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TECHNOLOGY OF
MILK AND MILK
PRODUCTS
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Milk: - Milk is defined as the secretion of mammary glands intended for the immediate nutrition of newly born
offspring.

OR

Milk:- Milk is defined as the lacteal secretion obtained by complete milking of one or more healthy milch animals,
which are properly fed and kept, except for the secretion obtained 15 days before and 5 days after calving. It should
confirm to the legal standards as laid down in the PFA for the particular class of milk.

Abbreviations generally used:-

PFA –Prevention of Food Adulteration Act

AGMARK – Agricultural Marketing

BIS – Bureau of Indian Standards

AMUL – Anand Milk Union Limited

GRAS – Generally Recognized as Safe

FPO – Fruit Products Order

WHO – World Health Organization

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Composition:
Milk

Water Total solids (TS)

Fat (Lipid) Solids-not-fat (SNF)

True Fat Associated Lactose Nitrogenous Mineral Other constituents

Substances (milk sugar) substances matter

Several fatty glycerides Phosphates, Citrates,

Chlorides of K, Na, Ca, Mg,
Traces of Fe, Cu, I, etc.

Phospholipids Cholesterol Carotene Vitamins

(lecithin) (A,D,E,K)

Non Protein Protein

(Urea, Uric acid,
Cretin, ammonia)

Casein(α,β,ƴ) Lactalbumin Lactoglobulin Proteose-peptone

(β-Lactoglobulin) (α-Lactalbumin)

Pigments Dissolved gases Vitamins Enzymes, Bacteria

(B-complex,C)
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Factors affecting Composition of Milk:-

Major Factors:-

1.) Species:- The growth habits and body requirements of different species is different so they differ in their
milk composition. E.g. human infant takes 6 months to double their weight as human milk contains 1.9%
protein, whereas cattle infant takes 50 days (3.5% protein), rabbit infant takes 7-10 days(9% protein)

2.) Breed:- Some breed producing the largest amount of milk but milk of a lower fat%. E.g. American cow
producing largest amount of milk but fat % of the milk is low while the Indian cow yielding low amount of
milk but the fat% of the milk is high.

3.) Individuality:- It is the tendency of animal body to produce milk of constant composition.

4.) Feed:- If a particular substance is deficient in diet, body reserve is used to synthesis milk and if deficiency
continues, milk production is decreased and ultimately animal ceases to produce milk.
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Minor factors:-

1.) Season:- The % of both fat & SNF show slight variation during the course of year.

2.) Age:- As the animal advances in age there is a progressive fall in the fat content of milk and total quantity of
milk.

3.) Condition of cow at calving:- If the cow is in good physical health when calving, it will yield milk of a higher
fat% than it would if its condition was poor.

4.) Stage of lactation:- Colostrum contains more minerals, total protein and less lactose than milk drawn 2 or 3
days later. The fat content may be higher or lower than normal milk. In later stage of lactation, the milk
becomes saltish because of the high chloride content.

5.) Interval of milking time:- The longer the interval, the greater the quantity of milk and lower the fat test.

6.) Procedure of milking:- Variations in milking procedure also affects fat contents of milk. First drawn milk or
foremilk is very poor in fat content and last drawn milk or stripping is very rich in fat content.
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Physico-chemical properties of milk constituents:-

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Major constituents:- Water, Fat, Protein, Sugar, Mineral matter

Minor constituents:- Enzyme, pigments, vitamins, Phospholipids, cholesterol.

Major Milk constituents:

i) Water:- Water is the main constituent(87-88%) of milk. It gives bulk to milk. The other constituents of
milk are either dissolved or suspended in it; therefore water acts as a dispersing medium. A very small
quantity of water is bound by protein and rest is in Free State.
ii) Milk fat:- Fat in the milk is present in the form of fat globules. The size of which ranges between 0.1-22 µ
depending upon species, breed and stage of lactation of the animal. The surface of each fat globule is
bound by a fat globule membrane which is composed of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates and some
other substances are also found adsorbed in it. This membrane gives a separate identity to each fat
globule and prevents it from coalescing and thus maintains the emulsion phase.
Specific gravity of milk fat is around 0.93 & thus it is lower than that of milk 1.030. Therefore, tends
to rise to top of milk to form a cream layer. (Milk sugar 1.666, milk protein 1.346, salt 4.12)

Milk fat is generally classified into a) true fat b) fat associated substances

True fat:- is a mixture of so many triglycerides. All other substances associated with it are known
as fat associated substances.
True fat constitute 98-99% of total milk fat while fat associated substances constitute 1-2% of
milk fat.
iii) Nitrogenous substances:-
a) Proteins: - proteins are the polymers of alpha-amino acids and on hydrolysis they yield amino acids.
Some amino acids are essential & others are non-essential.

The milk protein consists of casein, alpha-lactalbumin, beta-lactoglobulin etc.

Casein:- exists only in milk & is found in the form of a calcium-caseinate complex. Casein present in
colloidal state & it forms more than 80% of total protein in milk. It exist in three forms such as α, β &
ƴ. α-casein constitutes 70% of total casein while β & ƴ 25% & 5% respectively.
Later studies have also found that α-casein is composed of at least two sub-fractions such as αs-
casein, K-casein (kappa casein).
αs casein is also called as calcium sensitive casein because under certain conditions it is precipitated
by calcium ions.
K-casein is also called calcium insensitive casein because it is not precipitated by calcium ions.
α-lactalbumin & β-lactoglobulin :- are also known as whey or serum proteins. They are also present
in colloidal state and easily coagulated by heat not by acid or rennet.
b) Non-protein substances:- are urea, uric acid, cretin, ammonia. It is believed that these substances are
filtered into milk along with globulins; under stress or physiological disorder the concentration of non
protein substances slightly increased.
iv) Milk sugar or Lactose:- Milk contains present 4-5% carbohydrates. The chief carbohydrate present in milk
is lactose. Lactose present in milk in true solution and it is about 1/5th sweet as sucrose. It plays an
important role in colour & flavor of highly heated milk products. If the lactose crystals are large in milk
products, they give sandy sensation when consumed.
Chemically, lactose is a disaccharide & on hydrolysis yields 1 molecule of glucose & 1 of galactose.
Lactose is fermented to lactic acid by some bacteria. This fermentation is desirable in cultured milk
products like dahi, cheese, yoghurt etc.
v) Mineral matter & ash:- These are present in small quantities & have considerable influence on the
physico-chemical properties & nutritive value of milk. The major salts in milk are calcium, phosphates,
citrates, sulphates, chlorides, copper, sodium & bicarbonates. These salts are present either in true
solution phase or in colloidal phase attached with the proteins.

