Renewable Energy 195 (2022) 182e193

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Experimental investigation on the performance of aluminium soda

can solar air heater
Chigbo Mgbemene a, d, Ifeanyi Jacobs a, d, *, Anthony Okoani a, c, Ndudim Ononiwu a, b
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
c
Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand
d
AEDJAC Systems Development Laboratory, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents the use of discarded soda cans in harnessing solar energy for heating of homes,
Received 27 January 2022 preheating of air in industries and for agricultural drying purposes. Aluminum soda cans were used as
Received in revised form the absorber plate of solar air heater and the performance was studied. The soda can air heaters (SCAHs)
10 May 2022
were designed and fabricated. The configurations of the system (active, passive and number of flow
Accepted 3 June 2022
Available online 9 June 2022
passes) and the mode that gave the best performance for a particular purpose were determined. The tests
were carried out in rainy and dry seasons of the year which are the only seasons in the tropics. The SCAH
was able to raise the air temperature through it to 128
C in a four-pass mode active system. This result
Keywords:
Solar air heaters
was achieved when the collector was tilted 21
to the horizontal facing south. Other lower temperatures
Discarded aluminum soda cans achieved are good for home heating and agricultural drying purposes. The results indicate that single-
Temperature difference pass SCAH produces more useful energy and performs better when compared to four-pass SCAH in
Instantaneous efficiency active mode. The results were consistent in all the modes and showed that in whichever mode and the
Active and passive system season, the SCAH was able to establish a good temperature difference in the fluid.
© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Recycling and reuse of discarded materials contribute to the
economic growth of a country. They also help in saving the envi-
ronment and also providing raw materials for production. Recycling
and reuse of soda (beverage) cans falls within the above statements.
Beverage cans are not biodegradable. Millions of beverage cans are
discarded daily in Nigeria and these clogs up the waterways. This
has disastrous consequences in the environment. As part of a waste
to wealth programme, soda cans (which are made of aluminum) are
recycled, but they were usually recycled into lower value products.
It has been found that soda cans can serve as solar collector re-
ceivers of air heaters which is of higher importance in the value
chain [1,2]. Soda cans are made of thin aluminum materials and
aluminum is a good conductor of heat. A typical beverage soda can
is an alloy containing 92.5%e97% aluminum, 5.5% magnesium, 1.6%
manganese, 0.15% chromium and some trace amounts of iron,
* Corresponding author. Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of
Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria.
E-mail address: ifeanyi.jacobs@unn.edu.ng (I. Jacobs).
silicon and copper [3]. The soda cans are used as the absorber plate
of a solar air collector and with the sun as the heat source. It pro-
vides a cheap way of making solar air heating system.
Solar air heating is a solar thermal technology in which the
energy from the sun is captured by an absorption medium and used
to heat air for buildings or process heat applications. It has been in
operation since the World War II [4]. As deduced from Ref. [5]; air
systems have several advantages that can lead to their use in
smaller installations in single and multi-family residences. In
addition, solar air systems are well suited to crop drying, space
heating and air preheating in certain processes [6,7]. As air pre-
heaters, they could find serious use in the industries where pre-
heating of air for combustion of fuel in boilers are necessary.
Preheating of air before entering into the combustion chamber
saves a lot of fuel and increases the overall thermal efficiency of the
plant.
Over time, studies have been carried out on solar air heaters and
different configurations have been tried out [8e10]. A detailed re-
view of the design configurations, improvement methods and ap-
plications have been carried out by Refs. [11,12]. Modifications have
been made to solar air heaters based on fins, ribs and V- corrugated
[13,14]; [15e20]. and wire mesh with fins and baffles [21e24] to

