TECHNICAL

S-P-A-B PAMPHLET 5
REPOINTING STONE
AND BRICK WALLING

Photographs: Gerard Lynch/Douglas Kent/Philip Vanning

AND BRICK WALLING
REPOINTING STONE

This pamphlet describes and illustrates the repointing Contents

of old stone and brick walling, a common remedial 1 Introduction
task that is often undertaken unnecessarily, or executed 2 History
badly. The use of strong cement mortars and of 3 Weathering and
unsuitable joint finishes - particularly the unthinking
failure
application of a weather-struck finish in situations
4 Repointing
where it is not appropriate - are common causes of
5 Preparation
damage, and all too often repointing is carried out by
people with insufficient knowledge or poor technique. of joints
Bad repointing can disfigure an old building and, more 6 Mortar mixes
importantly, harm historic fabric. When the correct and mixing
materials and techniques are used, however, repointing 7 Application of
will look attractive, perform satisfactorily and extend mortar
the life of the stones or bricks for many years. 8 References
9 Other advice
10 Glossary

THE SOCIETY FOR THE PROTECTION OF ANCIENT BUILDINGS

 1 Two examples of walling,
Introduction
1 showing the possible
variations in the thickness
of mortar joints:
In masonry, mortar functions to provide a (a) thin vertical joint in ashlar
bed to even out the irregularities of the (b) thicker joints in coursed
individual masonry units (ie the stones or rubble stone walling (finished to
bricks). This helps to spread the weight of give the appearance of squared
the units evenly, and it keeps the building masonry units).
wind- and watertight. The more uneven the
surface and shape of the individual masonry
units, the thicker the mortar bed has to be;
small stones (known as ‘pinning stones’)
may even be incorporated into the joints to
help fill the gaps and reduce the amount of
mortar needed. Conversely, the more regular
the units, the thinner the mortar bed can be
(see Figures 1(a) and (b)).
A secondary function of the mortar is to
provide sufficient friction and adhesion
between the individual stones or bricks to
stop them shifting in relation to one another
and thus increase the strength of the wall.
In the United Kingdom until the late
17th century, there was no separate
‘pointing’ process: joint faces were usually
‘jointed’ (ie finished flush or to a profile) as
the stones or bricks were laid.1,2 In brick

Photographs: St Blaise Ltd

walling built after this time the face of the
original mortar bed was, with increasing
frequency, left unfinished while the wall was
being built. The whole wall was pointed on
completion as one operation, generally with
a more durable mortar mix, in order to
achieve a consistent visual effect. An
additional benefit of a separate pointing
History
process was that pressing the pointing mortar
into place helped to consolidate the joint and
protect the weaker bedding mortar.
2
The term ‘pointing’ is used in this
2.1 Materials
pamphlet to describe the exposed face of a
joint, whether it is the original face of the Masonry in old buildings is usually Key to front cover pictures:
bedding mortar, original pointing or later constructed with lime mortars (see Figure 2), (a) carstone wall with galleting
repointing. It also refers to the process of although earth or earth:lime mortars are also (b) sympathetically repointed
filling or refilling joints with mortar. The found. Common lime mortars comprise lime sandstone walling
term may originally have referred to the use mixed with an aggregate. The lime acts as a (c) trimming perpend ribbon
of the point of a trowel to strike the surface binder, while the aggregate provides bulk on tuck pointing
of the filled joints. and dimensional stability. Local limes are (d) selection of tools for
The term ‘repointing’ is used to describe frequent in early work. Builders would repointing work.
the process of preparing for and then choose ‘white’ or ‘chalk’ limes (also known
renewing surface mortar to joints of old as ‘fat’ or ‘non-hydraulic’ limes) for
masonry. Other technical terms used in this plastering and ‘grey’ or stone’ limes
pamphlet are defined in Section 10. (sometimes called ‘impure’ or ‘slightly
hydraulic’ limes) for masonry work. The
grey limes contain impurities that give an
initial chemical set to the mortar, in addition
to carbonation. In some cases debris and ash
left behind by the lime-burning process
provided further reactive impurities. If there
were no variations in the types of lime
1
2 Lime pointing.
3 Cement pointing.

Photograph: Douglas Kent

Photograph: St Blaise Ltd

available in a particular area, local working some modem Portland cement mortar mixes,
methods were adapted accordingly. In areas it no longer forms the principal binder.3 A
where only non-hydraulic limes were very hard, brittle texture and dull grey colour
available a pozzolanic additive, such as tile is likely to indicate a mortar rich in Portland
dust, might be added to give a hydraulic set. cement, whereas the soft, light-coloured
(For further details see An Introduction to mortar often seen in old masonry is likely to
Building Limes, SPAB Information Sheet 9.) be bound with lime.
Harder lime mortars were employed Not only the lime, but also the
from the late 18th century, before Portland aggregates found in old mortars vary
cement became widely available. Hydraulic according to the materials available locally.
limes began to be used well away from their There might, therefore, be a high proportion
source, the canal network having made it of very coarse or very fine particles, the use
much easier to transport building materials. of which would not comply with any modem
Other materials were also employed to standards for sands and aggregates. Most
increase strength: for example, the black aggregates are ‘as-raised’ (ie dug out of the
mortars widely used in industrial areas were ground on or near the site) silica sand, other
obtained by adding coal, soot or ash to the mineral-based sands and crushed stone.
normal lime:sand mix. Additionally, porous particulates may be
Alternatively, a combination of materials evident. Although crushed brick and tile or
was burnt to create ‘Roman cement’ (so salvaged mortar was sometimes added
called because its warm brown colour was deliberately, much of the porous aggregate
supposedly similar to that of Roman we see is the residue of limestone or chalk
mortars) and other patented natural cements, from incomplete lime-burning and from the
which ranged in colour from light yellow to normal practice of dry-slaking the quicklime
dark brown. These mortars were not used on and aggregate together.
vernacular buildings. Another type of mortar
2.2 Joint finishes
that is occasionally encountered is selenitic
cement, for which several different recipes Most rubble walls appear to have been
existed. A patent of 1870 specified hydraulic completely finished in lime. If not actually
lime gauged with approximately 5% of covered with render, the joints in rubble
plaster of Paris, but alternative versions walling were frequently filled and brought
involved mixing the lime with sulphuric acid forward to the general plane of the face to
and then adding sand or crushed brick. This give the appearance of a rendered wall in
gave a quick-setting, initially strong pointing which the high points of the stones ‘grin’
mix. In wet climates, however, water present through as the surface decays (see Figure 4).
in the masonry tended to weaken selenitic The mortar was often lightly scored with
cements, leading to rapid, localised decay. joint lines to give scale and to emphasise
These early mortars all contrast with the horizontal bedding (see Figure l(b)). The
harder Portland cement mortars, introduced surface might then have been limewashed, in
in the late 1800s, which became particularly which case only the joints ‘read’.
popular after the Second World War (see In rubble walls with a thick mortar bed,
Figure 3). Although lime may be added to the surface area of the mortar was frequently
2
 4 Flint walling indicating good
full and flush pointing to
middle stage of tower.
5 Double-struck pointing on
late 16th-century brickwork
with evidence of colour-
washing and finer false joints
pencilled on.

