Architectural History II Midterm

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UNIVERSIDAD SAN PABLO HISTOR

ESCUELA POLITÉCNICA SUPERIOR
UNIVERSIDAD SAN PABLO-CEU_HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 2_2022-2023_ISLAM_ p.1
5. ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
1.- INTRODUCTION PAGE
Historical, geographical, political, social and religious.
Muhammad. Mecca and Medina. The Hijrah: 622, the year 0.
Omayyad: territorial expansion (7th-8th c.) Capital Damascus
-Dome of the Rock. Jerusalem. .............................................................................................. 7
2.-CONCEPTS OF ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
New concepts of architecture, geometry, space, construction systems and materials, decoration.
The hypostyle mosque: function, origin, plan and structure. Mosque of Damascus. ...................... 8
3.-HISPANIC-MUSLIM ARCHITECTURE (711 -1492)
3.1 Omayyad Architecture: 8th-10th c.
Arrival in the Iberian Peninsula.
Previous situation: the Visigoths (6th-7th c.). Main characteristics of their architecture.
-Mosque of Córdoba ........................................................................................................... 12
-Medina Azahara ................................................................................................................. 15
3.2 Taifa Architecture:11th c.
Historical introduction and characteristics.
The Taifa city, main characteristics and examples:
-Alcazabas (fortress): Malaga and Almeria.
-Gates: Bisagra, Toledo.
-Palaces: Aljafería, Zaragoza.
-Baths: El Bañuelo, Granada. Baza. Palma de Mallorca ............................................ 16
-Mosques: Bab al Mardun (El Cristo de la Luz), Toledo.
3.3 Almohad Architectture:2nd half 12th c.
The mosque: Sevilla and its influences ................................................................................ 17
Military architecture: materials, barbicans, albarranas, corachas, gates.
-Cáceres. Badajoz. Torre del Oro, Sevilla. ................................................................ 18
-Alcazar of Seville: Patio del Yeso.
Influence on Christian Spain:
-Santa María la Blanca, Toledo.
3.4 Nasrid Architecture: 13th-15th c.
-Alhambra and Generalife, Granada ......................................................................... 19
REFERENCE SOURCES
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
-Ching, F. (2007). Architecture, form, space & order. John Wiley & Sons, cop.
-Ching, F. (2011). Una historia universal de la arquitectura: un análisis cronológico comparado a través de las culturas.
Vol 1, de las culturas primitivas al siglo XIV. Gustavo Gili.
-Fazio, M., Moffet, M., & Wodehouse, L. (2008). A World History of Architecture. Mc Graw Hill.
-Fletcher, B. (1996). Sir Banister Fletcher's: A History of Architecture. Oxford Architectural Press.
-Kostof, S. (1995). A History of Architecture: Settings and Rituals. Oxford University Press.
-Müller, W., & Vogel, G. (1997). Atlas de Arquitectura. 1. Alianza Ed.
-Roth, L.M., & Clark, A. (2014). Understanding architecture: its elements, history, and meaning. Westview Press, cop.
-Zevi, B. (1993). Architecture as space: how to look at architecture. Da Capo.
DICTIONARIES
-Ching, F. (1995). A visual dictionary of architecture. John Wiley & Sons, cop.
-Fatas, F., & Borrás, G.M. (1999). Diccionario de términos de arte y elementos de arqueología y numismática. Alianza
editorial.
-Fleming, J., Honour, H., & Pevsner, N. (1999). The Penguin Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture. Penguin
Books.
-Pevsner, N. (2016). Pevsner's Architectural Glossary. Yale University Press.
SPECIFIC BIBLIOGRAPHY ON ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