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2022.06.011
0960-1481/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C. Mgbemene, I. Jacobs, A. Okoani et al.
Nomenclature
FR heat removal factor
Uc heat loss coefficient (W/m2C)
(ta) transmittance-absorptance product
Qu useful energy gain (W)
DT temperature difference (To - Ta) (oC)
h efficiency of the solar air heater
Vo outlet air velocity (m/s)
r density of air (kg/m3)
Ic solar radiation on the collector (W/m2)
Ac collector absorber surface area, m2
To outlet air temperature (oC)
Ta ambient temperature (oC)
Tav arithmetic average fluid temperature (oC)
cp specific heat of air (kJ/kg K)
Ao area of outlet duct m2
t time period (s)
h average efficiency
_
m mass flow rate of air (kg/s)
w standard uncertainty
increase collector efficiency while novel designs have also been
studied [25,26]. Various solar air heater configurations have been
designed by researchers to enhance collector efficiency compared
to flat-plate air collector consisting of glass cover, an absorber plate
and air flow channels [27,28]; A [29e31]. Some researchers have
created artificial turbulence on the absorber to allow air spend
more time or disturb the laminar sub-layer to increase the collector
efficiency [32e34].
The soda can air heater is a device where the solar thermal
energy is captured by the absorptive painted soda can and the heat
is transferred to an adjacent layer of air flowing through it, thereby
heating it up. Most published items on the soda can air heaters
(SCAH) have been presented as people's Do-It-Yourself (DIY) work.
They have been able to show that solar air heaters with aluminum
soda cans as absorbers are built as active systems and they
exhibited relatively high efficiency. Solar air heater can be used for
space heating, industrial purpose and drying of agricultural prod-
ucts. The most notable work in SCAH was done by Ref. [1]. [2] did a
very scholarly study of the SCAH as an active system. In all these
scholarly studies, only [2,35] to the knowledge of the authors have
used soda cans as the absorber for their solar air heaters.
Solar can air heaters belong to the back-pass solar collector
(BPSC) class. Other types of solar collectors include glazed flat-plate
solar collectors, unglazed flat-plate solar collectors, unglazed
perforated plate collectors, concentrating solar collectors and vac-
uum tube solar collectors [11]. In BPSC air makes its pass on the
underside of the absorber plate picking up heat from the absorber
as it moves along the plate (see Fig. 1) [8,11].
This work aims at characterizing the soda can air heater and
showing that aluminum soda cans are suitable for use as the
absorber plate of an air heater and to promote its use for that
purpose. To do that, two different configurations of the soda can air
heater namely single-pass arrangement and a four-pass arrange-
ment were studied under passive and active modes (Figs. 2 and 3).
The difference between the two system modes is the introduction
of the fans in the active systems. In the passive mode, the air
movement is due to buoyancy action while in the active mode, the
fan moves the air. The main objective of this paper is to determine
the temperature to which the SCAH can raise the air temperature
through it. The other is to determine which configuration of the
183
Renewable Energy 195 (2022) 182e193
system and the mode (active or passive) that will give the better
performance.
1.1. The experimental set up
The soda can collector was designed and fabricated. The solar air
heater box was a wooden box made from mahogany wood. This
was chosen over metal because it was cheaper, and wood has low
thermal conductivity and greater workability. Using the di-
mensions of Guy Sperry's as the guide [1], the dimensions of the
collector were chosen as 2134 mm by 1067 mm. The collector box
was rectangular in shape and was lagged with Styrofoam for
insulation (Fig. 4). The collector's absorber was made of aluminum
soda cans which was cut open at the top side and perforated in star
pattern at the bottom side into four equally spaced fins and was
painted with a black silicone paint having absorptivity of about 0.95
(Fig. 5). The fins help to create turbulence in the flow in order to
increase the rate of heat transfer to the working fluid. Fifteen col-
umns comprising 16 aluminum soda cans were arranged inside the
box (Fig. 6). Wooden baffles placed equidistantly in three places
within the box supported the columns of cans. A 4 mm ceramic
glass with a solar energy transmittance of 0.85 was used as the
cover glass. The cross section of the arrangements of the cans is as
shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 8 shows the fabricated collectors being studied. In the
passive design, the inlet manifold was designed in such a way to
allow maximum air flow into the system. Air flowed into the system
through the sides and front of the manifold. In the active designs
(Fig. 9), the inlet manifold had a fan installed there (Fig. 9a). Two ZX
fan model: AZ8025MS 12 V DC with a flow rate of 25CFM were
installed each in the inlet manifold of the single pass and the four-
pass systems. Thermocouples were inserted at the center of the
collector's inlet and outlet ducts for measuring the air temperatures
(Fig. 9). K-type thermocouples with standard accuracy of ±0.75% for
temperatures up to 400
C were used. The temperatures were
displayed and logged with a handheld multi-channel temperature
meter (Applent Instrument, Model: AT4208) capable of reading
eight different temperatures with accuracy 0.2% þ 1
C and reso-
lution 0.1
C. A Kestrel 3000 digital meter capable of measuring air
velocity with accuracy of ±0.1 m/s, temperature, and humidity
were used for measuring the properties of the air. The solar radi-
ation was measured with SM206 digital solar BTU power meter
whose resolution is ±0.1 W/m2 and with accuracy of ±10 W/m2.
1.2. Experimental procedure
The experimental tests were carried out under two different
climatic conditions of Nsukka (6
5102400 N 7
230 4500 E), Nigeria;
August (rainy season) and February (dry season). The experiment
was carried out in both active and passive modes for all the angles
(Figs. 7 and 8). Table 1 shows the programme for testing the soda
can air heaters in both seasons for all tilt angles. It also shows the
possibility of carrying out the test in a given mode.
The solar air heater was placed facing south and tilted at angles
of 7
, 14
, 21
, and 28
to the horizontal surface. According to
Ref. [7]; the best tilt angle for solar collectors in Nsukka ranges from
14
e 35
facing south. The parameters measured here were just
enough to demonstrate the feasibility of the SCAH. Temperature
and air velocity readings were taken for different periods of the day.
The experiments were performed from morning 8.00 a.m. to 4.00
p.m. the theoretical useful sun period for Nsukka location. The in-
tensity of solar radiation, temperature and air velocity (at the inlet
and outlet ducts) were measured and recorded in 30-min interval.
The experiments were repeated at the different tilt angles over a
period of days.
C. Mgbemene, I. Jacobs, A. Okoani et al. Renewable Energy 195 (2022) 182e193