Minor milk constituents:-

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a) Phospholipids:- Phospholipids of milk are of three types i.e. lecithin, cephalin & sphingomylin. Lecithin
constitutes about 60% of phospholipids & important constituent of fat globule membrane. Lecithin is an
excellent emulsifying agent, therefore, responsible for emulsion phase of fat in milk.
b) Cholesterol:- Cholesterol present in true solution in the fat, as part of fat globule membrane & complex
formation with protein in the non fat portion of milk.
c) Pigment:- 2 types of pigments are found in milk.
i) Fat soluble:- such as carotene & xanthophylls.
ii) Water soluble:- such as riboflavin.
Carotene is responsible for the yellow colour of milk, butter, ghee etc.
It acts as an antioxidant & a precursor of vitamin A. Cow milk is rich in carotene whereas
buffalo milk is devoid of it, because of inability of buffalo to transfer it into milk.
Riboflavin, besides being vitamins, it is a greenish-yellow pigment, the characteristic
greenish colour of whey & skim milk is because of this pigment.
d) Enzymes:- the important milk enzymes are :
i) Phosphatase- basis for checking pasteurization efficiency.
ii) Protease- protein splitting
iii) Peroxidase- decompose hydrogen peroxide
iv) Amylase- Starch splitting
v) Lipase- Fat splitting
e) Vitamins:- are present in small quantities but these are essential for health & growth. Vitamins found in
milk are:
i) Fat soluble A, D, E & K.
ii) Water soluble B complex & Vit. C.
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Physical & Chemical properties of Milk:-

1.) Colour:- Milk ranges in colour from a bluish white to golden yellow, depending upon the breed, species, kind
of feed, amount of fat and solids present for eg. Mares milk is slightly bluish range due to low total solids in
milk, buffalo milk is rich white and cow milk is golden yellow.
The white colour of milk is due to reflection of light by dispersed fat globules, calcium caseinate and
colloidal phosphate.
The yellow color of milk is due to the pigment carotene derived from the green plants. The content
of yellow colour in the milk depends upon the kind of food given to the animal.
The greenish tint in whey or separated milk is due to the presence of riboflavin.
Reddish color of milk indicates the udder infection.
2.) Taste & Odour:- Normal freshly drawn milk is slightly sweeter & it has a characteristic flavor. The pleasing
flavour of milk is due to high lactose content & low chloride content. High chloride content result in salty
flavour in milk. Towards the end of lactation period or when animal is suffering with udder disease, the milk
produced by a cow often has a salty taste. Abnormal odour in milk may be due to feeding certain aromatic
feeds such as onion, garlic, silage etc. Abnormal growth of bacteria also causes changes in flavour. Certain
metal such as iron or copper contribute metallic flavour in milk.
3.) Acidity & pH :- Freshly drawn milk shows an amphoteric reaction i.e. it turns red litmus blue & blue litmus
red. Normal fresh milk has a pH of above 6.5-6.7 which indicates that milk is slightly acid. When normal milk
is titrated with an alkali solution using phenolphthalein as an indicator, it appears acid, showing from 0.10
to 0.13 % acid. The acidity of fresh milk is due to certain constituents such as phosphates, proteins (casein &
albumin), CO2 & citrates. This acidity is known as natural acidity. The acidity more than 0.2 is known as
developed acidity which is due to conversion of lactose to lactic acid. The average titrable acidity of cow
milk ranges b/w 0.13-0.14 & for buffalo milk 0.14-0.15.
4.) Specific gravity:- Milk contains salt and sugar in solution. It is therefore heavier than water. The average
specific gravity ranges from 1.027-1.035 at 15.60C. The specific gravity of milk is influenced by the relative
proportion of its constituents, each of which has a different specific gravity approx. as follows- fat 0.93,
lactose 1.666, protein 1.346, casein 1.31, and salts 4.12.
5.) Viscosity:-it is the resistance of liquid to its flow on pour. The viscosity of milk is influenced by increase or
decrease in temp of milk. It may be accurately determined in the laboratory and expressed in terms of the
centipoises, a unit of force. Cold milk has greater viscosity than warm milk. The absolute viscosity of water
at 200 C is 1.005 centipoises while that of milk is 1.5 to 2.0 centipoises.
6.) Boiling point:- milk is slightly heavier than water. Boiling point of milk is greater than that of water due to
the presence of certain dissolved substances. The boiling point of milk is 100.170C.
7.) Freezing point:- water freezes at 00C while milk freezes at temp slightly lower, the average being –O.550C.
The range is b/w -0.50 to -0.610C.
8.) Refractive index:- refractive index of milk is higher than that of water. RI of water is 1.333 & milk is 1.344-
1.348.
9.) Surface tension: - Surface tension of water at 200C is 72-75 dynes/cm while that of milk ranges b/w 40-60
dynes/cm, high fat content in milk increase surface tension.
10.) Thermal Conductivity: - it ranges from 4.2 to 6.9 at 250C. High value indicates milk from mastitis in which
the concentration of sodium & chloride is higher. Dilution of milk with water lower the conductivity, temp.
& acidity increases the conductivity.
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Nutritive value of milk:- (Why milk is called “Whole some food”)

Milk is most unique & ideal food for man. It meets the nutritional requirements of body better than any other single
food. It contains the food constituents like protein, fat, lactose, vitamins, minerals etc. Besides being supplying
certain essential fatty acids, it contains the above nutrients in an easily digestible & assimilable form. All these
properties make milk an important food for different age group. The nutritive value of milk is discussed below:-

1.) Protein:- the primary purpose of protein is the formation of new tissues & repair of the broken down
tissues. Protein also serves as a source of heat & energy. 1 gram of protein gives about 4.1K calorie of
energy. Milk protein contains all essential amino acids in fairly large amount; therefore, it is called complete
protein of high quality. But when compared with ideal protein milk proteins are found only deficient in
sulphur containing amino acids such as cysteine & methionine.
2.) Fat:- milk fat is highly digestible to the extent of 99% in comparison to the 85% of vegetable fat. 1 gram of
fat gives about 9.3K calorie of energy. Milk fat imparts a pleasing flavour & smooth body texture to the food
products. All essential fatty acids are present in milk fat. It also serves as a carrier of fat soluble vitamins (A,
D, E, K).
3.) Lactose:- the main function of lactose is to supply energy. 1 gram of lactose gives about 4.1K calorie of
energy. Lactose produces acidic condition in the intestine which favours the growth of desirable bacteria
and checks the growth of proteolytic bacteria. Lactose also increases the absorption of certain elements like
Ca, Mg, Fe, Co, Zn etc.
4.) Minerals:- milk supplies all the minerals required by our body in more or less quantities e.g. it is an
excellent source of calcium & phosphorus, both of which together with vitamin D are essential for bone
formation. Milk is poor to fair source of copper & iron.
5.) Vitamins:- these are accessory food factors which are essential for normal growth, health & reproduction of
living organisms. Milk is good source of vit. A, D, thiamine and riboflavin etc. but it is deficient in vit. C.
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Types of milk:-
1.) Sterilized milk
2.) Homogenized milk
3.) Soft curd milk
4.) Flavoured milk
5.) Vitaminized milk
6.) Frozen concentrated milk
7.) Mineralized milk
8.) Fermented milk
9.) Standardized milk
10.) Reconstituted milk
11.) Recombined milk
12.) Toned milk
13.) Double toned milk
14.) Humanized milk

1.) Sterilized milk:- it is defined as the milk which is heated to a temp of 1000C or above for such length of
time that it remains fit for human consumption for at least 7 days at room temp. Sterilized milk may be
flavored, sweetened & colored & it should show absence of albumin. The sterilized milk has remarkable
keeping quality & has no cream layer.

2.) Homogenized milk:- is that milk in which the fat globules are subdivided to such an extent that after 48
hours no visible cream separation occurs on the milk. In the properly homogenized milk, the fat globules
present in the milk are split into less than 2 µs in size.