-Hillenbrand, R. (1994). Islamic Architecture: Form, Function and Meaning. Edinburgh University Press.
-Hillenbrand, R. (1999). Islamic Art and Architecture. Thames and Hudson.
-Michell, G. (1978). Architecture of the Islamic World: Its History and Social Meaning. Thames and Hudson.
-Hoag, J. (2004). Islamic Architecture. Electa.
WEB RESOURCES
-www.archidict.com [Multiple languages visual dictionary]
-www.greatbuildings.com [Collection of images and architectural drawings, integrated maps and timelines, 3D building
models, commentaries, bibliographies and web links on architects and buildings across history]
-www.wga.hu [The Web Gallery of Art is a virtual museum and searchable database of European fine arts, decorative arts
and architecture from the 3rd to 19th centuries.]
-Art of the Islamic world 640 to now. (n.d.). Kahn Academy. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-islam
-The Architecture of the Mosque: Historical Roots and Modern Influences (n.d.) Archnet.
https://www.archnet.org/collections/2531.
-Timeline of Islamic Architecture (n.d.). https://www.archnet.org/collections/2478
From Mecal to Medina

7TH2.
Muhhamad 570 born in Mecca (city of Merchants,

cult of idols)
Mosque is a place to pray together but UNIVERSIDAD SAN PABLO-CEU_HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 2_2022-2023_ISLAM_ p.7
in Arabic place of prostra>on
Jerusalem
Secluded space ecca
Ziyadat (wall)
Sahn (courtyard)
Sabil (fountain)
Riwaq (por>co)
Haram (covered)
Qibla wall (oriented wall)
Mihrab (niche)
Minbar (pulpit)
Iman (leader of prayers)
SAHN)
->
KUFA
Monotheis>c religion
Based on -faith, dogma ("creed")
religious obliga>ons (ritual)
righteous conduct (ethics)
Quran (Quran, Koran): the literal word of God ›infallible
114 chapters = surah
ISLAM = submission to the will of God

FIVE PILLARS
1. The profession of faith (the shahada). "There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is
his prophet."
2. Daily prayers (salat). Five >mes a day. >>>>>architecture
3. Alms-giving (zakat).
4. Fas>ng during Ramadan (saum)
5. Hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca
Religion + social + poli>cs

Caliph: poli>cal religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a
leader of the en>re Muslim world
DESERT NOMADS > EPHEMERAL > LIGHT ARCHITECTURE Nothing here lasts forever, only Allah
Borrowed typologies
Construc>on materials
System of planning a building
Denial of the outside + Search for oasis
Breaking mader apart: construc>ve systems decora>on
reflec>ons / light
FLEXIBLE ARCHITECTURE
Simple spa>al geometry
Simple and open forms
Expandable building
INFINITE: REPETITION + DIVISION

OF SPACE
Secluded and massive to the exterior
OASIS = vegeta>on + water

Water: oasis
Reflec>on
Ephemeral
Repe>>on (infinite space)
Arches with Muqarnas

Horseshoe arch + mul>foil arch (polyfoil arch, cuspid arch, polylobed arch,
scalloped arch)
LIGHT; doesn’t explain the space
Divided into myriads of >ny dots
Muhhamad
570? Born Mecca
613 Starts preaching
622 >Yathrib (Medina) = Hijra (year 0)
629 Mecca ($10.000)
622 Death (Medina)
Four calypso (the rightly guided)
661 - 750 First Islamic Dynasty Omayyad Caliphate - Capital city Damascus - Arabian
Peninsula - Syria
711 Strait of Gibraltar
732 Poi>ers (defeated by Charles Martells)
750 End of Omayyad Caliphate
Omayyad Period (mid 7th c. to 8th c.) 661-750

Dome of the Rock 685-692
Great Mosque of Damascus 706-715
Mount Moriah
Previous temple of Salomon
that was rebuilt twice
Inspired by the centralized plan
and the organiza>on of the
center space developed by the
Byzan>nes
Building around the
rock
same D as
Holy Sepulchite
1
=20x
45.
same D as
Holy Sepulchite
=20x
↑
rop arch
Architect with a Byzan>ne background
Work supervised by Syrian master builders
Decora>on done by mosaicists from
Constan>nople
Christians
7
look
to the ii.......
Used to be
west to
a church
CHURCH
Saint John the
Resembles a forum Bautist

was,
i
Qiblos
Mintad
↓
o s
3 3
aisles witheight
-
Mecca
Al-Walid
0p2M
spaces
↑ Always place the Mecca first
Sacred place for someone
Related to Roman architecture
M
Reusedcolumns
and added archas
constructions like
I acceducts:
adding rows of
columns on top
of each other
#INN
inclined m
= roofing
Treasury to keep
o
donations
↑
Byzantinestance
Marble
mosaics
CONAMS
ROMOR
with arches
AIMINAT
SaHN
=
TOMD
DRAWING A HYPOSTYLE MOSQUE
ORIENTED TO MECCA
ZIYADAT (WALL) >>> SACRED PRECINCT 1
1.
KIBLA WALL 2 ·
MIHRAB (NICHE) 3 ↑
DIVISION SAHN (COURTYARD)