Photograph: Douglas Kent

Photograph: Douglas Kent

reduced by pressing small chips of stone into ribbon disguised any irregularity in the
the pointing. This is known as ‘galleting’ or bricks or bonding. (For further details see
‘garneting’ (see Figure (a), front cover). Tuck Pointing in Practice, SPAB Information
Many rubble walls have extra-wide joints in Sheet 8.)
places, into which pinning stones - slivers of
stone, slate, oyster shell or broken tile - Weathering and
were inserted. This reduced the amount of
mortar required and thereby minimised both
the cost of materials and the potential for
3 failure
shrinkage.
3.1 Sacrificial decay of mortar
In old brickwork, the joints were also
left flush with the face of the wall, or The masonry of old buildings must be .
profiled to a ‘double-struck’ or ‘overhand’ allowed to ‘breathe’. Whereas modem
finish (see Figures 5 and 6(a)-(c)).As in buildings rely on keeping water out with a
rubble stonework, the mortar could be scored system of barriers, the walls of buildings that
with lines (see Figure 6(d)). This might be pre-date the mid-19th century are usually
achieved freehand in very early work; later, constructed of absorbent materials that allow
more precise lines were ruled with a thin- any moisture that enters to evaporate back
bladed jointer (‘joints jointed’) or the edge out - the ‘raincoat’ and ‘overcoat’ effects
of a penny (‘penny-round’ or ‘penny- respectively. As lime- and earth-based
struck’). Before the late 17th century, most mortars are normally more permeable than
bricks were of irregular shape and colour. the materials they sit between, greater
Evidence is occasionally found of attempts evaporation takes place through the joints.
to emulate higher quality work by creating Salt deposition and frost action are
the illusion of regular bricks and narrow consequently greater at the exposed faces of
joints (see Figure 5): the brickwork on show the joints, causing them to decay faster than
faces is seen to have been given a red ochre the surrounding masonry (see Figure 7(a)).
finish onto which false joints have been Since it is cheaper and easier to repoint at
‘pencilled’ (ie picked out using a paintbrush) intervals than to replace bricks or blocks of
in white or, less commonly, black. stone, the pointing may be regarded as
Between the late 17th and the early 20th sacrificial.
century, tuck pointing was frequently The ‘weathering back’ of mortar joints
employed on facades or enrichments to will be affected by other factors, including
imitate the fine joints in ‘gauged’ work (see the standard of maintenance, degree of
Figure (c), front cover and Figure 6(e)). It exposure, and quality of the original design
was also sometimes used to disguise and construction. Disintegration may be
irregular and damaged or cheap bricks. The accelerated where:
joints were filled flush with mortar coloured not only the top of the masonry but also
to match the bricks and then scored with a both sides are exposed to rain, so that the
narrow groove onto which a thin ribbon of while wall becomes saturated (eg parapets,
finer (usually white, but in later work black garden walls, gate piers, chimney stacks)
or even red) mortar was pressed or ‘tucked’. masonry suffers rapid and frequent wetting
The geometric exactness of the tucked and drying cycles, and is scoured by the
3
 wind (eg comers of buildings)
rainwater fittings are blocked or defective
drip mouldings have been eroded
the original design is defective (eg
inadequate overhangs to copings or cills)
the mortars used contain poorly graded
aggregate or insufficient lime
the mortars used contain unsuitable
materials such as gypsum, ash and
unwashed sea sand, which contain harmful
soluble salts.
3.2 Unsuitably strong mortar mixes
and inappropriate joint finishes
Inappropriate repointing mortar and
techniques can have a disastrous effect on
the appearance of an old building. More
seriously, they can hasten decay of the very
fabric that the repointing is intended to
protect.
It is rare for an original mortar mix to be
too strong for the stones or bricks, but
impermeable cement-based mortars have
often been used for later repointing,
frequently in the mistaken belief that this
would make the wall more weather-resistant.
What actually happens is that rainwater is
shed from the joint faces onto the
surrounding masonry. It is then unable to dry
out through the whole wall as originally
intended, and instead escapes through the
external face of the stone or brick.
Furthermore, cement mortars produce higher
levels of potentially harmful salts as they set
and these may be transferred to the masonry
units. The combination of increased
dampness in the masonry units with the
cycles of frost action and salt crystallisation
on the face of the brick or stone accelerates
the rate of decay and leaves the mortar face
standing proud (see Figures 7(b) and 8).
6 Joint finishes:
Dense, cement-rich mortars also tend to
(a) flush
shrink as they dry, developing fine cracks
(b) double-struck
that admit water under wind pressure and
(c) overhand-struck
capillary action (see Figure 9). Mortar joints
(d) scored
and masonry units are also susceptible to
(e) tuck pointed.
cracking due to thermal, seasonal and
structural movement in the wall (hence the
need for expansion joints in modem
walling). Water locked into the fabric leads
to frost damage, poorer thermal performance
and a higher likelihood of timber decay.
Lime mortars, however, can accommodate
minor movement, and any fine cracks that do
develop will self-heal. Therefore, the use of
strong mortars, even with such hard,
impervious materials as flint and granite,
must be avoided.
The profile of the joint is as important as
the correct choice of mortar (see Figures 10
4
 and 11). Later forms of joint finish, such as
Victorian ‘weather-struck’ or modem
‘bucket-handle’, are unsuitable for
repointing older buildings. Particularly
objectionable is ‘ribbon’ (or ‘strap’)
pointing, in which the mortar stands proud
of the wall face, drawing attention to the
joints rather than producing a unified surface
and creating ledges that trap water. This
recent fashion has become particularly
prevalent in the north of England.
3.3 Plants and wildlife
Ivy should generally be prevented from
growing on old walls. Hedera helix is
particularly harmful: its aerial roots can
penetrate small crevices and loose blocks,
rapidly creating pathways for moisture into
the heart of the wall. Additionally, dense ivy
growth at wall heads can increase wind loads
and contribute to structural failure. Although
ivy sometimes holds the masonry of ruinous
structures together and may be best left until
such time as repairs are instigated, it can
eventually pull walls apart. When ivy is
forcibly stripped from a wall the surface may
become pitted and the masonry loosened.
The parent stem, root and branches should
be cut and an approved herbicide, such as
glyphosate, applied to the exposed surface
(see Section 9.3). Once killed at the roots,
the creeper is best left on the wall until it
has withered away completely before it is
removed. In some circumstances (eg on
sound brickwork where the plant is purely
growing over the surface) ivy poses no threat
and can be left alone.
Masonry bees (usually Osmia rufa) are
another natural threat to pointing. They are
increasingly burrowing into soft mortar
joints due to a decline in the number of
their natural habitats. Their holes disrupt the
bearing capacity of the mortar and tend to
fill with water that expands on freezing and 7 Movement of moisture:
causes deterioration. Birds can also attack (a) wall built of permeable
the mortar in order to get at the bee larvae. materials
The affected areas may be cleaned out and (b) effect of impervious pointing.
repointed, preferably in the late summer or 8 Typical brickwork damage
autumn. The original mortar should normally caused the use of cement
be matched, however strong the temptation instead of lime for localised
to use a hard cementitious mix. The repointing.
provision of artificial nesting boxes on or
near the wall helps deter bees from
recolonising it. In some cases, the temporary
Photograph: Douglas Kent