3.) Soft curd milk:- it is the milk that forms a soft curd when coagulated with rennet or pepsin under
standardized procedure. Soft curd milk has a curd tension of less than 25gm. Soft curd milk is
characterized by low casein content & low calcium content.

4.) Flavoured milk:- milk with added sugar, flavour (chocolate fruit flavour) & color followed by
pasteurization is called flavoured milk. When the term “milk” is used, it should meet the legal standards
of fat & SNF of marked milk prescribed for different types of milks. When fat content is lower (1-2%),
the term “drink” is used.
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5.) Vitaminized milk:- it is defined as the milk in which one or more vitamins are added. Addition of
vitamins in milk is called fortification & such milk is called fortified milk. It is well known that lack of
vitamins in diet causes specific deficiency diseases which in turn, can be cured by the intake of those
particular vitamins. Some common vitamins deficiency diseases are:-
Name of vitamins Result of deficiency
Vit. A Night blindness, lowered resistance to infection,
Poor growth in young
Vit.D Rickets in child, osteomalacia in adults.
Vit. B1 beri-beri(skin disease)
Vit. C Scurvy(swollen gums)
Vit. B2 Sore mouth & tongue in children

6.) Mineralized milk:- it is the milk in which some minerals are added.

7.) Frozen concentrated milk:- it is the milk which is partially concentrated & then solidified by freezing.
This milk has long keeping quality & very easy in transportation. The main disadvantage of this milk is
the de-stabilization of fat & casein which results oiling off & sediment formation.
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8.) Fermented milk:- fermented milk is defined as the milk which is made by using selected
microorganisms. These microorganisms cause the fermentation of milk constituents so that a
characteristic flavour develops in milk. This milk is called fermented milk. The microorganisms species
most commonly used in the industry are streptococcus lactis, str. cremoris, lactobacillus acidophilus,
lact. bulgaricus.

9.) Standardized milk:- it is defined as the milk in which fat & SNF content have been adjusted to certain
predetermined level. According to PFA rules the standardized milk should contain 4.5% fat & 8.5% SNF.

10.) Recombined milk:- it is defined as the milk which is obtained when butter oil, skim milk powder & water
are combined in correct proportion to yield fluid milk. According to PFA rules, the recombined milk
should contain 3% fat & 8.5% SNF.

11.) Reconstituted milk:- it is defined as the milk which is prepared by dissolving whole milk powder in
water approximately in the proportion of 1 part of powder to 7-8 parts of water(3% fat & 8.5% SNF).
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12.) Toned milk:- it is defined as the milk which is prepared by addition of water & skim milk powder to
whole milk. According to PFA rules, the toned milk should contain 3.0% fat & 8.5% SNF.

13.) Double toned milk:- same as the toned milk except that under PFA rules the standard values are 1.5% &
9.0% for fat & SNF respectively.

14.) Humanized milk:- it is defined as the milk which is prepared by doing modification in chemical
composition of cow or buffalo milk in such a way that it resembles human milk. This milk is called
humanized milk.

15.) Skimmed milk: 0.5% fat maximum & 9.0% SNF

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Basis of pricing of milk:-

Various methods for buying milk are employed, singly or in combination as given below:-
1. Payment according to weight or volume(flat rate):-
This method is popular in unorganized sector.

Advantages:- i) Simple in calculation.

ii) Time saving.

Disadvantages:- i) Encourages watering of milk.

ii) Encourages skimming of milk.

2. Payment according to fat content of milk:-

This method is used in most of the dairies.

Advantages:- i) Discourages adulteration with water.

ii) Practical method.

Disadvantages:- i) It does not prevent removal of skim milk.

ii) It does not take into account the SNF content of milk.

3. Payment according to the use made of milk:-

This practice is followed mainly for milk products.
4. Payment of premiums:-
Usually confined to market milk. This method is based on the quality of milk as measured by
i) Sediment test.
ii) Flavour score.
iii) Bacterial count by MBRT.

Advantages:- i) Encourages the production of high quality milk.

5. Payment according to cost of production:-

It is complicated & rarely used.
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QUALITY CONTROL TESTS

PLATFORM TESTS: - these are those tests which are performed to check the quality of incoming milk on the receiving
platform so as to make a quick decision regarding its acceptance or rejection. They are performed on each can or
tanker of milk with the object of detecting milk of inferior quality. The various platform tests are:-

1.) Smell:- in this test, the cover/lid of each can is removed, inverted & raised to the nose. The smell will be
representative of that in the can. The milk should be free from any off flavours.

2.) Appearance: - the milk should be normal in color, free from churned fat globules & reasonably free from any
floating material.

3.) Temperature: - The temperature at which milk is delivered is often an indication of its quality. A daily check
on the temperature of milk is helpful in grading of milk. A temp of 50C or below is satisfactory.
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4.) Sediments:- the sediment test shows visible foreign matter contained in the milk. It need not be made daily
but should be made weekly or quarterly. This test indicates the condition on the milk production farm &
handling method on the farm.

5.) Acidity:- it has already been pointed out that natural acidity of milk does not make the milk sour nor does it
affect the normal properties of milk. However developed acidity does adversely affect the qualities of milk.
This test should be conducted daily & if the milk have acidity more than the prescribe level than it should be
rejected.

6.) Lactometer reading:- the addition of water to milk results in the lowering of its lactometer reading. Hence
this test is applied for detection of adulteration of milk with water.
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CHEMICAL/LABORATORY & MICROBIOLOGICAL TESTS

After rough selection of milk, the various lab tests for chemical, microbiological quality of milk for its final acceptance
or rejection are performed. These are:-

1.) Acidity test

2.) Alcohol test
3.) COB test
4.) Fat & SNF test
5.) Dye reduction test
6.) Direct microscopic count test
7.) Standard plate count test
8.) Freezing point test

1.) Acidity test: - this test is applied as a platform test. In this test, the final acceptance or rejection of milk is
done on the basis of predetermined level of acidity. The average titrable acidity of fresh cow milk ranges b/w
0.13 to 0.14 & for buffalo milk 0.14 to 0.15, higher value indicates fermentation of lactose to lactic acid by
bacteria.

2.) Alcohol test: - this test is also applied as platform test. The main significance of this test indicates salt
imbalance in milk. This test is positive when animal is suffering from mastitis or in late-lactation, as in both
the cases milk salts are increased.

3.) COB test: - this test is also applied as platform test & it is performed to find out the suitability of milk for heat
processing. This test indicates the presence of developed acidity in milk.

4.) Dye reduction test: - this test is also applied as platform test. This test is performed to determine the extent
of bacterial count on the basis of reduction time & their growth in milk.

i) MBRT(Methylene reduction time test):- this test is also known as reductase or methylene blue
reduction test
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Methylene blue is a dye which is blue in color in oxidized form. When microorganisms grow
in the milk, they use oxygen & reduce the color of dye which results colourless compound.
The time taken for reduction of dye depends upon number & types of microorganisms
present.
Time (in hrs.) Quality of milk
>5 very good
4-5 good
1-3 fair
½ poor

ii) Resazurin test: - this test is similar to MBRT. In this test resazurin is used instead of methylene blue
dye to measure the reducing capacity of milk. If the number of bacteria are large in milk then the
color of milk changes from blue to pink to white within an hour of incubation.