RIWAQS (PORTICOS)
VEGETATION
SABIL (FOUNTAIN) 2.
BAYT-AL-MAL (TREASURY)
HARAM (COVERED SPACE)
MINBAR: pulpit for the Iman to deliver sermons
MAQSURAH: box near the mihrab reserved for a ruler
SABAT: royalty hallway
SAQIFA: space for women 3.
ALMINAR/MINARET (TOWER): call to prayer

MUECCIN'S CALL
YAMUR: sphere decoraVon on top the tower modeled aWer the
OXomans -
&
SAHN
HATOM
I
done
Friday Mosque Isfahan

Four Iwan Mosque
(Persian Mosque)
HISPANIC MUSLIM AL-ANDALUS
711-718 Conquest of Hispania. Province under the Umayyad Caliphate
8th c. 750 The Abbasids took the control of the Caliphate. Capital Baghdad
756 Abd al-Rahman I, survives Emirate in Al-Andalus
929 Abd al-Rahman III. Caliph of Cordoba
Umayyad
11th c.
Taifa
Kingdoms 12th c.
Almohads
13th c.
Nasrid
dinasty
15th c.
Visigoths
Toledo, Capital on ½ 6th c.
Visigoth Church. San Pedro de la Nave in Zamora (Late 7th c.)
Visigoth horseshoe arch
Small windows
Tiny construc>ons
Poor imita>on of Romans using ashlars
Horseshoe arch
Resemblance with
Ashlars the mihrab
Stretcher bond + header bond
Decorated with gold crosses

Andalusian Society
-
Arabs and Syrians

Muslims
Berebers
Muladis
#
Jews
Non muslims Mozarabs
Slaves
1
Al-Andalus: brought knowledge to Europe
Cordoba, founded in 169 BC by the Romans

• Roman Founda>on
• Grew towards Guadalquivir
• It turned into a Visigoth City
Cordoba’s name was modifies to Madinat Qurtuba
Great Mosque Of Cordoba 786

Friday Mosque/Alhama Mosque
756 Abd al-Rahman I survives >> Independent emirate in Al-Andalus
In Roman Cordoba they found Capitals and columns that they used as a quarry; same with the Visigoths
31.17.78 7 +
Under the Mosque there is a Byzan>ne/Visigoth Construc>on

Typical Hypostyle Mosque 12.9 H +
41.18 4
+
Abd al-Rahman I was trying to build a new Damascus since he was an Omayyad. Therefore he made the
mosque similar to the one in Damascus rather than the ones in the North of Africa. One of their 01.8 H
+
differences is that the aisles were rotated making most sense the ones in Cordoba since they are facing
the Qibla wall.
N
11
22.18 H
+
The Mosque is not looking to Mecca but it can be because: 3 ↑
• It faces the road that gets you to Mecca. 2 + p
1
• They used the founda>ons of the previous construc>ons.
• Since it is an echo to Damascus, they replicated their orienta>on.
In Spain all mosques look to the south not Mecca
How was it built?

They used the materials surrounding them. Visigoth, Roman,… Some columns have shaw and base, others don’t, the capitals are interchanged…
They also used two colors, two materials in the arches since they were inspired by the acre duct of Merida in their avoidance of bending and
use of materials.
Use of the Visigoth Horsheshoe Arch
arch
shoring
->
modIIION
~> of rolls
canal
water
&
Added
this piece
I since column
thicker
was
Syrian details
Mosque - fortress of faith
steppedbattlement
-
buttress
Hisham I 8th c.
Finished the courtyard and the first Alminar
First enlargement: Sahn

Abd-Al Rahman II 9th c.
- Corbeled roof with embadlemens
--
3 blind arches
Omayyad Arch
<-
with
rectangular
St. Stephen’s gate
/
& 1/2
↓
frame (Alfiz)
-
Embadlements
- Opening with laxce
<- Blind rectangular frame