Fig. 1. The (a) pictorial view and (b) schematic diagram of simple soda can.

Fig. 2. The configurations of the air heaters under study in passive mode.

Fig. 3. The configurations of the air heaters under study in active mode.

1.3. Theoretical analysis
Fig. 10 is a schematic diagram of a typical solar air heater. The
figure is a representation of the incoming radiation and its effect on
the collector. The thermal performance of the solar collector can be
evaluated by carrying out an energy balance of the system. This
helps to determine the portion of the incoming radiation delivered
as useful energy to the working fluids.
The basic method is to calculate the useful gain, Qu, of the col-
lector [36,37]. Other ways include the determination of the
instantaneous efficiency of the collector and the computation of a
useful parameter, (Tav e Ta)/Is which characterizes a collector. A plot

184
C. Mgbemene, I. Jacobs, A. Okoani et al.
Fig. 4. Lagging of the collector box with Styrofoam.
Fig. 5. Aluminum soda cans perforated in star pattern at the bottom (arrowed) and
joined end to end.
Fig. 6. The soda cans set in place in the collector box.
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Renewable Energy 195 (2022) 182e193
Fig. 7. Cross section of the collector showing the arrangement of the cans.
of the instantaneous efficiency against temperature-insolation
function, (Tav e Ta)/Is having a slope of FRUc which is a parameter
that describes how the collector works.
Fig. 11 depicts how the solar radiation transfers heat into the air
flowing through the soda can. Energy efficiency of the collector is
calculated using heat gain and solar radiation. The instantaneous
thermal efficiency of a solar heater is the ratio of the useful energy
delivered to the incoming solar energy. This is given as:
Qu
h¼ (1)
Ac Ic
However, since the experiment is carried out over some speci-
fied time period, the average value of the efficiency will be more
useful. Hence the average efficiency is given as:
ðt
Qu dt
h ¼ ð t0 (2)
Ac Ic dt
0
Where t is the time period over which the performance is averaged.
Qu is the useful energy gain and is given as
_ p ðTo  Ta Þ
Qu ¼ mc (3)
m_ ¼ rAo Vo (4)
2. Results and discussion
The experiments were conducted at actual outdoor meteoro-
logical conditions. At the onset of the experiment, Plexiglas was
used as the cover glass but it was noticed that it was not suitable for
the study. At ambient temperature of above 30
C, the Plexiglas
expanded by up to 10 mm both in length and width. This was
observed when the surface temperature of the Plexiglas was above
40
C. Other problems included sagging of the cover glass at
elevated temperature, discoloration, buckling and cracking. These
prompted the termination of the use of Plexiglas and led to the use
of ceramic glass. This proved to be better than the Plexiglas.
Among the four different tilt angles (7
, 14
, 21
and 28
) the
tests was carried out on, 21
tilt angle gave the best result for the
Nsukka location (6
5102400 N 7
230 4500 E). These corresponds to the
research done by Ref. [7]. The plots presented here are therefore for
the 21
tilt angle.
The four-pass collector could not work in passive mode. Because
of buoyancy effect, there was stagnation of flow at the top section of
the passes. As a consequence, there was no flow through the col-
lector in this mode. The results presented here are thus only for
single pass in passive and active modes, and for four-pass in active
mode. The results of the experiment are plotted as shown in
C. Mgbemene, I. Jacobs, A. Okoani et al. Renewable Energy 195 (2022) 182e193