5.) DMC (direct microscopic count test):- this test is applied as lab test & is performed to identify type of
microorganisms present in milk.

6.) SPC (standard plate count test):- this test is applied as lab test & is performed to determine the extent of
bacterial contamination and their growth in the milk.
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7.) Fat & SNF: - it is applied as lab test & is performed to detect the adulteration of milk with water & to
standardize the milk for preparation of different products.

8.) Freezing point test: This test is also applied as lab test and is performed to detect the adulteration of milk
with water.
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UNIT-4

Liquid milk processing:-

Receiving of milk

Preheating (35-400C/5 min.)

Straining/Filtration/Clarification

Standardization

Homogenization

Pasteurization Sterilization

Packaging

1.) Receiving of milk:- when milk is received at platform in a milk plant, it should be clean, sweet taste, free
from off flavour, floating extraneous materials like dust, straw, animal body hair, flies etc. and reasonably
free from pesticide residue that may come in the milk through feed. Milk temp should not be more than
50C. Above this temp various types of spoilage causing microorganisms may grow in milk.
2.) Preheating: - it means heating of milk at 35-400C for 5 min. Preheating is done to increase the efficiency of
filtration or clarification by unholding the dust & dirt particles from the milk constituents.
3.) Straining/filtration:- the main objective of filtration is to improve the quality of milk by removing visible or
invisible impurities.
In this process, the visible foreign particles are removed by the process of straining. The efficiency of
filtration depends on the pore size of filter or strainer. Normally a muslin cloth or nylon cloth is used either
in a single or multiple layers depending on the condition of milk. The best temp for filtration is 370C.
In this process, the milk is made to pass through a filter press consisting of filter pads enclosed in a
frame, and then milk is passed through it with pressure. The visible impurities retained on the filter & milk
collected for further processing.

4.) Clarification: - in this process, invisible foreign particles of milk are removed. This process is carried out by
a clarifier which removes foreign particles by a centrifugal force. This process is more efficient than
filtration for removal of extraneous materials heavier than milk.
The clarifier is similar in construction & appearance to cream separator. However, in the cream separator,
there are two outlets, one for cream & one for skim milk whereas in case of clarifier, there is only one
outlet for milk. The second main difference is the size of disc in clarifier is smaller as compared with cream
separator disc, which helps to provide greater sediments holding space. The third main difference is the
milk distribution holes. The milk distribution holes are at outer edge of the disc rather than near the centre
in case of cream separator.
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5.) Standardization:- in this process standardization or adjustment of fat or SNF is done to a desired level so
that a particular type of milk confirms to the prescribed legal standards.
The PFA standards for different types of milk are:-
Types of milk % fat % SNF
Standardized milk 4.5 8.5
Toned milk 3.0 8.5
Double toned milk 1.5 9.0
Milk is generally standardized by addition of cream or milk with a lower or higher fat %age than that of
material to be standardized. Some time skim milk is also added.
For standardization of single component i.e. either fat or SNF of milk “Pearson square method” is
used.

Pearson’s square method:-

Draw a square & write the desired fat %age in the centre of it. On the left hand side corners of the square,
write down the fat %age of the given materials. Then take the difference between the number in the centre
& number placed on the left hand side of the square & write the differences on diagonally opposite right
hand corners. Now the numbers on the right hand side represent the points of each of the original material
that must be mixed to get a product with desired fat test.

Ex.: How many kg each of 28% cream & 3% milk will be required to make 500 kg of a mixture testing 4% fat?

Solution:-

28 1 C : M :: C : M

4 1 : 25 :: C : 500

3 24 C = 500/25 = 20 kg

Milk (3% fat) = 500 – 20 = 480 kg

6.) Homogenization:- it is the process of subdividing the fat globules so that a stable emulsion of fat & milk
serum is obtained. In this process, the milk is forced through a homogenizer, which is a high pressure piston
pump. In the homogenizer, the milk is passed through the narrow opening between the homogenizing
valve & its seat. Mainly three types of homogenizers are used :-
i) High pressure homogenizer (pressure 500 to 5000 pounds)
ii) Low pressure homogenizer (less than 500 pounds)
iii) Sonic vibrator
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7.) Pasteurization:- it is the process of heating every particle of milk or milk products to at least 62.80C for 30
min. or to 71.50C for 15 sec. & immediately cooled to 50C or below.
Purpose:- 1.) Make milk safe for human consumption (by destroying all bacteria that may be harmful to
human health).
2.) To improve the keeping quality of milk & milk products.
Methods of pasteurization:- on the basis of time-temp combination of process, Pasteurization process may
be carried out in three ways as:-
1.) LTLT (low temp. long time)/ Batch/holding:- In this method , the milk is heated to 62.80C for 30
minutes & immediately cooled to 50C or below.
2.) HTST (high temp. short time):- in this method, milk is heated in a continuous flow to a temp. of 71.50C
for 15 sec. & immediately cooled to 50C or below. The continuous process has several advantages over
LTLT method. The main are:-
- time saving
- energy saving
3.) UHT (ultra high temp.):- in this method, milk is held for 3 seconds at 93.40C or for 1 sec. at 149.50C. The
success of UHT heat treatment of milk depends on immediate aseptic packaging.

Flow of milk in HTST pasteurization system:- Following steps are involved as milk passes through the
HTST system.
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i) Raw milk tank vii) filter

ii) Feed pump viii) holder/ holding tube
iii) Float tank ix) FDV(flow diversion valve)
iv) Feed pump x) regenerative cooling
v) Plates xi) pasteurized milk tank
vi) Regenerative heating

i) Raw milk tank:- in this tank the incoming milk i.e. homogenized milk is stored for further processing.
ii) Pump:- it is used to deliver the milk to float tank.
iii) Float tank:- in this tank a constant level is maintained for feeding the raw milk pump. It also received the
unpasteurized milk diverted by FDV.
iv) Plates:- the PHE (plate heat exchanger) is commonly used in HTST system for heating of milk to a temp.
below its boiling point.
v) Regenerative heating:- in this section the cold incoming milk is partially & indirectly heated by the hot
outgoing milk.
vi) Filter:- usually cylindrical shaped filter is used that contain 40-90 mesh cloth as filter.
vii) Holding / holder:- holding tube ensures that the milk is held for a specified period of time, i.e. not less
than 15 seconds at the pasteurization temp. of 720C.
viii) FDV ( flow diversion valve):- this routes the milk after heat treatment. If the milk has been properly
pasteurized, it flows forward through the unit & if it’s temp. not reaches the legal limit (71.50C) then it is
automatically diverted back to float tank.
ix) Regenerative cooling:- in this step the pasteurized hot outgoing milk is partially & indirectly cooled by
the incoming cold milk.
x) Pasteurized milk tank:- used to store the pasteurized milk.

8) Sterilization:- In this operation, each & every particle of milk is heated to a temp. of 1210C for 15 min. &
then cooling to a room temp. The sterilized milk should be negative to turbidity test.
9) Packaging:- it means placing a commodity into a protective wrapper or container for transport or storage.
The pasteurized milk is packed for
1.) Protecting the milk against contamination, loss, damage or degradation.
2.) Help in sale & distribution of milk.