use of fine netting over walls is also

practical: it should be used in the spring
when bees are searching for nesting sites.
Chemical treatment is possible, but it may
stain masonry and is not always effective in
the long term.
5
 If the areas requiring repointing are in

4 Repointing small isolated sections, great care must be

taken to avoid a patchwork appearance,
particularly in fine brickwork.
Oane of the most common mistakes made It is essential to identify and remedy the
with old buildings is to carry out underlying causes of any problems that
unnecessary repointing, perhaps on the may be contributing to pointing defects.
recommendation of a jobbing builder or of a Repointing may, therefore, need to be
timber treatment or damp-proofing phased in with other maintenance work,
contractor. It is better to seek the advice of such as the repair of leaking rainwater
an independent specialist such as an architect fittings or defective drip mouldings.
or surveyor with experience of working on Specialised forms of pointing are best left
old buildings. to suitably experienced contractors with
Mortar that is simply soft and crumbly the right tools (see Figure (d), front cover).
or that can be damaged with a knife blade It may be sensible to postpone the work, if
does not need to be replaced. Repointing is necessary, until the right person becomes
necessary only where mortar has receded, available.
leaving open joints, or has become very lose. It is good practice to record the condition
The general rule is that repointing becomes and appearance of the wall before
desirable when mortar has weathered back commencing repointing. Photographs are
behind the general wall face to a depth equal satisfactory in most cases, but a survey
to the joint width. In such circumstances, the and drawings may be required for special
practical consequence of delaying repointing architectural features.
is an increasing penetration of moisture into Over-hard, cement-rich mortars and
the wall, leading to greater erosion of the unsympathetic modem joint finishes
wall face. In extreme cases, the result can should not be used. A section of sound
be dry rot in bonding timbers or joists, and original pointing should, if possible, be
a breakdown of internal decorations. found on a sheltered part of the building
A number of principles should be and the mortar and finish matched closely
followed when considering repointing work: in the new work. Take care not to
It cannot be emphasised too strongly that inadvertently select inappropriate later
sound pointing should be left undisturbed. repointing. Where there is no suitable
Old pointing can be an intrinsic part of the pointing to copy, or circumstances have
fabric and character of a building and changed so that the original work cannot
removing it, however carefully, risks serve as an appropriate model, a new
unnecessary damage to arrises of stones mortar should be designed with a strength
or bricks. The wholesale repointing of a no greater than that of the walling
complete elevation is rarely necessary material, and the joint finished flush or
(except where there is tuck pointing, which nearly flush.
cannot be patch-repaired). As some areas Suitably experienced consultants and
of a building are more exposed than builders, preferably with knowledge of
others, localised repointing is usually all local building materials and methods, can
that is needed. usually make a reasonable visual
9 Shrinkage cracks around
hard cement pointing to
gritstone.
10 Inappropriate weather-
struck finish executed in a
hard cement mortar.
Photograph; Douglas Kent
Photograph: Douglas Kent

6
 assessment of existing mortars. However, joints for repointing, and especially when
on complex or large projects, particularly removing hard cementitious pointing.
when dealing with sensitive fabric, Good joint preparation is essential.
laboratory analysis may be needed. Some Raking out to an inadequate depth,
firms that carry out mortar analysis can incomplete clearing and flushing-out of the
also supply visually and technically old joint, and insufficient dampening-down
compatible mortars to match supplied of the masonry are common causes of
samples. pointing failure.
Another method of determining aesthetic Loose material should be carefully raked
compatibility is for the builder to make up out to a depth equivalent to at least twice the
'cookies' using a range of different width of the joint, to give the new mortar an
aggregates mixed with the binder. The effective key (see Figure 12). Wide joints,
cookies should be the thickness of the joints particularly in exposed locations, should be
and, once dry, broken in half. The broken taken back to a minimum depth of 38mm.
edge can then be examined for a match with A specially-designed raking tool is used to
existing mortar. The chosen mix can be remove the soft mortar without harming the
used to carry out a sample panel. arrises of the stones or bricks. The general rule
Sample panels (small areas of repair is that if it is necessary to cut out existing lime
carried out in advance of the main work, pointing with a hammer and chisel, rather than
to demonstrate that the workmanship and rake it out, repointing is not required. In
materials match the originals) should be exceptional circumstances a club hammer and
used on all jobs wherever possible. The sharp chisels or quirks should be used to
panel should be in a representative but remove isolated sections of hard mortar using
preferably visually unobtrusive location. the procedure described in Section 5.2.
Once workmanship and finish standards When preparing joints in galleted work,
have been agreed, the sample panel can be lay polythene sheeting at the base of the wall
used as an exemplar for the remainder of to collect the raked material, which can then be
the project. sieved to reclaim the gallets. Look out also for
Inadequate protection against adverse any stone, slate, or oyster shell pinnings. When
weather is a common cause of failure. removed during raking-out, these should be
If possible, avoid undertaking lime-work left in the joints or marked with chalk and
during the winter months. March to retained nearby for re-use. Heavily eroded
October is the traditional period for joints may require additional packing-out.
working with lime mortars. When the raking-out is completed, all
remaining loose material, including dust,

5 Preparation of joints should be vacuumed or brushed away and

the joint should be gently washed out by
hosing downward with fine spray of clean
water. The removal of debris helps provide
a sound key for new mortar. It is prudent to
5.1 General practice
dampen down the wall face before flushing
It is important to use only very sharp tools out to reduce the risk of suction and
and to wear eye protection when preparing consequent staining.
11 Ribbon pointing -
aesthetically unpleasant and
likely to lead to erosion of the
soft septaria stone seen here.
12 Joints raked out to a depth
equivalent to at least twice
their width in preparation for
repointing.
Photograph: Oliver Leigh-Wood
Photograph: Douglas Kent

7
13 Bricks damaged by the
careless use of a disc cutter
to remove pointing.
14 Sympathetic patch-
pointing of brickwork.