Fig. 8. The fabricated air heaters (a) single-pass system and (b) four-pass system during the study.

Fig. 9. In active mode with the fan at the inlet and exit position of the collectors. Thermocouple wires (arrowed) could be seen at the inlet (a) and outlet (b) of the collectors.

Table 1
The typical programme for the tests in the rainy and dry seasons here shows that for the tilt angles.

Test 1: August (Rainy Season)

Mode Single Pass Air Heater Four Pass Air Heater

Passive Possible/Done Not possible/not done

Active Possible/Done Done

Test 2: February (Dry Season)

Mode Single Pass Air Heater Four Pass Air Heater

Passive Possible/Done Not possible/not done

Active Possible/Done Possible/Done

Fig. 10. A schematic diagram of a typical air heater.

186
C. Mgbemene, I. Jacobs, A. Okoani et al. Renewable Energy 195 (2022) 182e193

Fig. 11. Heat transfer to the air flowing through the soda can.

Figs. 12e25.

2.1. Transient result of the solar air collector for single-pass in

passive mode

A look at the plots (Figs. 12, 14, 18 and 22) show that a significant
temperature difference was created between the inlet air temper-
ature and the outlet temperature. The plots also show that the soda
can absorber is able to transfer heat to the working fluid. It can be
seen that a small change in the air inlet temperature causes a sig-
nificant change in the air outlet temperature. Hence, this rise in air
outlet temperature depends on the solar radiation received by the
collector. It can be seen that there is a drop in air outlet temperature
during noon. This is as a result of the sun beam radiation changing
to diffuse radiation due to covering of the cloud in the sky. Hence,
the experiment was not carried out in a clear sky environment.
From the plots, it can be observed that the maximum air outlet
temperature was attained in the afternoon. Thus, the air outlet
temperature rises in the morning and falls in the evening. Results Fig. 13. Mass flow rate versus outlet temperature in rainy season.
from the experiment carried out on the passive single-pass soda
can solar air heater (Figs. 14 and 12) shows a maximum tempera-
ture of 101.2
C and 70
C was attained in February and August
respectively at 21
tilt angle.
The plots (Figs. 18 and 22) show that the four-pass active soda
can solar air heater operates better than the single-pass active
system in terms of temperature rise. These was as a result of the air
spending more residual time in the four-pass system than in the
single-pass system. Thus, picking up more thermal energy from the

Fig. 14. Variation of temperatures and insolation versus time of the day in dry season.

absorber. It can be seen that a maximum temperature of 127
C for

four-pass system and 83
C for single-pass system was obtained in
active soda can solar air heater in February (Fig. 22) at 21
tilt angle.
The mass flow rate of the heated air flowing out of the exit duct in
passive mode increased linearly as the temperature increased as
shown in Figs. 13 and 15. This is as expected because the air
buoyancy increases with increasing temperature resulting in in-
Fig. 12. Variation of temperatures and insolation versus time of the day in rainy
season.
crease in the flow velocity. In active mode, the fan installed at the