Abd-Al Rahman III 891-961
Emir: 912 Caliph: 929 -> Caliphate of Cordoba
Enlargement of the courtyard, new alminar and repair the wall separa>ng the Sahn and the Haram
Double façade with

-hidden budresses
=
-
Huge alminar (1x4)
&
decorated
↓ Most
Al-HakaR |
31.17.78 7 +
12.9 H +
41.18 4
+
01.8 H
+
22.18 H
+
Abd Al-Rahman III 936 CE

Very close to the city of Cordoba
Close to the orchards and the river
Located on a slope (3 different
terraces)
Palace, city and fortress
Wall filled with extra protec>on and budresses (2 walls together) All Iberian Muslim ci>es had it
Fantasy land with fantasy gardens and animals
Horsheshoe caliphate arch
Wasp nest capital
Composite capital
Salón Rico, Medina Al Zahra
Al Mansur founded Baghdad in 762 under the Abbasid Empire

The names of the gate of the city indicate the road it leads to
New Enlargement of the Mosque of Cordoba 10th c.

Al Hakam II
<- skylight
chapel ofvillaviciosa
skylight
X +
Magsuta
Sabat MinraD
Chapel of Villaviciosa
Lobes, cusped or mul>foil arch + crossed arch
Mosque of Cordoba
• Roman Capital
• Visigoth capital
• Omayyad Capital (Al Hakam II)
Enlargement by Almanzor 10th c.
1236 Fernando III el Santo conquers Cordoba
Taifa kingdoms (kinglets) 11th c.

1009-1031 Umayyad Caliphate overthrown
1085 Alfonso VI conquers Toledo
Taifa architecture
• Decora>vism and baroque’s
• Use of: horseshoe, lobed, cross and mix>linear arches
• Material: brick
• Ribbed domed (caliphate origin)
Islamic Iberian City

• Gathering of the faithful
• Biggest space = mosque -
• Seclusion: defense and privacy
-
Elements:
• Alcazar (fortress)
• Alcazaba (citadel, for>fied enclosure)
• Medina
- Streets and adarves (dead end streets/private)
- Great Mosque + mosques
- Market places
Zoco
Alhondiga (caravanserai)
Alcaiceria
- Baths
• Arrabal
• Religion quarters
Outside the city:
• Almunia, orchard, country house
TAIFAS
Alcazaba Málaga Palac Aljafería. Zaragoza
Ba l Bañuelo. Granada
Yusuf Alarife: Ahmed Ibn Baso

ALMOHADS
SEVILLA
ALMOHADS
Capital city: Sevilla
1150-1212
• Hypostyle mosque
- Austere and solid architecture
- Pillars instead of columns
- Brick or masonry stone
- Horseshoe arches / pointed horseshoe arches / lobed arch
• Defensive architecture
Military architecture
• Rammed earth (tapial)
- Formwork (encofrado)
- Putlog (agujas)
- Lime mortar (to protect from the rain)
- Ashlars
Walls with:
• Wall walks (adarves)
• Embadlements (almenas)
• Arrowslits (saeteras)
• Parapet
• Machicola>on (matacanes)
Curtain wall (barbacana)
Moats
Corachas
Gates with:
• Several turns (en recodo)
• Portcullis
Albarrana towers
Watching towers
NASRID DINASTY 13TH - 15TH C. (Last independent Muslim State in Western Europe)
1232 - Muhammad I (ibn Yusuf ibn Nasr ibn al Ahmar, "the Red") founded Nasrid Dynasty
1237 - Conquered Granada. Residence at la Alhambra - Alcazaba
Muhammad II - Generalife
14th c. - Golden Age

Transforma\on of Mexuar
Yusuf I
Towers (Cadí, Cauitva, Comares)
Gates (Armas, Jus\cia)
Muhammad V
Palace of Comares
Palace of Lions
1492 - Surrender of Boabdil 1483 - 1492 to the Catholic Kings
NA
ALHAMBRA
nambra
their
-
13th
11 n
+
of
Tower
Tribute
/
Th
15.
of
Residence
Muhammad I
Gate of
Justice
Pala\ne city
Alhambra: Q’alat al hamra: red castle

Enclosed paradise
Sail vault
~
-- E
vault
avilion
& I
-Barre
No horses
could enter
Builti n brick
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
UNIVERSIDAD SAN PABLO HISTOR
ESCUELA POLITÉCNICA SUPERIOR
ROMANESQUE
Santiago de Compostela (11th - 12th c.)