Photograph: James Boutwood

Photograph: St Blaise Ltd

When preparing fine joints in ashlar, stone or brick surfaces (see Figure 13).
particular care is needed and a mason’s saw Where cement pointing adheres so well
or hacksaw blade may be useful. Removal that its removal will damage the surrounding
to a depth of, say, 8mm for a 2mm joint is masonry, it is usually best to leave what
advisable. The more finely executed the wall cannot be removed easily and to patch point
the more obvious will be any damage to with a lime-based mortar. Weathering over
arrises. The joints can be flushed out using time often breaks the bond of cementitious
a syringe. materials, so patience can be rewarded.
5.2 Removal of hard cementitious
pointing
Although remedial action should ideally
involve the replacement of any inappropriate
6 Mortar mixes
and mixing
cement repointing with a lime-based mortar,
6.1 Matching existing mortars
this may not be possible without causing
further damage to the fabric. A small area of The two main ingredients of all mortars are
old cementitious pointing should therefore aggregate and binder. When the mortar is
be carefully cut out as a trial to determine fresh the water content is also very
whether wholesale removal is feasible or an significant. A close look at any old work that
agreed compromise is needed. may have survived in sheltered places, such
Hand tools, such as chisels or quirks and as under the eaves, will give a lot of
a light club hammer, are often most suitable. information about the aggregate. Its size
A range of blade sizes will be needed to fit grading can be judged with a magnifying
the joint without wedging. Both edges of the glass and ruler, and more detailed information
joint are lightly notched first to define the can be found by dissolving the mortar in
length to be removed, taking care to avoid hydrochloric acid (brick-cleaning fluid),
damaging the arrises. The joint is then struck drying and then and sieving it - that is, by
with the blade at right angles to the line of particle size analysis. Can the colour of the
the mortar joint. Pointing the chisel or quirk aggregate be matched from local sands or
back towards the space where mortar has from a national directory of sands? 4 (see
just been removed reduces the risk of Figure 14). Are there porous materials in the
wedging and aids the release of the material. aggregate? There may be pieces of crushed
The use of a hammer and bolster is not brick or tile, pieces of re-used old mortar or -
recommended. very frequently - chalk or limestone specks,
An alternative technique involves the some of which may be difficult to distinguish
use of a handsaw, particularly for fine joints. from inclusions of lime.
Cutting discs, reciprocating blades and air Black mortars have been used,
tools with adapted masonry carving chisels particularly in the 19th century. The colour
can be helpful in removing detrimental may have been achieved with coal, soot and
cement mortar, but they must be properly ash but these all have disadvantages: coal
used and only entrusted to highly may contain clay, which can swell in a
experienced operatives. Incorrectly used, destructive fashion, while soot and ashes
power tools can cause untold damage to often contain a high proportion of
8
 15 Ford Madox Brown's
depiction of dry-slaked lime
mortar being screened prior to
mixing with water for USB in
Work (1852-65).

© Manchester Art Gallery

deleterious salts that cause ironwork, such as will be needed, for example, to replace an
iron ties, to fail. Dark mortars can therefore inappropriate modern cement mix where no
be difficult to match, although it may be traces of the original pointing survive, or
possible to achieve a satisfactory colour where the original mix is known but there
using charcoal and dark aggregate4 where it have been fundamental changes to the
is felt inappropriate to return to an earlier building or its environment — perhaps the
lighter colour (as when repointing around building has lost its roof and become a ruin,
just one or two bricks or stones). The or trees that originally sheltered it have been
charcoal is double-sieved to obtain particles felled. Care should be taken to select a
of the desired size range. To avoid grinding mortar that is suitable for all the
them down, they are folded into the mortar circumstances of the building today.
after mixing, immediately before use, A newly designed mortar mix should
The binder in most old mortars was have a strength no greater than that of the
lime, but there are, or were, many types of masonry units5 and its colour and texture
lime and it requires more experience to tell should be in visual harmony with the units.
what binder was used in an old mortar than The sands and grits used as aggregate
to identify the aggregates. Even with should be sharp and well washed, although
sophisticated analysis, identification is not matching old work will often require local
always straightforward. Frequently a materials with very different characteristics.
combination of simple observations (for Modern 'concreting' sands, which are well
example, of the colour or hardness of the graded, are more likely to be appropriate
mortar) and knowledge of what was locally than soft or 'builders' sands; sometimes a
available will suggest the likely binder. blend of the two works best. The size of the
A few years ago, when there was a very largest aggregate particles should normally
restricted palette of limes and pozzolans to be no more than about one-third of the joint
choose from, cement was often added to width. Porous aggregates contribute to the
lime mortars. This will very rarely, if ever, permeability of the mortar mix and can assist
be appropriate now. 'Gauging' mortars with the initial hardening of pure lime binder.
very small amounts of cement can do more They also help protect the walling from
harm than good, as the cement may prevent damaging soluble salts. They should be used
the lime from working well but not provide in accordance with local tradition.
sufficient robustness in itself. There is also If the old mortar is not contaminated
the temptation for inexperienced or with soluble salts and it is possible to save it
unsupervised operatives to add excessive when it is taken out, then it may be possible
amounts of cement if it is readily available to crush, sieve and re-use it. Depending on
on site. If cement is to be used at all, choose the lime used, it may be substituted for up to
the lowest strength category and be aware one-half of the aggregates in the new mix.
that imported white cements are very strong. When selecting a binder, it should be
remembered that exposed buildings or parts
6.2 Newly designed mortars
of buildings (parapets, chimney stacks etc)
In some cases it will not be possible or will require a stronger mortar than those that
perhaps desirable to match old aggregates are more sheltered. Although harder mortars
and binder closely. A newly designed mortar are generally used with harder materials, this 9
 rule does not hold for very durable materials work was usually dry-slaked in moist sand
such as flint and granite, which need the so that the heat produced, and the thirst of
softest and most permeable mortar possible, the lime, dried out the sand. The whole mix
depending on how exposed their location is. was then punched through a sieve (see
Other factors can also affect the choice of Figure 15). The sieved material was stored in
binder: a hydraulic lime is likely to be a stiff heap and sliced off to be 'knocked up'
preferred to a non-hydraulic one where for use. Further water was added during the
concern exists over possible reaction chopping and beating, and sometimes
between certain sandstones with lime. Expert organic materials were added to help entrain
advice will be needed to establish which air. The working-up was vigorous and
mortar is most suitable for each situation. laborious. On major sites in the 19th century
The tables on pages 10 and 11 are not both pug mills and roller pan mills were
exhaustive but indicate the range of lime- used, but for lesser works mixing by hand
based mixes that can be used when repointing remained normal.
old stone and brick walling. (Details of a Site safety must always be a major
sample mix suitable for repointing flintwork consideration and so quicklime is not likely
are given in Care and Repair of Flint Walls, to be used today on building sites. Although
SPAB Technical Pamphlet 16.) The some suppliers produce dry-slaked mixes,
proportions for a newly designed mix, rather the recent emphasis has been on mixing lime
than one matching the analysis of an old already slaked to form a putty or dry hydrate
mortar, should be judged so that the fine for mixing with the aggregate. Mortars for
material - the lime and any pozzolan - just repointing, as opposed to those for laying
fills the voids between the sand and grit masonry, should be mixed using only the
particles. If additional fine material is used minimum amount of water. This will make
then there will be a tendency for shrinkage them easier to place, minimise shrinkage and
cracks to form, although there may be greater facilitate earlier finishing to profile. Far more
long-term durability. Typical mix proportions effort than is usual with cement must be put
(by volume) are 1:3 or 1:2.5 binder to into mixing to make sure that the lime is
aggregate, but a more accurate judgement can fully plasticised and intimately worked
be made by determining the volume of water around the aggregate particles. The choice of
required to reach the top of a known quantity mixing method is likely to be made on
of dry aggregate in a measuring flask. The economic grounds.
volume of water will equal the volume of High-speed pan mixers and roller pan
lime needed to completely fill the voids. mixers have been used with lime putties in
conservation work. Hydraulic mixes can be
6.3 Mixing
mixed in a bucket with a hand-held paddle
Methods of preparing mortars have changed mixer fitted to a high-powered, slow-speed
greatly. In early work quicklime for masonry electric drill to incorporate air into the mix

