TOPIC 1: Language as Communication: Oral and Written language.

Factors that Define a Communicative

Situation: Transmitter, Receiver, Function and Context

TOPIC 1
Language as Communication: Oral and Written language.
Factors that Define a Communicative Situation: Transmitter,
Receiver, Function and Context
Index
1. INTRODUCTION
2. LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATION
2.1. ORAL LANGUAGE
2.1.1. Characteristics of oral language
2.1.2. Development of oral language
2.1.3. Methodology for teaching oral language
2.2. WRITTEN LANGUAGE
2.2.1. Characteristics of written language
2.2.2. Development of written language
2.2.3. Methodology of written language
3. FACTORS THAT DEFINE A COMMUNICATIVE SITUATION
4. CONCLUSION
5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. INTRODUCTION
According to the sixth Article of the Royal Decree 126/2014, one of the main principles
of the Primary Education is to learn to express and comprehend not only the mother
tongue but also the oral and written English foreign language and its culture. The
acquisition of the communicative competence in a foreign language is considered so
important that it is included as one of the main objectives of this stage in the seventh
Article of the same Royal Decree. As we can see in the preface of the Organic Law
8/2013 on the Improvement of the Quality of Education in its twelve point, the
knowledge of a second language has become a priority in our education in order to
build the European Project and what it entails. In this way, to get and improve the
knowledge of English, it is absolutely necessary to know its oral and written language
as well as its communication possibilities, what outlines the importance of this topic.
Linguistics is defined by Oxford Dictionary as the scientific study of language and its
structure. As a science, it was initiated in 1916 by Saussure, who conducted the
structuralism, considering the language as a system or structure valid to be studied by
its own. He also distinguished between inner linguistics, which is the study of language,
and external linguistics, which studies external aspects of language such as culture or
biology.

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TOPIC 1: Language as Communication: Oral and Written language. Factors that Define a Communicative
Situation: Transmitter, Receiver, Function and Context

However, in the sixties it was born another linguistic paradigm, the linguistic
communication, as a result of the interdisciplinary study of language. New disciplines
were created then, being one of the most important for us the psycholinguistics, which
studies basically the processes of comprehension and production of language and thus
the relation between language and communication.
All these theoretical descriptions are the basis of the explanation given in the
following. In this way, it will be defined language as communication, taking in account
that involves both oral and written language, each of them having their own
characteristics, development and methodological and assessment principles. It will be
also described the factors that define a communicative situation, emphasizing its
elements and functions, in order to understand and appreciate how children develop
and communicate their own language, so that we can transfer these elements to the
learning and acquisition of the English foreign language.

2. LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATION
Language is defined by the Oxford Dictionary as the method of human communication,
either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words in a structured and
conventional way. However, communication does not only imply oral or written
language, but also non-verbal language, other means such as gestures or body
language.
According to Berko Gleason and Bernstein Ratner, children are able to communicate
before acquiring oral language, that is, in a pre-linguistic way, from birth. Their
behavior during the first months of age hasn’t got a communicative intention by its
own, but their cries, smiles and other gestures are given intentionality by their
mothers. In this way, babies realize that their expressions have an impact and thus, get
motivate to want to communicate.
At the age of five months of age, facial imitation gets very frequent and vocalizations
and other movements are deliberated, although the intentionality doesn’t appear until
the eight months of age. From ten to twelve months of age children produce their first
words and thus start to communicate through oral language, but it is not until they
reach school when they start to use written language as communication.
In the following sections it will be described first oral language and then written
language as communication.

2.1. ORAL LANGUAGE

Although oral language was considered less important than written language until the
new pedagogical orientations from 1970, there are a lot of reasons for the importance
of it:

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Situation: Transmitter, Receiver, Function and Context

a) Human language is mainly oral; from the historic point of view, written
language is secondary.
b) A child learns to speak before he/she acquires written language at school.
c) Oral language is the daily, vital and permanent mean of communication.
Taking this as a basis, the Decree 26/2016 outlines the importance of oral
comprehension and expression establishing that oral language must have a priority
treatment.
2.1.1. Characteristics of oral language
a) In oral language we have to treat with phonic and prosodic (rhythm and
intonation) features of speech.
b) Oral language is produced quickly and automatically, thus the learning process
for its application is more complex.
c) In oral communication the interlocutor is directly present and has direct
influence on the speaker.
d) Oral communication will always be more subjective as it is full of affective
interferences which depend on the speaker and the listener.