187
C. Mgbemene, I. Jacobs, A. Okoani et al.
Fig. 15. Mass flow rate versus outlet temperature in dry season.
Fig. 16. Variation of instantaneous efficiency and useful energy versus time of the day
in rainy season.
inlet duct supplied air of constant velocity into the collector. The air
velocity was measured at the exit duct of the collector. The plots
(Figs. 16 and 17) show the relationships between instantaneous
efficiency and useful energy gain in passive soda can air heater.
Both instantaneous efficiency and useful energy gain tends to move
in the same pattern until afternoon when some discrepancy occurs.
This could be as a result of high collector temperature which
resulted to high heat loss from the collector.
2.2. Active mode: transient result of the solar air collectors in rainy
season
The plots (Figs. 19 and 23) show a significant temperature dif-
ference between inlet air and outlet air, DT, for active system in
rainy and dry season respectively. Experimental results show that
the soda can air heater produced a higher temperature difference in
February than in August. These could be as a result of the insolation
188
Renewable Energy 195 (2022) 182e193
Fig. 17. Variation of instantaneous efficiency and useful energy versus time of the day
in dry season.
Fig. 18. Variation of temperatures versus time of the day for both systems.
of the sun and other climatic factors. From the plots (Figs. 19 and
23), it can be seen that temperature rise strongly depends on
insolation of the sun.
Figs. 20 and 24 compare the useful energy gains and instanta-
neous efficiencies for both active systems (single-pass and four-
pass) operating in rainy and dry season respectively. The useful
energy gain is a function of the temperature rise which depends on
the insolation of the sun. Therefore, the performance of the system
depends on the insolation of the sun. The plots show that single-
pass system gave more useful energy than the four-pass system.
These could be because useful energy gain is a function of mass
flow rate.
As the mass flow rate increases, the temperature rise through
the collector decreases. This causes lower heat losses since the
average collector temperature is lower and there is a corresponding
increase in the useful energy gain. Consequently, collector heat
C. Mgbemene, I. Jacobs, A. Okoani et al. Renewable Energy 195 (2022) 182e193

removal factor increases as the mass flow rate increases. The air
velocity which is a function of mass flow rate was measured at the
outlet duct of both soda can air heaters. The mass flow rate of the
single-pass soda can air heater was 0.012 kg/s and that of four-pass
soda can air heater was 0.004 kg/s. The active single-pass soda can
air heater produced thrice the exit air than the active four-pass soda
can air heater. This could be as a result of the velocity drop in the
four-pass system. Due to the bends in the flow path of the four-pass
system, the air experienced a drop in its velocity. Because the soda
can air heater was tilted, buoyancy effect made it difficult for the
heated air to flow downwards through the second and fourth
passes of the air heater. Again, this contributed to the drop in the air
velocity.
From Figs. 20 and 24, it can also be seen that the active single-
pass system has a higher efficiency than the four-pass system.
These show that the active single-pass soda can air heater produces
air with higher energy content than the four-pass soda can air
heater despite the four-pass system producing higher outlet air
temperature. According to Ref. [36], The maximum possible useful
energy gain in a solar collector occurs when the whole collector is
Fig. 19. Temperature rise and insolation versus time of the day for both systems.
at the inlet fluid temperature; heat losses to the surroundings are

Fig. 20. Instantaneous efficiency and useful energy gain versus time of the day for both systems.

