpentine and is of the amphibole anthophyllite
type. Much of it is short-fibered but some of it can be used to mix with
Canadian fiber.
Good spinning asbestos has been noted in central Finland but
production up to the present time is almost negligible.
Asbestos deposits have been noted in England, Scotland, Ireland,
France, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, Germany, Norway, Greece, and
Turkey, but all the above deposits are said to consist of coarse and brittle
material of little commercial value. A large deposit of good asbestos is
reported in the island of Corsica.
Asia.—Deposits are known in various districts of India. Asbestos is
also reported in Afghanistan. Indian asbestos is of inferior tensile
strength, and the lack of development renders it an uncertain resource.
The United States Geological Survey reported in 1912 that three
asbestos mines were in operation 45 miles northeast of Antung, China.
The product, which was shipped into Manchuria, is of the amphibole
(anthophyllite) type and quite brittle. Chrysotile asbestos of good quality
is reported south of Lake Baikal, in Mongolia. It has never been mined,
and on account of its remoteness is not likely to be developed. Deposits
yielding a small output are reported from several other provinces.
 Asbestos deposits occur in several localities in Japan. The output is of
inferior quality and is mixed with imported material for asbestos
packing. The Japan Asbestos Co., of Osaka, is the chief manufacturer of
asbestos products.
Deposits have been opened at Minusinck, on the Yenesei River, in
Siberia, but production is reported for the year 1905 only. Transportation
is difficult.
Africa.—The asbestos of Cape Colony is crocidolite, or blue asbestos;
it is of the amphibole type and will not bear high temperature, probably
on account of its iron content, but is longer, stronger, finer, and more
elastic than chrysotile. On account of its low fusibility it is useful in
electric welding. The mineral occurs in three important districts and
outcrops at numerous points from the Orange River north to
Bechuanaland. Government engineers report it to be the largest asbestos-
bearing area in the world. The principal deposits are at Koejas, where the
Cape Asbestos Co., Ltd., produced in 1916 about two-thirds of the total
amount of asbestos mined in South Africa. Blue asbestos is gaining favor
in foreign markets, and this fact, in connection with the great extent of
the deposits, indicates that these deposits constitute an important factor
in world supply.
Large and probably extensive deposits of chrysotile asbestos of the
finest quality occur in the Transvaal. Three companies have recently
operated in this district. Production, which began about 1914, in which
year 30 tons were reported, had increased to a total of 407 tons in 1916.
A new and important development is the mining of a long-fibered
amphibole asbestos known as “amosite.”
A small output of asbestos from Natal has been reported for several
years; however, the fiber is not high grade and an increase of production
is not likely.
Important deposits occur in southern Rhodesia. The Southern
Rhodesia Geological Survey reports that there is in sight several years’
supply for an output of 200 tons per month without going deeper than 60
feet. The “probable ore” supply is very great. It has been stated that the
Rhodesian fiber is the only class of chrysotile asbestos that can compete
successfully with the best grade of Canadian fiber.
Australasia.—A chrysotile-bearing serpentine belt covers a
considerable area in Queensland. A deposit occurs near Rockwell, South
Australia. The Australia Asbestos Manufacturing Co. has produced a
small amount of material similar to Italian asbestos. A small amount of
chrysotile has also been found. A deposit of chrysotile prospected in New
South Wales is claimed to have the longest asbestos fiber in the world.
No production has been reported. In the Pilbarra district, West Australia,
there is chrysotile asbestos of spinning grade which is said to be superior
to either the Russian or Italian product. Some years ago a mine was
worked to considerable depth by the Pilbarra Asbestos Co., of London,
England, but in recent years the production has been almost negligible.
In New Zealand chrysotile asbestos of spinning grade occurs in Nelson
Province. The Australasian Asbestos Co., of Sydney, has recently
prospected the serpentine belt of Tasmania, which contains both
chrysotile and anthophyllite asbestos.