2.1.2. Development of oral language

According to Lindfords, oral language is a complex system that relates sounds to
meanings. It is made of three components: the phonological (sounds), the semantic
(meanings) and the morpho-syntactic (words and sentences). Some linguistics might
add a fourth component: pragmatics, which explains the rules of language use, one
part of a person’s communicative competence.
The development of oral language is one of the child’s most natural accomplishments.
There isn’t one only theory that explains the oral language acquisition process, so it is
going to summarized the most important ones in the last century. Although these
theories were thought at the beginning to explain the acquisition of the mother
tongue, they were also transferred to and used in second language learning.
One of the first paradigms trying to explain oral language acquisition is Behaviourism,
whose forefather, Skinner, established in the fifties that language acquisition is an
imitation process in which children learn to speak through the sequence stimulus-
response-reinforcement. In this way, language is a process of habit formation in which
children receive a stimulus from the adults and try to imitate it. Then, adults provide
reinforcement to that response, which can be positive if they want to keep it, or
negative if the response is not adequate.
Chomsky is one of the first authors who questioned the Skinner’s theory, claiming that
the idea of language learning purely as a result of habit formation was inadequate
because it did not explain the fact that speakers can produce and/or understand a
large number of perfect grammatical utterances that they have never heard before. On
the contrary, Chomsky defended that children are genetically born with a Language

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TOPIC 1: Language as Communication: Oral and Written language. Factors that Define a Communicative
Situation: Transmitter, Receiver, Function and Context

Acquisition Device in which it is included a Universal Grammar containing general

grammatical principles valid for all languages. Exposure to one particular language and
attempts to understand it will activate this device enabling children to create regular
grammatical patterns and thus acquire the language.
The constructivist theory of Piaget and Vygotsky’s opposition to it are also very
accepted in Linguistics. Piaget established that children construct their knowledge
about language and start communicate through a complex process of assimilation in
which their cognitive competence is really important. In this way, language is thought’s
subordinate. On the other hand, Vygotsky defends that children acquire language as a
result of engaging in social experiences. By interacting with the environment children
develop the ability to create a private and inner speech, which is the link between
thought and language that enables them to express their thoughts progressively.
Finally, Lenneberg provided a biological theory of language acquisition focused on the
existence of a critical period of maturation in which children are able to acquire a
language. Language is biologically programmed so it will only be developed when
children have reached a cognitive maturity. This critical period for language acquisition
goes from two years old to adolescence. Outside this period, language won’t occur.
All in all, learning to talk requires time for development and practice in everyday
situations. In general, children say their first word between 12 and 18 months of age
and they began to use complex sentences by the age of 4. However, as with other
aspects of development, we cannot predict language acquisition.
2.1.3. Methodology for teaching oral language
Although we can find quite many methodologies focused on oral language learning,
such as the communicative approach, the cooperative learning or the natural
approach, it is impossible to treat them all in this topic. In this way, it will be presented
four methodological principles established by Stern which could group the main points
outlined by them:

 Principle of activity: you learn to speak and listen well if you practise it every
day.
 Principle of socialization: oral language is the main vehicle for establishing
social relationships with other people from the community. Therefore, it is
important to use group dynamic which facilitates the student’s interaction and
participation.
 Principle of individualization. Linguistic and mental development is individual
and different in each child. The teacher must find out each pupil’s
characteristics and deal with them specifically to favour his/her qualities and to
correct mistakes.
 Motivation. The first aim at school should be to motivate and release oral
language starting from the child’s interests and experiences.

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TOPIC 1: Language as Communication: Oral and Written language. Factors that Define a Communicative
Situation: Transmitter, Receiver, Function and Context

Keeping in mind that the final aim of teaching oral language is the pupils’ fluent
production of spoken language, first we need to develop the ability of understanding
by encouraging them to practise it in classroom.
As to the techniques and activities that could be used to practise oral communication,
Ellis and Sinclair distinguish between dialogues, that is conversation, role-playing,
interview…; and monologues, outlining narration, conferences, descriptions… On its
side, the Decree 16/2016 outlines the importance of the use of the information and
communication technologies and the audio-visual mediums.
The task of evaluating is a difficult one in any subject, but as far as oral language is
concerned, it is even more complex because of the fact that oral communication is not
only influenced by the way of expressing, but also by the speaker’s personality,
intelligence and emotions. Harmer outlines that evaluation in oral language must
include three levels: diagnostic of the difficulties and mistakes, correction and planning
of activities of reinforcement and extension.