Mix Non- Natural hydraulic lime Brick dust Aggregate Key

reference hydraulic as * Cement:lime:aggregate mortars have sometimes
lime* pozzolanic been used for work on old buildings but the use of
NHL 2† NHL 3.5† NHL 5† additive‡ such mixes is being superseded as a result of
Increasing strength

A 1 1-2 problems over the control of mix proportions on

site, coupled with the increasing range of
B 1 2.5-3
hydraulic lime mortars that are available as
C 1 0.25-0.5 2.5-3 alternatives.
† Natural hydraulic limes are classified under BS
Increasing permeability and flexibility

D 1 2.5-3.5
EN 459: Part 1 : 2001 Building Lime6 as NHL 2,
E 1 2.5-3.5 NHL 3.5 and NHL 5 in order of increasing
strength. The classes refer to the compressive
F 1 2.5-3.5
strength in megapascals of a 1:3 lime:sand mix by
G 1 0.5 2.5-3 mass (approximately1:1 by volume) after 28 days.
Users should be aware, however, that the strength
continues to grow considerably over the first
couple of years so the final result may be a much
stronger mortar.
‡ Pozzolanic additives may significantly affect the
final colour of the mortar so require careful
10 selection.
and increase workability; a flail arm screed all the mortar needed for a repointing task
mixer can be used for larger quantities. can be mixed at the outset to ensure
Alternatively, up to a maximum of 7-10% consistent colour. Ready-made non-hydraulic
non-hydraulic lime putty can be added to and NHL 2 lime mortars are increasingly
hydraulic lime mixes, to improve being used to minimise material handling
workability without air entrainment. and quality control problems on site. The
Bell mixers are not ideal for lime ‘coarse stuff’ must be kept covered to
mortars, particularly the relatively dry mixes prevent contamination or excessive drying,
used for pointing. If it is necessary to use although it will stiffen up. If any pozzolan is
this type of mixer, a wet mix can be made used these ingredients should be carefully
and placed on a porous base to ‘drain out’ to batched when the coarse stuff is remixed
a suitable consistency. immediately before use. At that stage very
Because of manufacturing and shelf-life little, if any, water should be added - the
problems with some hydraulic mixes and workability should be achieved by very
brick dust pozzolans, the contents of all bags thorough mixing.
should be simply tested for hydraulicity
before use. Mix the chosen proportions to a
Application of mortar
stiff paste and place in a small dish. Keep
this under water in a warm place and note
how long it takes to firm up. Well stored
7
materials are usable for at least one year
7.1 General practice
after manufacturing. If the set is
unacceptably slow, the bag should be Repointing should always begin from the top
returned to the supplier. of the wall and proceed downwards, so that
With hydraulic lime mortars the setting work can be cleaned down as it progresses
process begins as soon as the water is added, and before the scaffolding is struck. The wall
although the process will vary depending on must be thoroughly dampened prior to
the class of lime. These materials should be repointing and then allowed to dry just
mixed only in sufficient quantities for enough to give some initial suction. This is
immediate use unless trials have been carried essential to establish a satisfactory bond to
out to show that they may safely be the existing work. A garden spray may be
‘knocked up’ without the need to add further suitable but a hose-pipe (used the day
water. Many NHL 2 and 3.5 lime mortars before) will be more effective where the
can be left overnight and even improve if so masonry is very porous. The wall might need
left. soaking two or three times, until it feels cold
With non-hydraulic lime mortars it is but not wet to the touch.
always an advantage to premix a large batch Mortar with the consistency of
and to knock it up when needed. In this way, modelling clay must be well pressed into all

Notes
Masonry type Internal walls External walls Moderate Severe and
(i) A to G refers to mix references in the table on sheltered exposure marine exposure
page 10.
(ii) Where alternative mix references are given,
Highly durable B, C, D, E B, C, D, E B, C, D, E, F G
select the weakest for the least durable stones or stones and
bricks within the category or for locations with the bricks of low
least exposure to the weather. permeability