DEVELOPMENTS AND CHANGES IN DISTRIBUTION OF

MINES
The United States leads all nations in the manufacture of asbestos
products, and the large supply of asbestos in Quebec is readily available.
There is, therefore, little prospect of any radical change in the
geographical distribution of American asbestos mines. As there is always
a possibility of such changes, however, it is well to consider the
controlling factors.
As to the future of the Quebec deposits, the present source of supply,
little definite information is available. The fact that serpentinization is a
deep-seated process has led Canadian geologists to conclude that
commercial fiber may be formed to the full depth of the original
peridotite rock. For all practical purposes, however, the depth of the
deposit is limited to the depth at which asbestos can be extracted
profitably. One mine is now working at a depth of 300 feet and drill
holes sunk 400 feet farther indicate a thickness of at least 700 feet of
good fiber-bearing rock. Cirkel has stated that in one of the Black Lake
quarries there is 44,377,500 tons of asbestos rock in sight above the
railway tracks, ready for immediate exploitation. A deduction of 50 per
cent. for waste rock would leave 22,000,000 tons of mill rock available,
or enough to supply for 22 years a plant capable of producing 4,000 tons
a day. As this includes only the visible ore it may be inferred that the
reserve is very great. Cirkel estimates the total acreage of productive
vein fiber as 12,420, of which 1,100 acres is under development at the
present time. A geologist who spent two summers studying the geology
of the region states that second-grade fiber is very abundant and that the
high-grade deposits are not more than 25 per cent. exhausted. There is,
therefore, no prospect for many years of any change in the geographical
distribution of working mines through the exhaustion of present deposits.
During 1916 and 1917 the production of high-grade fiber in the United
States grew steadily, but is still far from meeting domestic demands, as
the total United States output in 1917 was only one-eightieth of the
amount imported. The most important development has been in the high-
grade chrysotile districts of Arizona, but these new deposits do not give
promise of an abundant supply, and it is unlikely that they will constitute
a dominating factor in American production.
Legislation may have a profound effect on the development of
deposits. A high export duty placed on raw asbestos by a country now
producing it in large quantities would have the effect of encouraging
prospecting in other countries and the development of deposits that
might supply substitute material. In this connection it is interesting to
note that the Board of Trade of the eastern townships of Quebec
proposed measures to protect the export of raw asbestos, in order to force
the manufacture of asbestos products in Canada. The Canadian Mining
Institute Bulletin (August, 1916) pointed out the dangers of such action,
for other countries would immediately search for asbestos deposits
elsewhere, and as good asbestos occurs in Russia, South Africa, Cyprus,
and other localities, substitutes for Canadian material could probably be
found. It is evident, therefore, that Canada does not control the supply,
but that so long as Canadian fiber is available at reasonable prices there
is no strong incentive for the development of new deposits.
In the Old World the situation is less stable than in America. European
countries import considerable material from Canada, and the balance of
their requirements is filled from various sources, chiefly from Russia,
Cyprus, Italy, South Africa, and Australia. High-grade asbestos deposits
exist in various countries and are for the most part developed to a small
extent. The factors determining changes in production are somewhat
different from those outlined for America. The lack of a strong central
government greatly hampers production in any country. Thus under
recent conditions in Russia the output fell from nearly 20,000 tons in
1913 to about 9,000 in 1916. Stabilized conditions and more efficient
governments would tend to increase the output of several eastern
countries. The most important factor contributing to the slow
development of the Old World deposits is poor transportation. Russian
asbestos for the English market has to pay transportation costs of $25 to
$30 per ton. The important crocidolite deposits of South Africa are
likewise hampered by poor transportation. Not only are the roads poor,
but the most important deposits of Koegas are 18 miles from a traveled
road, and other deposits are about 100 miles from roads. This drawback
is offset to some extent by cheap labor.
The present political upheaval in Europe, involving the formation of
new states and new forms of government, may have a pronounced effect
on the development of asbestos deposits, but until progressive
governments are established and vast improvements made in
transportation, no great increase in production is possible.