Packaging material mainly used are:-

i) Glass bottle

ii) Polyethylene pouches/sachets/package

 25

iii) Tetra packs

iv) Tin plate cans

v) Laminates

The advantages & disadvantages of film packaging over glass bottle packaging are:-

Advantages:-

i) Light in weight, easy to handle & no danger of breakage.

ii) Distribution cost is lower. (E.g. 500 gm milk requires 290 gm bottle whereas same quantity of milk
requires 15 gm polyethylene pouch).
iii) Cost of bottle washing gets eliminated.
iv) Tamper proof
v) Effective sale message can be printed. So, it acts as silent salesman.

Disadvantages:-

i) Cost is higher.
ii) Product is not visible.
iii) In some cases, leakage may occur.

The pasteurized milk is generally packed in ½ litre, 1 litre, 2 litres of retail packs.

10) Storage:- in any milk plant, it is necessary to provide refrigerated rooms where milk can be stored until
delivery. The temperature of milk storage room should be 50C or below so as to check bacterial growth.
 26

UNIT-5

Chhana:- it is an acid and heat coagulated milk product. It is prepared from cow milk or buffalo milk or a
combination thereof by precipitating with sour milk, lactic acid or citric acid. It should not contain more than
70% moisture & milk fat should not be less than 50% of the dry matter.

It is mostly used for the preparation of large number of sweets like rasogolla, sandesh, rasomalai, cham-
cham, chhana murki, rajbhog etc.

It should have a soft spongy body. Mostly cow milk is used for preparation of chhana.

Paneer:-

It is also an acid heat coagulated milk product. It is mostly used for the preparation of large number of culinary
dishes. Mostly buffalo’s milk is used for preparation of paneer. The best quality paneer is made from milk of 6%
fat content. The yield of paneer ranges from 18-22% depending upon composition of milk. Packed paneer could
be stored for 3 days without any loss of freshness when refrigerated.
 27

Composition:-

Moisture- 55%

Total solids- 45%

Fat- 26%

Manufacturing method:-

Standardized buffalo milk

Heated to 820C / 5 min.

Cooled to 700C

Coagulated by 2-2.5g citric acid / kg of milk & allowed to cool for 5 min.
Temp. of coagulated material should not fall
below 650C as it may result poor setting of product
Whey drained out

Milk solids filled in hoops

Pressed by weight (40-50 kg/15-20 min to expel excess water)

Weight removed

Cut into pieces

Dip into chilled water (4-60C) for 2 hrs.

Chilled water drained out

Cut into desired size & packed

Store at 4-6OC until distribution

 28

Cheese:- It may be defined as the curd obtained from milk through coagulation of milk protein(casein) by
suitable enzymes & or by a which is generally produced by bacteria. After its separation from the whey, the
product may be used without further treatment or it may be ripened through the action of certain beneficial
bacteria, molds or enzymes.

Method of manufacture:-

Pasteurized milk (310C)

Curd formation

Curd cutting (size is different for different types of cheese)

Curd cooking (380C/45 min.)

Cheddaring (320C/2 hrs.)

Milling

Salting (1-2%)

Pressing

Paraffining
 29

Ripening (60 days – 12 months)

1.) Curd formation:- Pasteurized whole milk is brought to a temp. of 31OC & lactic acid producing starter culture
& required colouring matter are added. After about 30 min. to the mildly acidic milk rennin solution is
added, stirred & allowed to set the curd for 30 min.
2.) Curd cutting:- the curd is cut into small cubes . the removal of whey from small cubes is easy. For different
type of cheese, the curd is cut into different sized cubes.
3.) Curd cooking:- then it is heated to 38OC & held at that temp. for about 45 min. During this period, the curd is
stirred to prevent matting. Heat increases the rate of acid production which makes the curd cubes shrink.
Whey is drained off & the curd is allowed to mat.
4.) Cheddaring:- Cheddaring consist cutting the matted curd into blocks, turning the block at 15 min. intervals &
then piling the blocks on one another. During the cheddaring operations which takes about 2 hrs., acid
formation continues.
5.) Milling:- the cheddared curd is then passed through a curd mill which cut the blocks of cheddared cheese
into small pieces.
6.) Salting:- It is added 1-2%. Whey is eliminated during this process. Salt is added to draw whey out of curd by
osmosis & also acts as a preservative. Salt also holds down spoilage of organisms & adds flavour.
7.) Pressing:- the cheese cubes are pressed under pressure overnight. This pressing determines the final
moisture content of finished products.
8.) Ripening/Curing:- cheese is ripened from 60 days to 12 months depending on the strong or mild flavour
cheese required. Ripening takes place under controlled conditions of temp. & humidity for varying period of
time. & makes cheese easily digestible. During this process, various physical & chemical properties are
changed i.e.
i) Cheese changes from tough rubbery mass to a full flavoured soft product.
ii) Rennin splits the protein of cheese into peptones & peptides. Enzyme formed by the
microorganism’s action & other substances to form products like amino acids, amines, fatty acids,
esters, aldehydes, alcohols & ketones that give its characteristic flavour
iii) There is increase in B vitamins.
iv) It also improves the cooking quality.
Type of curing cold curing warm curing
O
Temp. 0-4 C 10-16OC
RH 75% 85%
Duration 3-12 months 15days to 2 months
Quality Mild Flavour Sharp flavour
 30

Butter:- In India 7% of total milk production and 12% total milk used for manufacturing of dairy products is
converted into creamy butter.

Definition:- It may be defined as the fat concentrate which is obtained by churning cream, gathering the fat into
compact mass and then working it.

Composition:- Butter fat- 80.2%

Moisture- 16.3%
Salts- 2.5%
Curd- 1.0%
Diacetyl may be added and the total amount should not exceed 4 ppm

Nutritive value: - Butter is rich source of fat and fat soluble vitamins.

Method of manufacturing:-

Receiving of milk

Pre heating (35-400C)

Separation of cream

Neutralization of cream (NaOH,Na2CO3, NaHCO3,Ca(OH)2,CaO,MgO)

Standardization of cream (35-40% fat)

Pasteurization of cream (82-880C/No hold) or (710C/20 min)

Cooling and ageing of cream (5-100C)

Ripening of cream (20-220C)

Churning of cream

Washing

Salting & Working

Packaging
 31

1.) Receiving:- Same as condensed milk.