2.2. WRITTEN LANGUAGE

Although both written and oral language use the same code, their functioning is based
on quite different norms and rules.
2.2.1. Characteristics of written language
a) The interlocutor is not present when we write. Thus, the receiver and the
transmitter do not have the same context and there is a lack of reaction on
the receiver’s side which impedes us to change our discourse immediately if
we notice the interlocutor does not understand.
b) There are not paralinguistic features like gestures or body language, or
other elements such as accent or intonation, which are only represented by
punctuation signs.
c) Although written language is less expressive than oral language, it is better
organized as it allows continuous reflection and revision.
2.2.2. Development of written language
As we all know, written language is composed by reading and writing, which have been
treated separately during most of the last century. Therefore, in the following it is
presented two separately theories about reading first and writing then.
J. S. Chall established in the eighties the following stages of reading development:
a) Stage 0. Pre-reading: from birth to the age of six. In this stage the learner grows
in the control of language and increases the conceptual knowledge. The learner
relies on his visual information and contextual knowledge to begin reading.
b) Stage 1. Initial reading or Decoding Stage at ages six to seven. Once the learner
has progressed from the phonetic-cue phase of reading, he/she is becoming
more aware of letter-sound relationships.
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TOPIC 1: Language as Communication: Oral and Written language. Factors that Define a Communicative
Situation: Transmitter, Receiver, Function and Context

c) Stage 2. Confirmation or fluency at ages seven to eight. A good reader is a fluid

one, who automatically decodes words, thus freeing up attention for higher
levels of comprehension and meaning.
d) Stage 3. Reading for learning at ages eight to fourteen. This stage is associated
with the content area reading, as well as with the previous and strategic
knowledge. Now, the reader must use reading as a tool for acquiring new
knowledge.
e) Stage 4. Multiple viewpoints at ages fourteen to eighteen. In this stage the
reader begins dealing with learning from various viewpoints.
f) Stage 5. Construction and reconstruction at ages eighteen and above. During
this stage the reader acquires the ability to construct knowledge on a higher
level of abstraction and generality and to create one’s own “truth” from the
truth of others.
On his behalf, B.M. Kroll established in the same decade four stages of writing
development:
a) Stage 1. Preparatory Stage: Before the age of six learners master the basic
motor skills needed to write and learn the basic principles of the spelling
system.
b) Stage 2. Consolidation Stage: age up to six. In this phase children write in the
same way as they speak, forming short incomplete sentences, mainly
declaratives, as they don’t know how to finish the sentences off.
c) Stage 3. Differentiation stage: age up to nine. Children become aware of the
difference between speaking and writing. They recognize different writing
styles and use writing guides and frameworks to structure their work, although
they still make lots of mistakes.
d) Stage 4. Integration stage: age up to twelve. From this stage children develop
their own personal style, making less mistakes and understanding that you can
change your style according to audience and purpose.
However, over the last years research have shown that reading and writing are more
interdependent than we thought. They are similar processes of composing meaning;
practice with one contributes to the success of the other. R. Peck established in 2005
that reading-writing connections begin when children fall in love with a single poem,
book, or essay. While enjoying a story, students read the language of good writers, are
exposed to rich vocabulary, and develop literary awareness, or a “sense of story”. They
learn the structure and language from books, and they acquire literacy skills that can
be transferred to their own writing. In this way, the writing you get out of your
students can only be as good the classroom literature that surrounds and sustains it.
2.2.3. Methodology of written language
In general, we can distinguish three main approaches to teach written language:
synthetic methods, which refer to the mental process of combining the detailed
elements of language; analytic methods, referring to the mental process of breaking
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TOPIC 1: Language as Communication: Oral and Written language. Factors that Define a Communicative
Situation: Transmitter, Receiver, Function and Context

down the larger units into their constituent elements; and mixed methods, combining
both synthetic and analytic methods.
What it is important, above all at elementary levels, is that the practice of written
language help us to reinforce what has been learnt orally before. Doing so, as
establishes the Decree 26/2016, we must not forget to make the students practise
vocabulary and structures which are characteristics of the written code.
Learning written language is a difficult task which requires techniques and activities
even in one’s mother tongue. We can combine picture books, children´s literature,
magazines, letters or e-mails treated through pre-reading, while-reading and post-
reading activities with some controlled, guided or free written production in which
pupils could transfer ideas from reading to writing.
It is not always easy to evaluate written language, thus almost always it has been used
written tests and questions. However, as establishes Littlegood, we could use many
other instruments and techniques such as rubrics covered by the teacher or the
students as well, interviews, students’ portfolios and notebooks or self-assessment.