POLITICAL AND COMMERCIAL CONTROL

A large share of the asbestos deposits of the world, being situated in
British colonial possessions, are under the political control of Great
Britain. The deposits of Cyprus are at present under British political
control, but this may not be permanent. Before the war, Cyprus was
nominally Turkish, though administered by Great Britain; in 1914, Great
Britain formally annexed the island. Cyprus was offered to Greece in
return for her assistance in the war, but the offer was not accepted.
From information available it is evident that the governments of
Russia and Italy have in the past imposed no serious restrictions on the
development of their asbestos properties through either domestic or
foreign capital.
Below is set forth the commercial control of the asbestos deposits of
the world, by countries, in the following order: United States, Canada,
Russia, South Africa, Italy, Cyprus, and Australia.
In the Globe district of Arizona, in the United States, spinning
asbestos is produced by the Johns-Manville Co., working the Snell &
Fisk property, and by the American Ores & Asbestos Co. The Sierra
Asbestos Co., near Nevada City, California, produced spinning fiber in
1918. As far as is known all the companies operating in the United States
are American owned.
The asbestos mining industry in Canada is confined to the eastern
townships of the Province of Quebec. The largest company is the
Asbestos Corporation of Canada, Ltd., with head office in Montreal. This
company operates the Kings and Beaver mines, at Thetford Mines, the
British Canadian mine, at Black Lake, and the Frazer mine, at East
Broughton. The company is controlled by English, Canadian, and United
States capital. The Bell Asbestos Mines Co., the Asbestos & Asbestic
Corporation, and the Manville Asbestos Co. are wholly or largely owned
in the United States. The remaining companies are mostly controlled by
English or Canadian capital, though United States interests are
represented in some of them. Evidently, therefore, the ownership of the
companies is divided between English, Canadian and United States
capital, with British interests probably predominating.
The most important of the Ekaterinburg mines in Russia are the
Voznesensky and Zoe-Anonsky, near Bazhenof. About one-third of the
total output of the Urals came from these mines in 1916. It is reported
that prior to the war a German syndicate controlled several Russian
mines which produced in all more than 80 per cent. of the entire Russian
output. Germany and Austria were the chief buyers of Russian asbestos
before the war.
In South Africa the crocidolite of Cape Colony is mined largely by the
Cape Asbestos Co., a British firm with mines at Koegas and Westerberg,
and having factories in England, Turin, and Hamburg. A sister company
in France, Compagnie Française de l’Amiante du Cap, handled in 1916
about two-thirds of the total South African production and was the chief
manufacturer of blue asbestos products. In the Transvaal, asbestos is
mined by three companies, The Transvaal Asbestos Syndicate, now
absorbed by the Consolidated Gold Fields; the South African Minerals
Option Syndicate, a subsidiary of the Bechuanaland Exploration Co., and
the Anglo-Swiss Asbestos Co. British capital predominates. The
Rhodesia Asbestos Co., Ltd., was the chief Rhodesian producer until
recently, but in 1917 the Rhodesia and General Asbestos Corporation
was organized with a capital of £400,000 to take over the operating
mines. The commercial control is, therefore, British.
The chief producer in Italy is the United Asbestos Co., of London,
England.
Prior to the war the Cyprus deposits were worked by the Cyprian
Mining Co., an Austrian corporation. As mining concessions are
obtained from the British government by lease on a royalty basis, it is
probable that the lease has now been cancelled.
The deposits in Australasia are practically all controlled by English or
Australian capital.
Mines that have no milling equipment can produce crude fiber which
may be treated at manufacturing plants. The various grades of mill fiber
may be produced only where mills are located at or near the mines. As
the utilization of all grades can be accomplished only with the assistance
of mills, such mills are necessary for efficient mining. Consequently,
with other factors equal, mines with near-by mills have a distinct
commercial advantage over mines that produce crude fiber only.
Although mills are not essential factors in the asbestos-mining industry,
they exert a secondary influence in commercial control through the
increase in mining efficiency that they render possible. For deposits
remote from centers of manufacture, mills are of little advantage, as fiber
below spinning grade will not bear heavy transportation charges. Most of
the United States and Canadian mines have mills for treatment of rock
bearing short fiber. Several of the Russian mines are similarly equipped,
but in other parts of the world little or no milling is done.
A number of important manufacturers of asbestos products in the
United States are owners of or have intimate trade agreements with large
Canadian asbestos mines, and also with some of the domestic mines.
Hence as regards commercial control the United States is practically
assured of a supply of raw material.

POSITION OF LEADING COMMERCIAL NATIONS

Although the United States is the largest manufacturer of asbestos
products in the world, in 1917 less than 1 per cent. of the raw material
was mined in this country. The country is, therefore, largely dependent
on foreign sources of supply. The abundant deposits of Quebec, Canada,
are conveniently near, and so long as the present amicable relations with
Canada continue, an ample supply seems to be assured. In 1916 the
United States used 86 per cent. of the Canadian output. During 1916 and
1917 there was marked activity in developing the high-grade chrysotile
deposits of Arizona. While there is as yet no evidence of an abundant
supply, the material is an important supplementary source of supply
because of its quality.
While no commercial asbestos is mined in the British Isles, British
colonial possessions hold control of about 88 per cent. of the annual
asbestos output of the world and approximately 70 per cent. of the
world’s reserves. Thus, although the supply within the British Empire is
ample, the home requirements of the nation can be met only under
favorable shipping conditions, as all necessary material must be
transported several thousand miles.
Russia is the second largest producer of asbestos in the world, and
seemingly has large reserves. As little manufacturing is done in the
country, practically the entire output is exported. Being independent as
regards her own needs for raw asbestos, Russia requires only the
maintenance of an active foreign market to assure a permanent industry.
 No commercial asbestos deposits are known to exist in Germany.
Prior to the war asbestos was imported chiefly from Russia and Canada.
The chief Russian mines are said to have been controlled by German
capital.
Italy has large deposits of amphibole (anthophyllite) asbestos, some of
which is of spinning grade, but as production has always been small and
has, except for minor fluctuations, been stationary for the past 18 years,
it is unlikely that the deposits can supply domestic requirements of high-
grade fiber. A small amount has been exported for filter use, for which
Italian asbestos is well adapted. As the chief mine is operated by a
British company, considerable Italian asbestos is shipped to England.
No asbestos deposits are worked in France. Supplies are obtained
from Russia, Canada, and South Africa. France is the leading nation in
the manufacture of blue asbestos products.
Several deposits of asbestos occur in Japan, but all are of inferior
quality. The material mined is mixed with imported fiber for the
manufacture of asbestos packing.