2.) Preheating:- It is done to increase the efficiency of cream separation
3.) Separation of cream:- It is done by centrifugal method.
4.) Neutralization of cream:- It means partial reduction in acids of cream by addition of neutralizers(NaOH,
Na2CO3,NaHCO3,Ca(OH)2,CaO,MgO). Neutralization is done for:-
• To avoid fat loss during churning.
• To control flavor.
• To maintain texture.
• To increase keeping quality.
• To prevent coagulation of sour cream.
5.) Standardization:- it means adjustment of fat level in cream to the desired percentage.
6.) Pasteurization of cream:- In this step every particle of cream heated at 710C for at least 20 mins or any other
suitable time-temp combination. Pasteurization is done for following reasons:-
• To destroy pathogenic microorganisms.
• To inactivate enzymes.
• To complete neutralization process.
7.) Cooling and ageing of cream:- After pasteurization the cream cooled by lowering its temp. and aged by
holding it at temp. for few hours. This is very important step because if do not cool the cream after
pasteurization, the fat remain in liquid state and during churning process it passage out with butter milk.
8.) Ripening of cream:- In this step the cream is fermented with the help of desirable starter
culture(streptococcus lactis, s. cremoris/acidity producers, leuconstoc dextranicum/ flavor producers) to
produce pleasant flavor and aroma in butter.
9.) Churning:- In this step ripened cream is subjected to appropriate amount of mechanical agitation at a temp.
of 100C to produce butter from cream(20 mins).
10.) Washing:- In this step the butter granules are washed with water to remove butter milk & curd content
adhered with the butter granules and also to decrease intensity of off flavor.
11.) Salting:- In this step salt is added for improving keeping quality and to enhance taste. Generally salt is added
at the rate of 2-2.5% of butter fat.
12.) Packaging and storage:- The final product is packed in grease proof paper or aluminium foil or cartons etc.
packaging is mainly used for protection from deterioration. After packaging butter must be stored at
refrigerated temp.
 32

Ghee:- Ghee is the most important indigeneous dairy product of india. About 33% of total milk production of
india is converted into ghee.

Definition:- ghee is the pure clarified milk fat derived from milk or curd or desi butter or cream to which no
colouring matter or preservative is added.

Composition:- Milk fat- 99.7%

Moisture- 0.3% max.

Methods of ghee making:-

1.) Desi method

2.) Direct cream method
3.) Cream butter method
4.) Pre-stratification method

1.) Desi method:- in this method, soured or cultured milk is churned to get butter, which is clarified into
ghee at low heat.

2.) Direct cream method:- in this method, cream(40-50% milk fat) is directly clarified into ghee by
application of heat.
 33

3.) Cream-butter method:- in this method, cream(35% fat) is churned to butter(80% fat) and the butter is
heated to above 110-115OC to get ghee.

4.) Pre-stratification method:- in this method, the butter is left undisturbed at a temp. of 80-85OC for 15-30
min., it separates' into 3 different layers. The top layer consists of scum, middle layer of fat rich portion
& bottom layer of butter milk. This separation into layers is called pre-stratification. The bottom layer is
drained to reduce the moisture before clarification into ghee (110-120OC).
 34

Condensed milks:- these are the products obtained by evaporating part of water of whole milk or fully or partly
skimmed milk with or without the addition of sugar.

The term ‘condensed milk’ is commonly used when referring to “full cream sweetened condensed milk” while the
term “evaporated milk” is commonly used when referring to “full cream unsweetened condensed milk”.

Skimmed milk products are known as “sweetened condensed skim milk” & “unsweetened condensed skim milk”
respectively. The ratio of concentration of milk solids is about 1:2.5 for full cream products & 1:3 for unsweetened
condensed skim milk.

Types of condensed milk:-

1.) Unsweetened condensed milk (evaporated milk).

2.) Sweetened condensed milk (condensed milk)
3.) Unsweetened condensed skim milk (evaporated skim milk).
4.) Sweetened condensed skim milk

1.) UCM:- evaporated milk is the product obtained from cow or buffalo milk or a combination thereof, or
from standardized milk, by the partial removal of water. It may contain added calcium chloride, citric
acid and sodium citrate, sodium salts of ortho & polyphosphoric acid not exceeding 0.3% by weight of
finished product. Such additions need not be declared on the label. UCM should contain not less than
8.0% milk fat & not less than 26% milk solids.
 35

2.) Sweetened condensed milk:- it is the product obtained from cow or buffalo milk or a combination
thereof or from standardized milk by the partial removal of water & after addition of cane sugar. It may
contain added refined lactose, calcium chloride, citric acid & sodium citrate, sodium salts of ortho &
polyphosphoric acid not exceeding 0.3% by weight of finished product. Such additions need not be
declared on the label. Sweetened condensed milk should contain not less than 9% milk fat & not less
than 31% total milk solids & not less than 40% cane sugar.

3.) Unsweetened condensed skim milk:- it is the product obtained from cow or buffalo skimmed milk or a
combination thereof by the removal of water. It may contain added calcium chloride, citric acid &
sodium citrate, sodium citrate, sodium salts of ortho & poly phosphoric acid not exceeding 0.3% by
weight of finished product. Such additions need not be declared on the label. Unsweetened condensed
skim milk should contain not less than 20% total milk solids. The fat content should not exceed 0.5% by
weight.

4.) Sweetened condensed skim milk:- it is the product obtained from cow or buffalo skimmed milk or a
combination thereof or from standardized milk by the partial removal of water & after addition of cane
sugar. It may contain added refined lactose, calcium chloride, citric acid & sodium citrate, sodium salts of
ortho & polyphosphoric acid not exceeding 0.3% by weight of finished product. Such additions need not
be declared on the label. Sweetened condensed skimmed milk should contain not less than 26% of total
milk solids & not less than 40% cane sugar. The fat content should not exceed 0.5% by weight.
 36

Method of manufacturing of condensed milk:-

Receiving of milk

Filteration/Clarification (35-40OC)

Standardization

Forewarming/Preheating (82-93OC/5-15 min.

116-149OC/0.5-5 min.
115-118OC/no hold)

Addition of sugar

Condensing

Homogenization

Cooling

Packaging

Storage

1) Receiving of milk: - the quality of incoming milk is an important parameter upon which rest of the
quality depends. It is well known that the sanitary quality of the milk on the receiving platform
depends on its background on the farm. When milk is received at the plant, its temp should be at
10OC or below. The Milk should be clean, sweet, and free from off flavours and odours and
reasonably from extraneous material. No abnormal milk should be accepted.
2)
Filtration/ Clarification:- This is done in order to remove visible foreign matter, which may cause
consumer complaints from the milk. The milk is generally preheated to 35-400C to increase the
efficiency of the operation. Then, it is cooled so as to preserve its quality.
3)
Standardization:- This is done so as to confirm the legal standards in the finished product. The
standardization of raw milk is normally carried out in three stages:
i) Ist, which establishes the desired ratio of fat: SNF (1:2.44).
ii) 2nd, which establishes the desired ratio of added sugar to the total milk solids.
iii) 3rd, which adjusts the concentration of the finished product to the desired percentage of
total solids.