UNIVERSIDAD SAN PABLO-CEU_HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 2_2022-2023_ROMANESQUE _ p.1
6. ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE
1.- INTRODUCTION PAGE
Western Europe after the Fall of Rome
Byzantine Empire Nea Ecclesia, 9th c. . .............................................................................................. 4
Carolingian Pre-romanesque architecture, 9th c. .............................................................................. 7
Spanish Pre-Romasesque: Visigohs, 6th – 7th c. .
Asturias, 9th c. .
Mozarabs, 10th c. .
The term “Romanesque”
Chronology 11th – 12th centuries.
2.-PILGRIMAGE
Relic veneration
Pilgrimage to Holy Land and Rome
The pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela
Santiago’s Golden Legend,. The myth.
Discovering the remains early 9th c. Alfonso II the Chaste and Charlemagne.
Organizing The Way of St. James: Social, economical and political
Urbanism: the cities.
Churches on the route.
Longitudinal churches: Composition, precedents, ......................................... 8
construction, space and decoration.
-Cathedral of Jaca.
-St. Martin in Fromista.
Centralized churches: Symbology ................................................................... 9
-Holy Sepulcre, Torres del Río (Navarra).
-Holy Sepulcre, Eunate (Navarra)
-Vera Cruz, Segovia.
Pilgrimage churches: Composition, precedents, .......................................... 10
construction, space and decoration.
-St Foy in Conques.
-St. Sernin in Tolouse.
-Santiago de Compostela.................................................................... 12
3.-THE MONASTERY
Concept of monasticism. Origins. Early Christian monasteries in Syria.
-Saint Simeon Stylites
The foundation of the Benedictine Order. St. Benedict. The Benedictine rule
-The Carolingian monastery. 9th c. Saint Gall’s model. Architectonic layouts .................... 15
Cluny and their authority in 11th and 12th century in Europe. Liturgy. Evolution.
- Cluny, Moissac, and Silos .................................................................................................. 16
The Cistercian reaction. Saint Bernard of Clairvaux. The monasteries. .......................................... 19
- Citeaux, Clairvaux, Fontenay, Alcobaça, Poblet, Santas Creus, Santa Mª de Huerta.
REFERENCE SOURCES
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
-Ching, F. (2007). Architecture, form, space & order. John Wiley & Sons, cop.
-Ching, F. (2011). Una historia universal de la arquitectura: un análisis cronológico comparado a través de las culturas.
Vol 1, de las culturas primitivas al siglo XIV. Gustavo Gili.
-Fazio, M., Moffet, M., & Wodehouse, L. (2008). A World History of Architecture. Mc Graw Hill.
-Fletcher, B. (1996). Sir Banister Fletcher's: A History of Architecture. Oxford Architectural Press.
-Kostof, S. (1995). A History of Architecture: Settings and Rituals. Oxford University Press.
-Müller, W., & Vogel, G. (1997). Atlas de Arquitectura. 1. Alianza Ed.
-Roth, L.M., & Clark, A. (2014). Understanding architecture: its elements, history, and meaning. Westview Press, cop.
-Zevi, B. (1993). Architecture as space: how to look at architecture. Da Capo.
DICTIONARIES
-Ching, F. (1995). A visual dictionary of architecture. John Wiley & Sons, cop.
-Fatas, F., & Borrás, G.M. (1999). Diccionario de términos de arte y elementos de arqueología y numismática. Alianza
editorial.
-Fleming, J., Honour, H., & Pevsner, N. (1999). The Penguin Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture. Penguin
Books.
-Pevsner, N. (2016). Pevsner's Architectural Glossary. Yale University Press.
WEB RESOURCES
-www.archidict.com [Multiple languages visual dictionary]
-www.greatbuildings.com [Collection of images and architectural drawings, integrated maps and timelines, 3D building
models, commentaries, bibliographies and web links on architects and buildings across history]
-www.wga.hu [The Web Gallery of Art is a virtual museum and searchable database of European fine arts, decorative arts
and architecture from the 3rd to 19th centuries.]
BYZANTIUM PRE-ROMANESQUE
395 Division of the Roman Empire FRANCE SPAIN
First Golden Age 6th c Carolingians 9th c. Visigoths 6th 7th c.