3. FACTORS THAT DEFINE A COMMUNICATIVE SITUATION

Traditionally it has been said that communication is a process of transfer of
information in which an addresser transmits a message to an addressee. One of the
most important authors who tried to define a communicative situation was Jakobson.
According to him, linguistic communication implies six factors with six language
functions:
a) Code. It is an arbitrary, limited and rather extensive mixture of signs and signals
combined by sender and receiver following previous established rules. The
function of this factor is the metalingual, which is the use of language to discuss
or describe itself.
b) Channel or contact. It is the means by which signs and signals are transmitted.
The function of this factor is the phatic, which is to establish and maintain
social relations through the communication channel.
c) Addresser (sender, encoder or transmitter). It is the instrument, animal or
person that codifies the message and transmits it. The function of the
addresser is the emotive, which is to express attitudes, feelings and emotions.
d) Addressee (receiver, decoder). It is the instrument, animal or person who
decodifies the message and interprets it. The function of the addressee is the
conative, meaning to persuade and influence others through commands and
entreaties.
e) Message. It is the information the addresser sends to the addressee. The
function of this factor is the poetic, which is to indulge in language for its own
sake.

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TOPIC 1: Language as Communication: Oral and Written language. Factors that Define a Communicative
Situation: Transmitter, Receiver, Function and Context

f) Context. It is the situation in which it is produced the communication. The

function of the context is the referential, meaning to convey messages or
information.

4. CONCLUSION
According to Royal Decree 126/2014, the foreign language area is of crucial
importance as it helps the students to acquire useful instruments to develop the
needed competences to live along with the actual society. The capability to
communicate or communicative competence, as says not only this document, but also
the European Community, is the first requirement to get on well in the multilingual
context, in the same way as some principles going with this competence, such as the
comprehension, the tolerance and the valuation of other cultures and diversities.
On its side, the Decree 26/2016 in the First Foreign Language section affirms that the
teaching and learning process in the foreign language area must be directed to the
development of the communicative competence through the integrated treatment of
the basic language skills, in which oral and written communicative language are the
main elements.
This topic, consequently, is of huge importance as it helps us not only to emphasize the
importance of language as communication, but also to describe both oral and written
language, what will be useful to understand and teach the sets described previously.

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chall, J. S. (1983). Stages of Reading Development. New York: McGraw Hill.
Chomsky, A. N. (1968). Language and Mind. Cambridge: CUP.
DECREE 82/2014, of 28 August, that regulates the ordinance and establishes the
Curriculum for Primary Education in the Asturias Principality (BOPA of 30 August).
Ellis, G. & Sinclair, B. (1988). Learning to Learn English. Cambridge: CUP.
Gleason, J. Berko & Ratner, N. Bernstein (2012). The Development of Language.
Boston: Pearson.
Harmer, J. (1983). The Practice of English Language Teaching. Longman. Burnt Mill.
Jakobson, R & Halle, M. (1956). Fundamentals of Language. La Haya: Mouton.
Kroll, B. M. (1981). Developmental relationships between speaking and writing.
Urbana, IL.
Lenneberg, E. H. (1967). Biological Foundations of Language. New York, Wiley.

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TOPIC 1: Language as Communication: Oral and Written language. Factors that Define a Communicative
Situation: Transmitter, Receiver, Function and Context

Lindfords, J. (1991). Children’s Language and Learning. Austin: Pearson.

Littlegood, W. (1998). Communicative Language Teaching. Cambridge: CUP.
OED Online. June 2004. Oxford University Press. 21 April 2017.
ORDER EDU 519/2014, of 17 June, that establishes the Curriculum for Primary
Education and Regulates the Implementation, Evaluation and Development of the
Primary Education in the Community Castile and Leon (BOCYL of 20 June).
ORGANIC LAW 8/2013, of 9 December, on the Improvement of the Quality of Education
(BOE of 10 December).
Peck, R. (2005). The Reading-Writing Connection. Newark, DE: International Reading
Association.
Piaget, J. (1926). The Language and Thought of the Child. New York: Harcourt Brace &
Company.
ROYAL DECREE 126/2014, of 28 February, establishing the basic Curriculum for Primary
Education. (BOE of 1 March).
Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal Behaviour. Acton, MA: Copley Publishing Group.
Stern, H. H. (1983). Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford: OUP.
Vygotsky, S. L. (1986). Thought and Language. Cambridge: MIT Press.