(iii) Although stronger mixes are generally used for Average B, C, D B, C, D B, C, D, E C, D, E, F

more durable stones and bricks, they are not durability and
suitable for very hard materials such as flint and permeability
stones and bricks
granite. In very exposed situations, however, non-
hydraulic mortars may not be suitable either, Lower durability B B B, C, D C, D
because they are prone to erosion. The best or decayed,
friable stones or
course in these circumstances might be to apply under-fired bricks
render.
Very fine jointed A A A A
ashlar (including
gauged
brickwork)

11
16 Suitable finishes when the same angle and direction, otherwise a
repointing: shadow conflict will be created over the
(a) flush joint whole elevation. Where no specialised
(b) slightly recessed joint. pointing exists, a flush or almost flush profile
will usually be appropriate. Many now
favour finishing joints with a fuller profile
than has been thought generally suitable in
the recent past (see Figure 16(a)). More
mortar is visible but this follows historical
precedent and provides a sacrificial,
protective, evaporating surface that
minimises water collection and further decay
in old masonry. When cement is used, water
may become trapped behind featheredges - a
problem that does not occur with lime-based
mortars. There will still, however, be some
occasions when a slightly recessed finish is
preferable for aesthetic reasons, such as
when patch pointing small areas or to avoid
joints appearing wider where sharp arrises
have been lost through weathering (see
Figure 16(b)). Sometimes a slight hollowing
or concavity in the joint is effective.
A trial patch of wall in an inconspicuous
position should be chosen to experiment
with different mixes and methods of
finishing the joint (see Section 4 and Figure
17). Distinctive modem forms of pointing,
such as ‘weather-struck’ and ‘bucket-
handle’, are nearly always unsuitable.
Drying-out time can vary considerably,
according to weather conditions and the
nature of the material being repointed.
Protection of all new lime-work against
weather is almost always required. If
possible, avoid working during the winter
months when there is a risk of frost, because
the freezing and expansion of water can
blow the faces off joints. To prevent this,
interstices using a correctly sized pointing layers of hessian or another insulating
iron or other suitable tool. Except when tuck material must cover the wall (leaving air
pointing, it is usual to fill the perpends gaps). The use of anti-freezing agents in
before the bed joints. Good, stiff lime mortar mortars is not recommended.
will cling to the underside of an upturned Rapid drying of the mortar by the wind or
hawk and can be easily picked up and placed sun will produce light-coloured joints with an
in small wedges. It is important not to increase in the deposition of lime binder on
overwork the mortar at this stage because the surface and risk of cracking and
this can produce laitence that seals the powdering; when this occurs, the work will
surface and hinders carbonation. Any stains have to be redone. All lime mortars must
will be easily removed from the brick or harden in the presence of moisture. Covering
stone by brushing down with a soft with polythene over damp hessian will
broomhead. provide a microclimate that encourages
The finish of a joint is best decided by carbonation (see Figure 18). A fine mist spray
studying the surviving pointing (although it applied daily for the first week or so is also
is important to distinguish between original beneficial, although much will depend on
work that provides a good model to follow, prevailing weather conditions. Polythene
and inappropriate repointing, which would sheeting should be kept close to hand and used
be quite undesirable). Where the perpends to cover the wall when heavy rain is forecast,
are to be struck, ensure all operatives follow to prevent wash-out or leaching of lime.

12
 7.2 Rubble stone walls
Invariably, a slight ‘buttering’ of the mortar
is evident in existing rubble stonework, the
result of full flush joints encroaching onto
the edges of the rubble. Heavily eroded
joints may first need to be packed with
pinning stones. Recessed pointing with
shadow lines emphasising the individual
stones is a late 20th-century fashion to be

Photograph: James Boutwood

avoided - except where repointing is very
localised, and a slight recessing of the joint
may be desirable to prevent the new work
contrasting too starkly with the existing
adjacent pointing.
Joints in rubble work are best finished
by scraping with the edge of a trowel to
leave the joint flush with the edge of the
stone without recessing the profile (see
Figure (b), front cover). After the initial set,
possibly the following day, the mortar is
stippled/tamped (good results are achievable
using a ‘chum’ brush with stiff natural
bristles). This serves to compact the mortar
and remove any laitence from the surface of
the joints, revealing the coarse aggregate. If
the brush picks up mortar, stippling is being
undertaken too soon. The surface of the joint
should be firm to the touch but can be

Photograph: lan Pritchett

marked with a fingernail. Rubbing the joint
with hessian or a hardwood batten shaped to
a chisel-edge gives a less immaculate, more
suitable finish than brushing alone. Using a
water spray to roughen the surface is
inadvisable as it may wash out free lime,
thereby weakening the mortar mix and pointing. The intention here, however, is to 17 Use of trial panels.
leaving white streaks on the masonry. Before have a flush rather than thin projecting 18 Protection from weather
the mortar stiffens, the face can, if ribbon, and so the technique is slightly with hessian and polythene.
appropriate, be lightly scored with imitation modified. The mortar may also be prevented
joint lines, using a method such as that from spreading by protecting the arrises with
described in Section 7.4. adhesive tape, by injecting the mortar with a
The use of galleting or of pinning stones syringe or by using a semi-dry mix pushed
should be replicated, the choice of material home with a piece of cardboard or other
being determined by local tradition. When suitable wedge.
reinstating gallets, they should be firmly Where joints in ashlar stonework widen
pushed in with a gloved hand immediately out towards the core, waxed string or well-
after pointing and, if appropriate, exposed in haired lime mortar may be packed into the
the subsequent bristle brushing. depth of the wall first to plug any voids.
7.3 Ashlar walls 7.4 Brick walls
The repointing of fine ashlar joints in It is generally appropriate, for historical and
stonework and brickwork is time-consuming. technical reasons, to finish the mortar face in
The joints can be so thin that they are virtually brickwork to a flush joint. There are
invisible and great care should be taken not to occasional examples of brickwork (and a very
increase their width (see Figure 19). few examples of rubble work) where a slightly
The mortar (fine stuff’) must be placed recessed finish may be preferable for aesthetic
carefully and not spread over the adjoining reasons. This may be where the arrises are
masonry units. The best method is to use a heavily worn or a relatively small area of
thin-bladed jointer and place the mortar into pointing is being matched-in to original
the joint in a manner similar to tuck weathered joints. In such cases, the mortar
13
 should be pushed well back so that the brick is 2 The walls of some stone buildings were
not obscured. Flush or slightly recessed joints not pointed at all but left with dry joints on
are stippled using a chum brush after the external faces, as described by Innocent,
initial hardening. This must be done lightly to 1999, 123.
avoid staining the bricks with lime.
Any special finishes that exist should 3 In 1922, the American Standards for
normally be repeated when repointing. Care Testing Materials (ASTM) conference, The
must be taken when renewing scored joints, Strong Mortar Complex, which was set up to
not to drag out the aggregate. Figure 20 identify the causes of significant mortar
shows a purpose-made scoring tool, a device failures, concluded that very hard, dense
with a 2.5mm-thick, square-edged disc. cement mortars were not suitable for new
Alternatively a thin-bladed jointer may be build, and introduced 1:1:6-1:2:9 and 1:3:12
used. The aim should always be to replicate mixes to ensure that mortars were reduced in
the width and shape of the existing grooves. strength.
Tuck pointing is highly skilled and the
procedure for renewing it is explained in 4 Chapman and Fidler, 2000 and Historic
Tuck Pointing in Practice, SPAB Information Scotland, 1999.
Sheet 8. In exceptional cases, where the
arrises of brickwork have been significantly 5 There are no natural hydraulic limes
damaged, it may be appropriate to introduce available that can ever exceed the strength of
tuck pointing in order to replicate the sandstones or old bricks if they are mixed in
original appearance of the masonry. a ratio of 1:2 or less.