SUMMARY
Asbestos is a unique mineral for the reason that it combines
incombustibility and insulating qualities with a fibrous structure that
makes possible its manufacture into fabrics, felts, and similar wares. The
spinning grades of asbestos are most in demand and the problem of
supply hinges largely on the deposits of high-grade chrysotile. Such
material is used for the manufacture of ropes, safety curtains, mats,
packings and friction facings in brakes. The lower grades are used for
making fireproof shingles and other building materials, for insulating,
and for fire brick, acid filters, etc. Although some substitutes may be
found for the lower grades, no substitutes are known for spinning fiber.
Asbestos occurs in three main types, chrysotile, crocidolite, and
anthophyllite; the first and second provide most of the spinning fiber,
and the third is almost all of non-spinning quality. The most important
deposit of chrysotile asbestos is in Quebec, Canada, but large deposits
are worked in Russia and Rhodesia. Crocidolite is mined only in Cape
Colony, South Africa. Large deposits of anthophyllite occur in the
United States, Italy, and Cyprus.
The United States is by far the largest manufacturer of asbestos
products in the world, but produces only a small fraction of the necessary
raw material; it is practically assured of an ample supply of this because
the largest deposits in the world are in the adjacent Province of Quebec,
Canada. The Arizona deposits provide an excellent grade of fiber and
constitute a promising supplementary source of supply, though the
estimated reserves are not great. The British Empire holds a dominating
position, controlling about 88 per cent. of the annual asbestos production
of the world and approximately 70 per cent. of the estimated reserves.
Canada is far in the lead of all countries, supplying about 85 per cent. of
the world’s output. Russia was, before the revolution, second to Canada
as a producer; because of the cost of transportation the chief output is
spinning fiber. South Africa has large reserves of good fiber, but the
output is handicapped by poor transportation.
Exhaustion of the chief sources of supply is not likely for many years,
nor is there immediate prospect of any material shift in the centers of
production, though with improved transportation a shift to South Africa
is possible. The demand for high-grade asbestos will probably increase at
a steady rate.
All the asbestos quarries in the United States seem to be American
owned. The Canadian deposits are controlled by Canadian, English, and
American capital, British interests probably being predominant. British
companies evidently hold exclusive control of the present output in
South Africa, Australasia, and Italy. Before the war the Russian output
was largely controlled by a German syndicate, and the Cyprus output by
an Austrian company.
 CHAPTER XXV
PHOSPHATE ROCK
B R. W. S

USES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK

Phosphate rock is chiefly used, after treatment with sulphuric acid, as
an ingredient of artificial fertilizers. A small quantity is finely ground
and used directly as fertilizer. Lesser quantities are used for making
phosphoric acid and phosphorus. Phosphorus plays an important part in
military operations, being used for incendiary bullets and smoke screens.
Phosphorus also is a common ingredient of matches and the striking
surface on boxes of safety matches, and it enters in small proportion into
phosphor-bronze, phosphor-copper and phosphor-tin.
Substitutes.—Substitutes for phosphate rock may be classed as
natural and artificial. Natural substitutes are phosphatic limestone; other
phosphate-bearing minerals, such as apatite, nelsonite, and wavellite;
guano; marl; animal excrement and bones. Artificial substitutes include
basic slag and manufactured compounds, like ammonium phosphate.

GEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCE
Phosphate rock is a sedimentary deposit containing phosphate of lime.
It occurs as a hard rock interstratified with beds of sandstone, shale, or
other sediments; as amorphous nodular concretions or pebbles in stream
deposits; and as a residuum from the decomposition of phosphatic
dolomite or limestone, or other rocks containing phosphate of lime.
Another type of deposit commonly classed as phosphate rock is the
porous coralline or other limestone of tropical islands which has been
permeated with phosphate leached from guano.
Phosphate deposits of the western United States, Algeria, Tunis, and
Egypt are hard rock beds of the first type. Amorphous nodular deposits
occur in South Carolina, part of Florida, Wales, England, Belgium,
north-central and eastern France, and Russia. The deposits in Tennessee,
Kentucky, and some of those in Florida are residual. Leached guano
deposits are found on the islands of Aruba, Curacao, and Sombrero, in
the West Indies, and on Christmas, Ocean, Makatea, Angaur and other
islands in the Indian and South Pacific oceans.
The reserves in the United States are fairly well known and are
estimated at 6,000,000,000 tons. Reserves of high-grade rock in Algeria
and Tunis have been estimated at 300,000,000 tons. No information is at
hand regarding the quantity of phosphate rock in Egypt or in Europe,
except that Russia is believed to have 80,000,000 tons in one of its fields.
The deposits in the South Pacific islands are estimated at 70,000,000
tons. Before the war the world’s output of phosphate rock was about
6,000,000 tons annually, of which about one-half was mined in the
United States. The next largest production is made in northern Africa.
Phosphoric acid is derived also from apatite, a calcium phosphate that
occurs in veins. Apatite has been mined in the Province of Quebec,
Canada, and in Spain.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
In the Western Hemisphere phosphate rock is produced in the United
States, in Canada, the Dutch West Indies, and French Guiana, and occurs
in Peru and Chile.
United States.—The principal deposits of phosphate rock in the
United States are in Florida, South Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky,
Arkansas, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, and Utah. Although by far the
largest deposits are in the western states, those deposits yield less than 1
per cent. of the whole because of the lack of a large near-by market and
because of high freight rates on the crude rock. It is not a matter of
common knowledge, but it is, nevertheless, a fact, that the western rock
phosphate deposits are so extensive as to be practically inexhaustible,
even if the entire world depended on them for its supply of phosphate.
The Florida phosphate deposits, which are the most extensively
developed in the United States, comprise three classes of phosphate—
hard rock, land pebble, and river pebble. The first is highest grade, the
second is produced in largest quantity, and the third is not mined at
present. The hard-rock deposits lie in a narrow strip along the western
part of the Florida peninsula from Suwanee County to Pasco County, a
distance of approximately 100 miles. The land-pebble phosphate area,
just east of Tampa, is about 30 miles long and 10 miles wide. Sales of
Florida phosphate declined tremendously after 1913 through the
restriction on exports by the war. In 1913 the sales were 2,500,000 tons,
valued at $9,500,000, and in 1915 the production was 1,350,000 tons,
valued at $3,700,000.
South Carolina produces land rock phosphate in the vicinity of
Charleston. River-pebble phosphate occurs in the same area but is not
mined. Some of the South Carolina output has been exported annually.
Sales decreased from 169,000 tons in 1911 to 83,000 in 1915, and the
value in the same years from $673,000 to $311,000.
Tennessee deposits of rock phosphate are in the west-central part and
extreme northeast corner of the state; the latter have not been mined.
Three types are recognized and known by their colors as brown, blue,
and white rock; the last has not been mined recently. The brown rock is
sold under guarantee of 70 to 80 per cent. tricalcium phosphate; the blue
rock varies considerably in its phosphatic content. Sales of Tennessee
phosphate in 1914 were 483,000 tons, valued at $1,823,000; by 1915
they had fallen to 390,000 tons, valued at $1,328,000.
Kentucky has been an insignificant producer of phosphate rock in
recent years. Arkansas phosphate deposits are in the north-central part of
the state. The output is small.
Four western states possess enormous deposits of high-grade rock
phosphate, but their output is as yet insignificant, being only 3,000 to
5,000 tons a year. The producing states are Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming.
Montana is not a producer, although it contains extensive deposits easy
of access and close to rail transportation.
Idaho has an unlimited supply of high-grade phosphate in the
southeast part of the state. A small quantity is mined in Bear Lake
County. The Utah deposits are east of Great Salt Lake, in the Wasatch
and Uintah ranges, and east of Bear Lake. These deposits are extensive,
but the rock is leaner than the general run of the Idaho phosphate,
averaging nearer 60 per cent. than 80 per cent. tricalcium phosphate.
Western Wyoming also is rich in rock phosphate, the deposits being
mostly in the Owl Creek, Wind River, Gros Ventre, and Salt River
ranges. Some of the beds are thick, carrying 80 per cent. tricalcium
phosphate, and extend for many miles. They constitute a reserve supply
that may be called inexhaustible. Small local demand for fertilizer and
lack of cheap transportation may retard for some years the development
of the great and rich western deposits.
An estimate of the quantity of rock phosphate available in the United
States was made several years ago and need not be revised to account for
that mined in the meantime. It is repeated here:

R P R U S
Long tons
Florida 227,000,000
Tennessee 88,000,000
South Carolina 9,000,000
Kentucky 1,000,000
Arkansas 20,000,000
345,000,000
Western States: Montana, Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming 5,367,082,000
Total 5,712,082,000

Canada.—The principal phosphatic rock in Canada is apatite, which

occurs in workable quantity in two main districts—one in the Province
of Ontario, the other in the Province of Quebec. These deposits, which
were worked mainly by quarrying, are now practically abandoned. Rock
phosphate occurs in a thin bed near Banff, Alberta, but is not used.
South America.—In Aruba and Curacao, islands of the Dutch West
Indies, off the coast of Venezuela, are deposits of phosphate rock, from
which a small quantity is mined and shipped to Europe. It is reported that
the output in 1914 was about 100,000 tons, averaging 85 to 90 per cent.
of calcium phosphate.
In Peru, in the Department of Ica, is a deposit of nodular lime
phosphate, which is not used because of a local preference for guano.
A large, rich deposit of phosphate is reported in Chile, about 300 miles
north of Valparaiso, but has not been developed as yet.
Phosphate deposits occur on the Island of Salut and on the
Connetables, close to the coast of French Guiana. The rock is exported.
Europe.—The high-grade phosphate deposits of Belgium are
exhausted, only low-grade deposits remaining. The rock is found in
layers and pockets, and carries between 25 and 65 per cent. of bone
phosphate. The production from 1911 to 1913 averaged more than
200,000 tons annually.
The principal deposits in France are in the Somme and Oise basins.
The best French deposits are higher grade than the Belgian, as they carry
50 to 80 per cent. of bone phosphate, but they are nearly exhausted, only
low-grade material remaining. The production from 1910 to 1914 was
about 300,000 tons annually.
 Important deposits of phosphate rock in Russia can be divided into the
northern, central, and southern groups. The deposits of the southern
group were the only ones exploited before the war. Their output was
about 25,000 tons a year—very small in comparison with the size of the
deposits, which are estimated to contain more than 1,500,000,000 tons.
Some of the rock is high grade, carrying as much as 75 per cent.
tricalcium phosphate, but the normal grade is about 50 per cent.
The only deposits worked extensively in Spain are apatite veins in the
Province of Caceras. After lying idle many years these deposits were
reopened and produced 28,000 tons in 1917.
Low-grade phosphate in the form of beds of nodules occurs in
England, and in Wales. The production has been slight because the
deposits are too small for commercial exploitation.
Africa.—The principal deposits of phosphate rock in Tunis are the
Gafsa fields, in the southern half of the country. There phosphate occurs
in beds several feet thick, but only those carrying more than 58 per cent.
phosphate of lime are exploited. The deposits can be traced for several
hundred miles, and constitute a reserve of hundreds of millions of tons.
Tunis now produces more phosphate than any other foreign country, its
annual output being between 1,500,000 and 2,000,000 tons, most of
which goes to southern Europe.
The deposits of phosphate rock in Algeria are continuations of those in
Tunis, the important mining districts being in eastern Algeria. The
production is over 500,000 tons a year, and the exported rock carries 58
to 68 per cent. of lime phosphate.
Extensive deposits of phosphate occur in Egypt, near the Red Sea, in
thin and irregular beds of the same geologic age (Eocene) as the deposits
in Tunis and Algeria. The best deposits average 70 per cent. lime
phosphate and the output in 1916 was 125,000 tons. There are mines 20
miles from Port Safalga, and concessions 12 miles inland from Kosseir
and also at Sebaia, on the eastern bank of the Nile between Keneh and
Assouan. Beds of phosphate are found in other districts on both sides of
the Nile valley. Practically all the raw rock phosphate produced contains
65 per cent. or more of tricalcium phosphate and is exported mainly to
Japan.
Deposits of phosphate occur 80 to 120 kilometers from the city of
Tripoli in beds more than 1 meter thick. These beds probably are a
continuation of the phosphate deposits in southern Tunis.
Deposits of phosphate are reported in Morocco 125 kilometers south-
southwest of Casa Blanca on the west coast and 70 kilometers from the
end of a railroad. These deposits are said to be comparable to the Gafsa
field, in Tunis.
It is reported that at Dielor, in Senegal, about the latitude of Cape
Verde, the westernmost point on the African coast, there is a phosphate
bed which is 2 meters thick to a depth of 64 meters. The rock carries
only 50 per cent. tricalcium phosphate, so it is not workable under
present conditions, especially in view of the abundant high-grade rock in
Algeria and Tunis.
Phosphates have been found in Natal, near Weenen, Ladysmith, and