Fig. 21. Instantaneous efficiency versus (Tav e Ta)/Ic for both systems in rainy season.
189
C. Mgbemene, I. Jacobs, A. Okoani et al.
Fig. 22. Variation of temperatures versus time of the day for both systems.
Fig. 23. Temperature rise and insolation versus time of the day for both systems.
Fig. 24. Instantaneous efficiency and useful energy gain versus time of the day for both systems in dry season.
190
Renewable Energy 195 (2022) 182e193
then at a minimum. Collector efficiency is maximum when the
absorber plate temperature equals the inlet fluid temperature.
Thus, heat loss to the surrounding becomes zero. The single-pass
active system operates at lower temperature than the four-pass
active system due to increase in mass flow rate of air. Hence, its
collector absorbing surface temperature is closer to inlet fluid
temperature than that of four-pass active system.
2.3. Active mode: transient result of the solar air collectors in dry
season
The plots (Figs. 21 and 25) show the variation of instantaneous
efficiency against temperature-insolation function for active sys-
tems during rainy and dry season. A characteristic curve (a straight-
line plot) was obtained from the results between efficiency and
temperature-insolation function [2,7]. obtained a straight-line
result on their plots of efficiency against temperature-insolation
function. The value of FRUC can be obtained from the plots by
calculating the slope of the line of best fit. A linear least squares fit
of the data using Origin 2018 gave the following correlations for
active soda can air heater in August (rainy season) and February
(dry season).
From Fig. 21 (rainy season);
h ¼10:12þ985:42ðTav Ta =Ic Þ,for,singlepass,active,system
h ¼ 7:42 þ 504:84ðTav  Ta = Ic Þ , for , four  pass , active,system
From Fig. 25 (dry season)
h ¼11:38þ945:34ðTav Ta =Ic Þ,for,singlepass,active,system
h ¼ 6:83 þ 545:26ðTav  Ta = Ic Þ , for , four  pass , active,system
From the correlations, it can be seen that a positive slope was
obtained. This was as a result of the experiment being carried out in
an uncontrolled environment (non-steady state). This is in agree-
ment with [7], who had performed a similar experiment under
transient conditions in the same location. If the experiment was
conducted under a steady state condition, a negative slope would
C. Mgbemene, I. Jacobs, A. Okoani et al. Renewable Energy 195 (2022) 182e193

Fig. 25. Instantaneous efficiency versus (Tav e Ta)/Ic for both systems in dry season.

have been obtained as shown by Refs. [6,36,37]. Overall heat loss 2.4. Uncertainty analysis
coefficient, UC vary with the operating temperature of the collector
and the ambient weather condition causing some deviations from The uncertainty analysis provides a quantitative estimate of the
the straight-line relation. Thus, the scatter in the data plots is to be interval about a measured value or an experiment result within
expected, because of temperature dependence, wind effects, and which the true value of that quantity is expected to lie. The un-
angle-of-incidence variations. certainty in the experimental results was estimated using the
A plot of change in temperature against insolation (Fig. 26)
shows that the solar air heater reacted to the changes in the inso-
lation. A rise in the insolation resulted in a rise in the temperature
change. This is the same for all the experiments. Fig. 27 shows the
digital thermometer reading of the outlet air temperature. A
maximum temperature in excess of 120
C was recorded for that
day. This corresponded to a temperature difference of 92.5
C. This
result was recorded in the four-pass mode arrangement in
February. The average daily insolation for that day was 427.5 W/m2.

Fig. 26. Variation of temperature difference with insolation on February. Fig. 27. The temperature reading of the outlet air.

191
C. Mgbemene, I. Jacobs, A. Okoani et al. Renewable Energy 195 (2022) 182e193

Table 2
Calculated Uncertainties for Single Pass Parameters in Passive mode.

Parameters August (Rainy Season) February (Dry Season)

Mean Value Standard Uncertainty Confidence Interval at 95% Mean Value Standard Uncertainty Confidence Interval at 95%


Inlet Temperature C 26.4 0.39 25.9, 26.9 30.8 0.5 30.2, 31.4
Outlet Temperature
C 50.8 2.07 48.1, 53.4 69.5 5.1 62.9, 76.0
Insolation (W/m2) 196.6 18 173.5, 219.6 287 41.47 233.9, 340.1
Mass Flowrate (kg/s) 0.0017 0.0001 0.0016, 0.0019 0.0034 0.0002 0.0032, 0.0036
Useful Energy Gain (W) 43.4 3.86 38.5, 48.4 143 20.37 116.8, 168.9
Instantaneous Efficiency 15.2 1.45 13.3, 17.0 28.6 2.36 25.6, 31.6

Calculated Uncertainties for Single-pass and Four-pass Parameters in Active mode.

Table 3
Calculated uncertainty values in August (rainy season).