7.5 Flint walls 6 British Standards Institution, 2001.

For advice on the repointing of flintwork see
Care and Repair of Flint Walls, SPAB
Technical Pamphlet 16. 9 Other advice

8 References 9.1 Contacts

Where repointing is being considered, the
SPAB may be able to suggest suitable
1 Colour variations in the mortar may contractors and professionals or advise on
have been considered unimportant because appropriate courses. If mortar analysis is
brickwork was commonly treated with required, the SPAB may also be able to
colourwash and stone walls tended to be provide the names of firms with testing
rendered and limewashed. facilities in your region.

19 Gauged camber arch

undergoing repointing.
Photograph: Gerard Lynch

14
 9.2 Further reading Wingate, M (nd) An Introduction to Building
Limes, SPAB Information Sheet 9, London:
British Standards Institution (2001) Building
SPAB
Lime - Part 1: Definitions, Specifications
and Conformity Criteria, BS EN 459: Part 1 : The Manifesto of the Society for the
2001, London: BSI Protection of Ancient Buildings
Carey, J (nd) Tuck Pointing in Practice, 9.3 The use of pesticides
SPAB Information Sheet 8, London: SPAB Information on currently approved pesticides
Chapman, s and Fidler, J (2000) The English
can be obtained from the website of the
Heritage Directory of Building Sands and
Pesticides Safety Directorate (PSD) at
Aggregates, Shaftesbury: Donhead
www.pesticides.gov.uk. Before using any
Publishing Ltd
pesticide an assessment should be carried out
Historic Scotland (1999) Scottish Aggregates in accordance with the Control of Substances
for Building Conservation, Historic Scotland Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations
Technical Advice Note 19, Edinburgh: 1999. You are strongly advised to consult the
Historic Scotland following publications before specifying and
using pesticides:
Innocent, C F (1999) The Development of
English Building Construction, Shaftesbury: Health and Safety Commission (1995) The
Donhead Publishing Ltd Safe Use of Pesticides for Non-agricultural
Purposes: Control of Substances Hazardous
Hughes, P (1987) The Need for Old to Health Regulations 1994: Approved Code
Buildings to 'Breathe', SPAB Information of Practice, HSE Books: Sudbury
Sheet 4, London: SPAB
Health and Safety Executive (1993) A Step
Lodge, D and Wright, A (2000) Care and by step Guide to COSHH Assessment,
Repair of Flint Walls, SPAB Technical Health and Safety Series Booklet HSG 97,
Pamphlet 16, London: SPAB HSE Books: Sudbury

Lynch, G (1994) Brickwork: History,

Technology and Practice, 2 vols, London:
Donhead Publishing Ltd 10 Glossary
Lynch, G (1998) 'Lime Mortars for
Traditional Brickwork: Traditional Practice Aggregate: Sand, crushed stone or other
and Modem Misconceptions', 2 parts, in material such as broken shells, brick, chalk,
Journal of Architectural Conservation, 4 (1) earth or porous particulates constituting a
and 4 (2) large part of a mortar etc. It provides bulk,

20 Repointing of scored joints

in historic brickwork.
Photograph: Historic Royal Palaces

15
 reduces shrinkage and assists setting. It can
also influence mortar colour. Gauging: In this context, the addition of
material such as Portland cement or gypsum
Arris: A sharp edge such as on a brick, stone to a lime-based mix to modify its properties.
or corner of a door or window reveal.
Hydrated lime or dry hydrate: Calcium
Ashlar: Finely dressed stone laid in regular hydroxide (Ca(OH)2 ) formed as a dry
courses with thin joints (cf. rubble wall) or powder when any lime is slaked using an
gauged brickwork. exact amount of water (cf. lime putty). Not
to be confused with hydraulic lime. It is
Bed joint: A horizontal mortar joint in a wall possible to obtain hydrated hydraulic lime or
(cf. perpend). hydrated non-hydraulic lime.

Binder: In this context, the material in a Hydraulic or water lime: Two main types:
mortar etc that hardens to hold the aggregate (i) Natural hydraulic limes are prepared
together. Examples are lime, clay, gypsum from limestone with reactive silica and
and cement. alumina impurities. The lime reacts with
the impurities in the presence of water to
Carbonation: In this context, the gradual form calcium silicates and aluminates (cf.
hardening of a lime mortar. The lime non-hydraulic lime), in addition to the
combines chemically with carbon dioxide calcium carbonate that contributes to the
gas from the atmosphere in slightly moist hardening process when exposed to the
conditions and reverts to calcium carbonate. air. They are classified under BS EN 459:
Part 1: 2001 as NHL 2, 3.5 or 5, in order
Cement: A quick-setting binder for mortars of increasing strength
etc. Examples are ordinary Portland cement (ii) Natural hydraulic limes with an additive
and ‘natural cements’ (such as Roman are classified as NHL-Z, whilst HL
cement). denotes an artificial hydraulic lime. Since
manufacturers do not have to state
Coarse stuff: A wet mixture of lime and whether the additives include Portland
coarse sand or aggregate used as a plaster, cement or what the percentages are, these
render undercoat or mortar. Can contain hair, products should be avoided in
especially if used for plastering. conservation work.