Byrnetown, in the form of phosphatic shales and of nodules. The
percentage of tricalcium phosphate in the phosphatic shales is too low
for use in making superphosphates; the phosphatic nodules are of higher
grade but not abundant enough to be of value.
Asia and Australasia.—In the government of Uralsk, in southwestern
Siberia, bordering on the north end of the Caspian Sea, there is reported
to be 600,000,000 tons of phosphate rock. It is said that the greater part
of this material carries 17 to 20 per cent. phosphoric acid, which is
equivalent to 36 to 43 per cent. tricalcium phosphate. The government of
Turgai, which borders Uralsk on the east, is reported to contain
67,000,000 tons of phosphate rock, most of which carries 18 to 19 per
cent. phosphoric acid, or about 40 per cent. tricalcium phosphate. The
highest-grade material reported is 24 per cent. phosphoric acid,
equivalent to about 52 per cent. tricalcium phosphate. All the phosphate
therefore is low grade. No production is reported from either of the
localities.
Low-grade phosphate rock, in sedimentary beds of considerable
extent, and high-grade vein deposits are reported in Palestine, on the east
side of the Jordan. The sedimentary deposits occur also on the west side
of the Jordan. The known reserves are about 3,500,000 tons. The
sedimentary deposits average about 48 per cent. and the vein deposits 77
per cent. tricalcium phosphate. As the vein material is suitable for export,
these deposits have been explored by a French company, but available
information indicates there has been no output.
Islands in the North Pacific Ocean.—After the discovery of phosphate
rock on Rasa Island, 500 miles east of Formosa, a number of years ago,
a Japanese company was formed to exploit the deposits. The rock is rich,
carrying 75 per cent. phosphate of lime, and the reserves are estimated at
2,800,000 tons. In 1915 Rasa Island yielded 50,000 tons. A former
German supply of phosphate is on Angaur Island, in the Pelew group,
east of the southern end of the Philippines. Reserves on this island are
estimated at 2,000,000 to 4,000,000 tons of phosphate rock, mostly of
high grade. Germany increased the output from 45,000 tons in 1910 to
90,000 tons in 1913. Japan has held this island since October, 1914, and
is mining 30,000 tons or more phosphate annually.
Deposits of phosphate, consisting of replacements of dolomitic
coralline limestone, and phosphatic guano are reported on several other
islands in Oceania, as Baker and Fanning Islands, in Polynesia, and Fais
Island, in the West Caroline Islands. It is probable that on other islands
there are commercial deposits as yet undiscovered.
Islands in Indian and South Pacific Oceans.—North of Adelaide, in
Australia, are pockety deposits of phosphate; they are without regular
stratification and are of varying quality. The annual output has been
4,000 to 6,000 tons for several years. In the Otago district, near
Clarendon, New Zealand, beds of phosphate 3 to 12 feet thick rest in
pockets in limestone. There has been very little if any production.
On Christmas Island (Straits Settlements), which lies in the Indian
Ocean 190 miles south of Java, rock carrying 80 per cent. of bone
phosphate is quarried and shipped to Australia and Japan. The deposits
seem to be irregular, but are estimated to contain several million tons of
rock of very high grade. The island belongs to the government of
Singapore. Exploitation of the deposits by the British began in 1900.
Exports in 1913 were 150,000 tons.
Phosphate rock of high grade is mined on Ocean Island, in the Gilbert
Archipelago, between the Marshall and Solomon Islands, east of New
Guinea and north of New Zealand. On this and other so-called coral
islands in the equatorial belt which for ages have been sea-bird rookeries,
leachings from the guano have impregnated the limestone, forming
phosphate rock many feet deep. The deposits on this island are said to be
many millions of tons and are among the richest in the world. They have
been mined since 1901, and have produced as high as 300,000 tons a
year. In 1916 the output was 70,000 tons of rock carrying about 85 per
cent. tricalcium phosphate. The island is a British possession.
Another British possession in the Gilbert Archipelago containing
phosphate rock is Pleasant Island, which is also known as Nauru, or
Ngaru, Island. The deposits are similar to those on Ocean and Christmas
Islands, being very high in calcium phosphate and low in iron and
alumina. Germany formerly owned this island, but it was taken over by
the British in 1917.
Makatea, near Tahiti, in the Society Islands, is estimated to contain
10,000,000 tons of very high-grade phosphate rock, irregularly
distributed between reefs and pinnacles of dolomite. The deposits were
developed as recently as 1910 and yielded more than 300,000 tons before
1917. Some of the rock carries 85 per cent. lime phosphate. The island is
a French possession.