4) Forewarming/Preheating:- This refers to the heating of milk before it is condensed and serves the
following purposes:
• To ensure that finished product is free from micro-organisms & enzymes.
• To ensure uninterrupted boiling in the vacuum pan.
• to provide an effective means of controlling objectionable age –thickening in finished
product.
The temp-time of preheating extends over a wide range, such as 82-930Cfor 5-15 mins or
116-1490C for 0.5-5 mins or 115-1180C for no hold.
5) Addition of sugar:- sugar is added for the purpose of preserving the condensed milk without
sterilization by heat. Generally sucrose is added. It is either highly refined cane or beet sugar. other
sweetening agents such as corn syrup solids, glucose & dextrose have been used to replace sugar by
5 to 25%. the disadvantages of these sweetening agents are their reduced sweetening capacity
compared to sucrose and their adverse effects on colour and rate of thickening in storage.
 37

6) Condensing:- the basic principle consists in the removal of water from the standardized milk by
boiling it under partial vacuum at a low temp. till the desired concentration is reached. This
operation is carried out in an evaporator.
7) Homogenization:- Hot condensed milk is invariably homogenized before it is cooled and crystallized.
the main objective is to obtain a uniform fat emulsion and to reduce chances of fat separation
during storage.
8) Cooling:- Condensed milk discharged from vacuum pan is quickly cooled to 300C. Cooling is desirable
to delay the tendency of age thickening and discoloration, and then it is seeded with 0.1 to 0.3%
lactose. The purpose of seeding is to give the lactose present in the supersaturated state an added
incentive to crystallization. Vigrous stirring and slow cooling for 1 hour till temp. of 150reached.
Stirring continued until packaged.
9) Packaging:- Bulk packaging may be done in barrels of various sizes, drums with polythene liners or in
tin containers. For the retail market, fillers are used to package condensed milk in cases for storage
& distribution.
10) Storage:- The main thing in the storage of condensed milk is the temp. of storage which should be
such as to prevent such defects as sandiness, sugar separation and viscosity changes. During storage,
a wide temp. variation may increase the tendency to sandiness. A very low temp. such as 00C or
below may not only cause sandiness but also sugar separation. Cool storage is important to prevent
changes in viscosity (100C). The humidity of the surrounding air should be low (below 50%) to check
spoilage of cans and labels.

Method of manufacturing of evaporated milk:-

Receiving of milk

Filteration/Clarification (35-40OC)

Standardization

Forewarming/Preheating (82-93OC/5-15 min.)

(116-149OC/0.5-5 min.)
(115-118OC/no hold)

Evaporation(1:2.5)

Homogenization[1st stage 2000 psi & 2nd stage 500 psi] at 50-550C.

Cooling(70C)

Pilot sterilization test

Packaging(50C)

Sterilization(116-1180C 15 min)

Cooling(27-320C)

Shaking

Storage(5-150C)
 38

1. Receiving of milk:- same as condensed milk.

2. Filteration/ Clarification:- same as condensed milk.
3. Standardization:- same as condensed milk.
4. Forewarming/preheating:- The main purpose of this is to improve the heat stability of milk and to
ensure a medium viscosity in the finished product.
5. Evaporation:- Same as condensed milk except that no sugar is added and normally a continuous
operation takes place.
6. Homogenization:- The evaporated milk is thoroughly homogenized to obtain a uniform fat emulsion
and to reduce chances of separation of fat during storage. A temp. and pressure combination that will
reduce the fat globules to less than 2µs is needed. The temp. is usually about 49 0C. Two stage
homogenization is generally recommended, 2000psi in the 1st stage and 500 psi in the second stage.
7. Cooling:- After homogenization the evaporated milk is cooled to 7 0C. Stabilizing salts may also be added
at this point if pilot tests indicate such a need.
8. Pilot sterilization test:- The main purpose of PST is to determine the amount of chemical stabilizer(Tri
sodium citrate or disodium phosphate) to be added for most satisfactory heat stability.
9. Packaging:- In cans which are mechanically filled with volumetric filler. The temp. of evaporated milk
when filling in cans should be neither high nor low, but around 50C.A higher temp. causes foaming while
a lower one increases the tendency towards flipping.
10. Sterilization:- The main purpose of sterilization is to destroy all germ life and enzymes present, thereby
preserving the product permanently. In addition, the stabilizing process is utilized to increase the
viscosity and improve the body so as to give a creamy consistency to the finished product.
During sterilization, the temp. of evaporated milk is raised rapidly to 116-1180C and held at this
temp. for 15 mins.
11. Cooling:- Immediately after the holding time is over, the evaporated milk is cooled within 15 mins to
27- 320C. Rapid and uniform cooling is important. Delayed cooling may cause the cans to bulge badly.
12. Shaking:- The purpose of shaking is to mechanically breakdown any curd which may have formed during
sterilization to a smooth homogenous consistency. Shaking period from about ¼ to 2 mins is usually
sufficient. Excessive shaking should be avoided as it decreases the viscosity.
13. Storage:- A storage temp. of 5-160C is generally used. This checks the deterioration in quality. Studies
have shown that commercial evaporated milk remain acceptable for 2 years when stored below 160C
but deteriorate rapidly at 210C or above. The humidity of surrounding air should be low(below 50%) to
inhibit spoilage of cans & labels.
 39

Dried milk:- It is the product obtained by the removal of water from milk by heat or other suitable
means, to produce a solid containing 5% or less moisture.

Whole milk, skim milk may be used for drying. The dried product obtained from whole milk
is called Whole milk powder(WMP) and that from skim milk is known as Skim milk powder(SMP).

Objective:- The main objectives of drying milk are:-

1. To remove the moisture so as to reduce bulk, thereby effecting a saving in storage space and
packaging cost.
2. To reduce the cost of transportation.
3. To improve storage life of product due to low moisture content.
4. To provide a product which can be utilized for many food manufacturing operations.
5. To conserve the natural properties of original raw material.

WMP:- Whole milk powder is the product obtained from cow or buffalo milk, or a combination thereof
or from standardized milk, by the removal of water. It may contain CaCl2, citric acid, sodium citrate,
sodium salts of ortho and polyphosphoric acid not exceeding 0.3% by weight of final product. Milk
product should contain not more than 5.0% moisture and not less than 26% milk fat.
 40

SMP:- Skim milk powder is the product obtained from the skim milk of cow or buffalo or a combination
thereof, by the removal of water. It may contain CaCl2, citric acid and sodium citrate and sodium salts
of ortho & polyphosphoric acid not exceeding 0.3% by weight of finished product. SMP may not
contain more than 1.5% milk fat and moisture may not exceed 5.0%.

Composition:- Moisture Fat protein Lactose Ash

SMP 3.0 0.8 35.9 52.3 8.0
WMP 2.0 27.5 26.4 38.2 5.9
Total acidity expressed as lactic acid should not be more than 1.2% for WMP & 1.5% for SMP. SPC
may not exceed 50000/gm. Coliform may not exceed about. Maximum solubility index 15.0 for
roller dried and 2.0 for spray drying.

Method of drying:-
1.) Roller/Drum drying
2.) Spray drying
1.) Roller drying/ Drum drier:- This method consist of two hollow drums usually 3-12 feet long &
2-4 feet in diameter and have a clearance of about 0.02 inch. These drums are placed parallel
to each other and are rotating in opposite direction with respect to each other. The speed of
these drum is adjustable averaging 14-19 rpm. The steam flow through these drums which
make the surface if these drums heated. Milk is allowed flow on these rotating drums which
lose its moisture in the form of vapour. When come in contact to drum and stick to it in a thin
layer which is then scrapped by scrapper and collected in the form of flakes in the tray which is
placed below these drums. These flakes are then ground and milled and the resulting milk
powder is then packaged and sold.
 41

2.) Spray drying:- In this method, large steel chamber is used. Hot air at very high speed is blown
in this chamber for drying milk. Milk is condensed by the use of vacuum pan and sprayed in
the drying chamber. Due to final spraying milk turn into small droplets. Small droplets of milk
when come in contact with heated air, turn into small sized particle by loosing its moisture in
the form of vapour. These milk particles are collected on the bottom of the chamber from
where removed by suction. Some particle may come with exhaust which is used for removing
vapour. These paricles are screened by the use of wiremesh/cloth which may be lost
otherwise. Now the milk powder so collected is packaged.