527-565 Justinian I
Hagia Sophia 532-537 c. 732 Battle of Poitiers, Charles Martel Asturian Pre-Romanesque 9th c.
800 Coronation Charlemagne
Dark Ages 7th -8th c Imperator Romanorum
Mozarabs 10th c.
8th – m. 9th c. Iconoclastic waves (by Pope Leo III on Christmas)
Second Golden Age l. 9th –e. 13th c

Nea Ecclesia l. 9th c. ROMANESQUE 11th -12th c.
PILGRIMAGE + MONASTERIES
1054 East–West Schism
1204 Sack of Constantinople 4th Crusade
1453 Fall of Constantinople CLUNY

Ottoman Empire
SANTIAGO DE
COMPOSTELA
HOSIOS AS
GR
#
Palatine Chapel, Aachen
Abbey of Corvey
ROMANESQUE
Longitudinal
Centralized
i grimage churches: S. Martín de Tours, S. Marcial de Limoges, S. Remy

de Reims, S. Sernin de Toulouse d Santiago de Compostela
o 50m
Saint-Martial, Limoges
Saint-Sernin, Toulouse
3. 1168-1188 2. 1093-1128
Master Mateo Bishop Diego
Gelmirez
Masters Esteban
and Fernando el
Joven
Santiago de Compostela
Tribune, gallery - doubles the

capacity of the church
structural-load transmission
R
R/2
/
W
R
R/2
R/1
R/2
↑
R/2
8 9
6 1 7
1 S
2 3

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

UNIVERSIDAD SAN PABLO HISTOR

SPECIFIC BIBLIOGRAPHY ON ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

From Mecal to Medina

Muhhamad 570 born in Mecca (city of Merchants,

Secluded space ecca

ISLAM = submission to the will of God

Religion + social + poli>cs

INFINITE: REPETITION + DIVISION

OASIS = vegeta>on + water

Arches with Muqarnas

Omayyad Period (mid 7th c. to 8th c.) 661-750

Resembles a forum Bautist

DIVISION SAHN (COURTYARD)

ALMINAR/MINARET (TOWER): call to prayer

Friday Mosque Isfahan

Decorated with gold crosses

Arabs and Syrians

Al-Andalus: brought knowledge to Europe

Cordoba, founded in 169 BC by the Romans

Cordoba’s name was modiﬁes to Madinat Qurtuba

Great Mosque Of Cordoba 786

Under the Mosque there is a Byzan>ne/Visigoth Construc>on

The Mosque is not looking to Mecca but it can be because: 3 ↑

• It faces the road that gets you to Mecca. 2 + p

In Spain all mosques look to the south not Mecca

How was it built?

First enlargement: Sahn

- Corbeled roof with embadlemens

- Opening with laxce

<- Blind rectangular frame

Double façade with

Abd Al-Rahman III 936 CE

Salón Rico, Medina Al Zahra

Al Mansur founded Baghdad in 762 under the Abbasid Empire

New Enlargement of the Mosque of Cordoba 10th c.

1236 Fernando III el Santo conquers Cordoba

Taifa kingdoms (kinglets) 11th c.

Islamic Iberian City

• Seclusion: defense and privacy

Alcazaba Málaga Palac Aljafería. Zaragoza

Yusuf Alarife: Ahmed Ibn Baso

14th c. - Golden Age

Alhambra: Q’alat al hamra: red castle

Santiago de Compostela (11th - 12th c.)

First Golden Age 6th c Carolingians 9th c. Visigoths 6th 7th c.

Second Golden Age l. 9th –e. 13th c

1453 Fall of Constantinople CLUNY

Palatine Chapel, Aachen

i grimage churches: S. Martín de Tours, S. Marcial de Limoges, S. Remy

Tribune, gallery - doubles the

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