RECENT CHANGES AND DEVELOPMENTS

When the World War began, exports of phosphate rock from the
United States, ordinarily about 1,000,000 tons a year, were cut off and
the annual production of the United States fell from 3,000,000 tons to
1,800,000 tons. There has been a strong recovery in the domestic
industry and if labor and transportation conditions improve there should
shortly be an annual production of nearly 3,000,000 tons for domestic
consumption, or as much phosphate rock for our own use as formerly
was produced for ourselves and a large export trade.
It is surmised that northern Africa will yield larger quantities in the
future than during the pre-war period. Production in Algeria, Tunis, and
Egypt was probably stimulated during the war on account of the large
reduction in the quantity of American rock sent to Europe.
Japan doubtless will make a large output from the German deposits in
Polynesia which came into her possession at the beginning of the war.

COMMERCIAL CONTROL
Ownership of the phosphate deposits in the United States is largely
domestic; some of the Florida hard-rock deposits are owned by French
and (before the war) German companies. The German-owned deposits
were taken over by the Custodian of Alien-Enemy Property, and have
doubtless passed into other hands. The phosphate deposits on Curacao,
Dutch West Indies, are worked by the Curacao Phosphate Mining Co.,
which ships the output to England and Germany. Phosphate deposits in
Algeria and Tunis are exploited by French companies. Some of the
companies work under lease. La Compagnie des Phosphates de Paris and
La Compagnie Algerienne des Phosphates have been mentioned as
engaged in these fields. Deposits on the lower Nile and Red Sea are
worked by the Egyptian Phosphate Co., a British concern, and by the
Societa Egiziana per l’Estrazione de il Commercio dei Phosphati, a
company managed by Italians. It is reported that much of the output goes
to Japan. The Pacific Phosphate Co., Ltd., of London, operates under
concession the phosphate deposits on Ocean and Pleasant islands.
Japanese companies are mining phosphate on Rasa and Angaur islands.

POSITION OF LEADING NATIONS

The United States has the largest known deposits of phosphate rock in
the world, and, as before the war, can supply the needs of other countries
as well as her own. Since mining began about 55,000,000 tons have been
mined, or less than 1 per cent. of reserves. Great Britain possesses
phosphate in Egypt and on Christmas, Ocean and Pleasant islands, and
has imported from the United States and probably from northern Africa.
France and the other Mediterranean countries have an ample supply in
Algeria and Tunis. Germany formerly possessed rich deposits of
phosphate on Angaur Island, in the Pelew group, Polynesia, and on
Pleasant and Ocean islands, but so far as known now lacks a source of
supply. Japan has a large supply of high-grade phosphate at her disposal
on Rasa and Angaur islands.

SUMMARY
The principal use of phosphate rock is as an ingredient of fertilizers.
Lesser quantities are consumed in the manufacture of phosphoric acid, in
phosphorus used in military operations, in the manufacture of matches,
and in metallurgy. Both natural and artificial substitutes are available for
many of the uses of phosphate rock.
Phosphate rock is a sedimentary deposit containing phosphate of lime.
It occurs as a hard rock between beds of sandstone or shale, as
amorphous nodular phosphates in stream deposits, and as a residuum
from the decomposition of phosphatic dolomite, limestone, and other
phosphate-bearing rocks. The porous limestone of tropical islands, where
it is permeated with phosphate leached from guano, is commonly classed
as phosphate rock.
The phosphate rock deposits of present commercial importance are
situated in the United States, Algeria, Tunis, Egypt, and the islands of the
Indian and South Pacific oceans, the United States possessing by far the
largest reserves. Smaller deposits, either undeveloped or nearly
exhausted, are in Canada, Venezuela, Chile, Belgium, France, Russia,
England, Spain, South Australia, and New Zealand.
 During the war the exports of phosphate rock from the United States
decreased greatly. With the return to normal conditions, however, the
United States should experience little difficulty in becoming once more
the principal source of phosphate rock.
The principal phosphate-rock deposits are controlled politically by the
United States, France (Algeria and Tunis), and Great Britain (Egypt). A
number of phosphate-bearing islands in the Pacific Ocean were owned
by Germany before the war, but have been seized by Great Britain and
Japan.
The commercial control of the deposits of the United States is mainly
in the hands of Americans, although German (before the war) and French
interests own some of the Florida hard-rock deposits. The deposits of
Algeria and Tunis are controlled by French companies. The Egyptian
deposits are controlled by two companies, one British and the other
Italian.
Germany will be without a source of supply under her own control
now that she has lost her colonies.