Ice-cream
Introduction:- According to PFA rules, ice-cream is the frozen product obtained from cow or
buffalo milk or a combination of thereof from cream or other milk products with or without addition of cane
sugar, eggs, fruits, fruit juices, preserved fruit nuts, chocolate, edible flavours and permitted food colours. It
may contain permitted stabilizers and emulsifiers not exceeding 0.5% by weight. The mixture must be
suitably heated before freezing.

Ice-cream should contain:-

Milk fat-10% minimum

Total solids-36% min.

Protein-3.5% min.

Starch may be added to a maximum extent of 5% under declaration on the label.

When fruits or nuts or both are used for preparation of ice-cream, the content of milk fat may be
 42

proportionately reduced but may not be less than 8% by weight.

Manufacturing of Ice-cream:-

Composing the mix

Pasteurization of the mix(680C/30 min)

Homogenising the mix(Ist stage at 2500 psi & 2nd stage at 500 psi)
Cooling & ageing the mix( 4.40C/3-24 hrs.)

Freezing the mix(-4 to -50C)

Packaging the ice-cream

Hardening & storage(-23 to -250C)

1) Composing the mix:- All liquid ingredients such as milk, condensed milk etc. are placed in the vat and
agitated and heating started at once. The dry ingredients include milk powder, dried eggs, cocoa, sugar &
stabilizers are added while liquid material is agitated. Nuts and fruits are not added at this time, they are
added during freezing stop.
2) Pasteurization:- Pasteurization is important because this process destroys all the pathogenic or disease
producing bacteria. In addition it brings the ingredients of the mix into solution and helps in blending. It
also improves flavor and keep quality of the product and also helps to produce a more uniform product.

Pasteurization temps are higher than that for plain milk since the high fat and sugar contents tends to
protect bacteria from heat destruction. Common temp. for batch pasteurization is 710C/30 mins & for
HTST 820C/23 sec.
3) Homogenization:- The main purpose of homogenization is to reduce the fat droplets to small uniform
size and to improve viscosity of the mix. For ice-cream two stage homogenization is recommended. In Ist
stage 2500 psi pressure is applied while in second stage 500 psi pressure is applied. Homogenization also
improve overall body and texture of cream. After homogenization mix is cooled to 4.40C.
 43

4) Ageing of mix:- During ageing the mix is held at 4.40C for 3 to 24 hrs. During ageing the melted fat
solidified, the gelatin or other stabilizer swells and combine with water, the milk protein also swell with
water and increased the viscosity of mix.
5) Freezing:- The mix is now ready to be frozen. The main purpose of freezing is to freeze the mix to about -
5.50C and to beat in and subdivide air cell. Freezer is used for freezing operation. In freezer, the mix in air
enter the freezing cylinders that are chilled by circulating refrigerant between double walls.
Freezing must be quick to prevent growth of large ice crystal and air cell must be small in size and
evenly distributed to give a stable frozen form. The semi-solid ice-cream emerging from the freezer goes
directly into packaging cartons or drums.
6) Hardening:- Cartons of semi-solid ice-cream are placed in a hardening room where a temp. of about -
340C is maintained. Storage in the hardening room freezes most of the remaining water and make the
ice-cream stiff.

Cleaning and sanitization of dairy equipments

Cleaning:- The process of removal of milk solids, soil particles from the surface of equipment with the help
of a detergent solution is known as cleaning.
Sanitization:- The process of destruction of pathogenic micro-organisms and almost all non-pathogenic
micro-organisms from the surface of equipment is known as sanitization. It is also known as sterilization and
it can be carried out by both hot and cold method.

Purpose of cleaning and sterilization :-

- To make the dairy equipment free from milk solids and micro-organisms.

Classification:- Cleaning and sterilization can be classified into 3 types:-

1.) Manual cleaning and sanitization
2.) Mechanical cleaning and sterilization
3.) Cleaning in place(CIP).
 44

1) Manual cleaning and sanitization:- The equipments like milk cans, weighing bowls, receiving vats,
milk pumps, pipelines, storage tanks, batch type pasteurizers, bottle filler, surface cooler, milk bottle
etc. are hand cleaned. This method is generally used at the milk collection and chilling centres and small
dairies. The temp. of the detergent solution should be such that it does not burn the hands of workers.
A detergent solution, hand brush and warm water are required for the purpose of cleaning. Sanitization
is achieved by the application of steam or chlorine solution.

Procedure:-
1.) Rinse with tap water.
2.) Rinse with 1% detergent solution (11 pH) at 500C.
3.) Scrub outside and inside of the equipment with brush.
4.) Wash with tap water.
5.) Sanitize with steam or chlorine.

2) Mechanical cleaning and sanitization:- This method is generally used for the bottle washer and can
washer in dairy plants. In this method strong alkaline detergents, at higher temp. are used. The
detergent is applied either by soaking or jet spraying. The efficiency of sanitizer is affected by the period
of contact, temp. and concentration of detergent.

Procedure:-For can washer:-

1.) Rinse with tap water.
2.) Drain the water
3.) Rinse with 1% detergent solution at 700C.
4.) Rinse with hot water at 85-900C.
5.) Rinse with water.
6.) Rinse with steam.
7.) Blow hot air. At 95-1150C.

For bottle washer:-

1.) Soaking in water at 35-400C.
2.) Soak in 1-3% detergent solution at 60-650C.
3.) Rinse by warm water.
4.) Rinse with tap water.
3) Cleaning in place:- It is a labour saving and effective method of cleaning. The detergent solution is
circulated from a CIP tank connected to the equipment like HTST pasteurizer, PHE, tubular heater &
evaporators etc. The efficiency of this method depends on proper layout, correct temp., type, strength
and viscosity of detergent solution and contact time. This is followed by sanitization with hot water
rinse.
Procedure:-
1.) Flush out the remaining milk.
2.) Circulate 0.5% phosphoric acid with 0.2 to 0.3% Teepol at a temp. of 60-650C for 30 min.
3.) Rinse with hot water at 700C for 15 min. until the traces of acid remove.
4.) Circulate 0.5 to 1.0% alkaline detergent solution at 70-800C for 30 min.
5.) Rinse with water(90-950C) to remove alkaline detergent and sanitize the equipment.
 45

Detergent:- these are those substances which are capable of assisting cleaning e.g. soap, alkaline or acid
cleaners & surface active wetting agents.
Classification:- Detergents are classified as
1.) Alkaline:- Sodium silicate, sod. Sulfite, sod. Bicarbonate, sod. Hydroxides sod.
Carbonate (washing soda).
2.) Acidic:- these are of 2 types.
i) Mild:- citric, tartaric, gluconic & phosphoric acid
ii) Strong:- Nitric(Never use more than 1% conc.)
3.) Chelating chemicals:- They are used together with alkaline or acid detergents. E.g.
tetraphosphate, hexametaphosphate, tripolyphosphate.
4.) Surface acting:- They are used alone or in combination with alkaline or acid detergents
e.g. Teepol, Idot-10, common soap.

Properties of good detergent:-

1.) It should be economical.
2.) It should have wetting and penetrating power.