Cutting out: The process of removing hard Impervious: Not allowing the passage of
mortar from joints with a hammer and chisel water in its liquid state.
etc prior to repointing (cf. raking out).
Knocking up: Reworking mortar that has
Dense: Used to describe a hard or strong stiffened up in order to restore workability.
(usually cement) impervious mortar.
Laitence: A milky layer of lime or cement
Fine stuff: A wet mixture of lime and fine on the surface of the mortar, the result of
sand used as a plaster finishing coat or using too much water in the mix,
pointing mortar for ashlar. overworking the mortar or rapid drying.

Gallets, garnets or garrets: Small pieces of Lime: The traditional binder for mortar,
stone set in wide mortar joints. Sometimes plaster, render and limewashes etc. Two
purely decorative but likely to have served main types: hydraulic and non-hydraulic.
originally to minimise the likelihood of
shrinkage cracking and reduce the surface Lime putty: Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2 )
area of mortar exposed to weathering. formed as a paste when a non-hydraulic or
weak (NHL 2) hydraulic lime is slaked in an
Gauged brickwork: Use of lightly fired excess of water and the milky suspension is
bricks (called rubbers or rubbing bricks), of allowed to settle. Can also be made by
a uniform, sandy consistency, that can be cut mixing hydrated lime (the form widely
or rubbed to allow fine joints in arches or available in builders’ merchants) and water,
quoins. although this gives a less workable mix with
inferior plasticity and binding properties.

16
Masonry: Walling constructed of units Quicklime or lump lime: Calcium oxide
(stone, brick etc) set in mortar or the craft of (CaO), the unstable material produced when
wall and vault building. limestone has been burnt but not slaked.

Mortar: A mixture of aggregate and binder Raking out: The process of removing loose
that hardens after application and is used for mortar from joints with a small tool prior to
bedding and pointing masonry units. repointing (cf. cutting out).

Non-hydraulic, air or calcium lime: Lime Roman cement: The brand name of an earl
prepared from relatively pure limestone patent cement prepared from naturally
containing no significant amounts of reactive occurring ‘cement stones’ that contain clay
silica and alumina. It is classified as CL and limestone. Widely used to describe all
under European standards. The purest type is natural cements of the 19th century.
described as ‘fat’, the less pure as ‘lean’. Although used principally as a rendering
The impurities in the latter impart a slight material, it was used also in 19th century
hydraulicity, but not enough for the lime to pointing, especially in restoration and repair
be called ‘hydraulic’. These limes will
harden initially by drying out and in the Rubble wall: Walling built of rough-faced
longer term by absorbing carbon dioxide stones not dressed to give fine joints but
from the air to form calcium carbonate sometimes squared and coursed (cf. ashlar).
(‘carbonation’). They cannot harden under
water (cf. hydraulic lime). Sand: Weathered rock particles between
0.06 and 5mm in diameter. Used as
Permeability: A measure of the rate at aggregate in mortars, plasters and renders as
which a liquid or vapour passes through a well as a component in concretes.
solid material, usually expressed as grams of
the liquid or vapour transmitted through a Sharp sand: Sand comprising
given area of the solid material in 24 hours. predominantly coarse, harsh, angular grains
Pores must be interlinked (cf. porosity). (cf. soft sand).

Perpend: A vertical mortar joint in a wall Slaking: Combination of quicklime with

(cf. bed joint). water to form calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) 2 )
in the form of lime putty or dry hydrate.
Porosity: Ratio of the volume of pore space
to total volume of a solid material, usually Soft sand: Sand comprising predominantly
expressed as a percentage. Pores may or may small, rounded grains (cf. sharp sand).
not be interlinked (cf. permeability).

Porous particulates: Aggregate comprising

particles with air-filled holes. These
contribute to the permeability of a mortar
mix, assist the initial hardening of pure lime
binders and also help protect walling from
damaging soluble salts. Sometimes added
deliberately in the past, but often the residue
of limestone or chalk from incomplete lime-
burning or result of the common practice of
dry-slaking quicklime and aggregate
together.

Pozzolan or pozzolanic material: A

material containing reactive silica and
alumina that can be used to impart a
hydraulic set to a non-hydraulic lime mix, or
to confer a faster set upon a naturally
hydraulic lime or Portland cement. Typical
pozzolanic materials are volcanic ashes and
lightly-fired clays, crushed and ground
bricks.
17
 The Society for the Protection
of Ancient Buildings

The content of this pamphlet is advises on all problems affecting old

offered in good faith but neither the buildings, giving technical advice on their
contributors nor the Society can
accept responsibility arising from any treatment and repair. Buildings ecclesiastical
incorrect or incomplete information and secular, large and small, including mills,
that may be included. The use of
traditional materials may incur risks
barns, dovecotes and bridges, come within
different to those associated with the scope of the Society.
modem materials. Manufacturers’ and
suppliers’ guidelines should always he
followed. This document should be investigates cases of buildings suffering
seen as a contribution to an ongoing from neglect or threatened by damaging
debate and we welcome comments.
treatment or with destruction, concentrating
First published in this form in 2002. on buildings erected before 1714.
The pamphlet draws on material
contained in former Technical
Pamphlet 5, written by Gilbert holds two courses each year on the repair
Williams. The SPAB is indebted to of ancient buildings for architects, surveyors
Michael Wingate for contributing the
section on mortar mixes and mixing,
and builders, as well as courses for owners.
and to Gerard Lynch and Douglas
Johnston for their extensive administers Scholarships and Fellowships,
assistance. The help of members of
the SPAB Technical Panel and Main which enable architectural, surveying and
Committee is gratefully engineering students and craftsmen to study
acknowledged, especially Paul old buildings and their repair.
Bedford, James Boutwood, Alan
Gardner, Tim Ratcliffe and Michael
Tutton. Thanks are also due to Bob arranges public lectures on specific
Bennett MBE, Ian Constantinides,
Anthony Goode, Richard Roberts and
subjects dealing with old buildings.
James Simpson. Edited by Kit Wedd.
Drawings by Nicola Westbury. publishes information on the care of old
Designed and produced by Nichola
Nixon. Printed by Pressworks, buildings, their features and fittings. A list
London. First edition 1979. Third of these publications may be obtained on
(revised) edition 2002.0 SPAB 2002.
application. Other books on conservation are
ISBN 1 898856 11 7 sold by mail order.

issues a quarterly magazine and a list of

historic buildings in need of repair that are
for sale.

campaigns on specific issues such as farm

buildings and VAT on repairs to listed
buildings.

Membership
The Society welcomes new members.
Details of activities are available from:

The Society for the Protection

of Ancient Buildings
37 Spital Square
London El 6DY

Tel 020 7377 1644

Fax02072475296
info@spab.org.uk
www.spab.org.uk

Registered Charity No 231307