Parameters Single Pass Four Pass

Mean Value Standard Uncertainty Confidence Interval at 95% Mean Value Standard Uncertainty Confidence Interval at 95%

Ambient Temperature
C 26.5 0.41 26.0, 27.0 26.5 0.41 26.0, 27.0
Outlet Temperature
C 39.7 1.38 38.0, 41.5 54.1 2.94 50.3, 57.8
Insolation (W/m2) 232.9 22.6 204.0, 261.8 232.9 22.6 204, 261.8
Useful Energy Gain (W) 43.4 3.86 142.9, 179.4 151.4 15.52 131.5, 171.2
Instantaneous Efficiency 15.2 1.45 39.6, 45.9 39 1.66 36.9, 41.1

Table 4
Calculated uncertainty values in February (dry season).

Parameters Single Pass Four Pass

Mean Value Standard Uncertainty Confidence Interval at 95% Mean Value Standard Uncertainty Confidence Interval at 95%

Ambient Temperature
C 30.3 0.55 29.6, 31.0 30.3 0.55 29.6, 31.0
Outlet Temperature
C 62.7 4.13 57.4, 67.9 80.6 6.87 71.8, 89.4
Insolation (W/m2) 426.5 49.75 362.8, 490.1 426.5 49.75 362.8, 490.1
Useful Energy Gain (W) 384.5 44.49 327.6, 441.5 319.1 42.94 264.1, 374.1
Instantaneous Efficiency 52.1 2.11 49.4, 54.8 42.1 2.14 39.4, 44.8

methods presented by Refs. [38,39]. To estimate the standard un- low insolation values, the SCAH is capable of heating the air up to a
certainty in the calculated result on the basis of the uncertainties in useful temperature. The following are the major findings from the
the primary measurements, the result R being a function of the experiment:
independent variables x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; ::::; xn is given as
 The four-pass active mode can gave an outlet temperature of
R ¼ Rðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; ::::; xn Þ (5) 128
C. Such a temperature is high enough for industrial use. The
If wR is the uncertainty in the result and w1 ; w2 ; :::; wn are the lower temperatures are also good for home heating and agri-
uncertainties in the independent variables, then cultural drying purposes. Useful energy can be obtained from
the SCAH.
" 2  2  2 # 1 2
=
 The experimental results also showed that single-pass SCAH
vR vR vR produces more useful energy and performs better than four-
wR ¼ w þ w þ :::: þ wn (6)
vx1 1 vx2 2 vxn pass SCAH in active mode.
 The configurations of the system (active, passive and number of
As stated in Ref. [39], the uncertainties for product functions are
flow passes) and the mode that will give the best performance
given as
for a particular purpose have been determined. The results were
consistent in all the modes.
R ¼ xa11 xa22 :::::xann (7)
 The experimental results show that in whichever mode and
whatever the season (dry or rainy), the SCAH was able to
" #1 2
X ai wx 2
=
establish a good temperature difference in the fluid. This shows
wR ¼ R i
(8) that the aluminum soda cans can serve as good absorber ma-
xi
terials for air collectors. However, the mass flow rate is a factor
The calculated uncertainties using Eqs. (6) and (8) for different to be considered in the decision to use the SCAH.
parameters are shown in Tables 2e4.
The ease of design and fabrication, and the reasonable temper-
ature difference which can be obtained from the SCAH justify the
3. Conclusions cost of the air heater. The costs incurred here will mainly be the cost
of the glass, wood, paint and insulation material. That of the
The performance of the soda can air heater has been studied. aluminum can is negligible as the cans are already discarded. Based
The temperature to which the SCAH can raise the air temperature on the output, the SCAH is a worthwhile venture. It can therefore be
through it has been determined. The results showed that even at safely concluded that the hitherto discarded soda cans can be used

192
C. Mgbemene, I. Jacobs, A. Okoani et al.
to harness solar energy for heating of homes, preheating of air in
industries and for agricultural drying purposes.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Chigbo Mgbemene: Resources, Writing e review & editing,
Conceptualization, Supervision, and, Funding acquisition. Ifeanyi
Jacobs: Literature review, Formal analysis, Methodology, Design,
Fabrication, and, Writing e original draft. Anthony Okoani:
Experiment, Recording data, Reporting, Writing e review & editing.
Ndudim Ononiwu: Visualization, Fabrication, Data plotting,
Conclusion, Writing and editing, All authors read and approved the
final manuscript.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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