DAIRY TECHNOLOGY

# M1. Milk processing industry is a fast-growing industry in Nepal [5]

Although the practice of keeping milch animals in Nepal for the production of milk and milk products
predates history, organized dairy activities began only in 1952 with the establishment of a small-scale milk
processing plant on an experimental basis in Tusal, Kabhrepalanchowk. Thereafter, dairying quickly turned
out to be a very sustainable and lucrative business.

A litter later, the First Five Year Plan (1956-61) stressed on the need to develop a modern dairy industry.
Thereafter, with constant government back-up, there was no looking back. Today, the Government-owned
Dairy Development Corporation (DDC) processes around 70,000 MT of milk annually and the projection
for 2015/16 is 75,000 MT. The private sector started getting involved in the dairy processing sector from
late 1970s in general. The growth was slow until 1980. After the restoration of democracy in 1990, dairying
began to gain significant momentum. The priority given to dairy sector in the 20-year Agriculture
Perspective Plan in 1996 gave a further boost to dairying activities. Today, more than 250 private dairies of
varying scale are in operation in the country. This includes 4 large, 6 medium, 26 small, and over 250 cottage
scale dairy processing plants in Nepal. According to FAO report (2010), in 2006 private dairies for the first
time reversed the market share by processing about 2000 MT more milk than the DDC. By 2016, the
projected data hints that private sectors will capture a market share of 54%. The estimated amount of milk
processed by 2016 is 161000 MT.

Based on growth trend of processed fluid milk demand from formal sector, population growth and income
elasticity, various studies show projected annual growth rate of 10% for milk products. Currently, the daily
milk supply stands at 425,000 liters against the requirement of 875,000 liters, according to NDDB. This is
almost twice the projected data of FAO for 2016. Given the fact that only 10-12% of milk produced by the
farmers are entering the formal dairying sector, it calls for renewed exercising on the part of the industries to
tap the remaining milk for processing. All these data show that milk processing industry is a fast-growing
industry in Nepal.

# M2. Write down the main objectives of heat treatment in milk during various product
preparations

Reviews of literature indicate that the overall effect of heat treatment of milk is to alter the sensory
characteristics (appearance, color, flavor and texture) and the nutritional value as well as making it safe and
improving its keeping quality.

The main reasons for heat treatment of milk are the following:

1. Warranting the safety of the consumer

It specifically concerns killing of pathogens like Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Coxiella burnetii. It also
concerns potentially pathogenic bacteria that may accidentally enter the milk. A fairly moderate heat
treatment kills all of these organisms.

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 2. Increasing the keeping quality

It primarily concerns killing of spoilage organisms and of their spores if present. Inactivation of
enzymes, native to milk or excreted by microorganisms, is also essential. Chemical deterioration by
autoxidation of lipids can be limited by intense heat treatment. Rapid creaming can be avoided by
inactivating agglutinin.

3. Establishing specific product properties

Examples are (1) heating the milk before evaporation to increase the coagulation stability of
evaporated milk during its sterilization, (2) inactivating bacterial inhibitors such as immunoglobulins
and the lactoperoxidase-CNS-H2O2 system to enhance the growth of starter bacteria, (3) obtaining a
satisfactory consistency of yogurt, and (4) coagulating serum proteins together with casein during
acidification of milk.

To achieve the above objectives, various forms of heat treatments are given to milk and liquid milk
products. The most common forms of heat treatment are (i) thermization, (ii) pasteurization, and (iii)
sterilization.

Thermization is the mildest heat treatment (57-68°C for 15 s) given to milk to extend the keeping quality of
raw milk when it is known that milk may be held chilled for some time, prior to being further processed.
The aim is to reduce psychrotrophic bacteria, which may release heat-resistant proteases and lipases into the
milk. Heat treatment is followed by refrigeration. Thermized raw milk can be stored at a maximum of 8°C
for up to 3 days.

Pasteurization is the heating of milk and liquid milk products to destroy all pathogens (using index as
Coexiella burnetii) while at the same time reducing other microorganisms to safe level so that keeping quality
of the product can be prolonged with minimum of chemical, physical and organoleptic changes. For milk,
the minimum pasteurization conditions are those having bactericidal effects equivalent to heating every
particle of the milk to 72°C for 15 s (continuous flow pasteurization) or 63°C for 30 min (batch
pasteurization).

Sterilization is used to produce “commercially sterile” milk by in-container sterilization or UHT process
(135-150°C for 1-4 s). The product has very long shelf life

# M3. Explain the phenomenon of production of major metabolites in yogurt fermentation [5]

Yogurt is a lactic fermented milk product. Lactic cultures used in yogurt fermentation utilize homolactic as
well as heterolactic pathways for metabolizing lactose to produce an array of metabolites (lactic acid, acetic
acid, diacetyl, etc.). The phenomena leading to production of major metabolites are illustrated in the figure
below:

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 Lactose in milk
Environment

Permease Permease Cell membrane

HOMOLACTIC Cytoplasm HETEROLACTIC

Lactose Lactose
FERMENTATION FERMENTATION

Glucose Galactose Glucose

Glucose-6-P Galactose-1-P Glucose-1-P

Leloir pathway
EMP pathway
HMP pathway Acetate

Lactate
Acetate
Pyruvate

Bifidus pathway
Acetate Formate
Lactate Cytoplasm

H+ lactate symport H+ lactate and acetate symport Cell membrane

Environment
Lactic acid in milk Lactic acid and acetic acid in milk

The catabolism of lactose takes place inside the cell. The lactose is first hydrolyzed into galactose and
glucose with the help of lactase. These monosaccharides then undergo various fates to yield acetate, lactate,
CO2, and a host of metabolic intermediates following several intermediary pathways. Lactate and acetates
are excreted outside the cell via symport system.

# M4. Discuss some of the natural inhibitors responsible for preventing the growth of organisms in
milk [5]

Milk has several native defense mechanisms for the prevention of microbial spoilage, and milk inhibitors.
The most widely studied natural microbial inhibitors are:

1. The lactoperoxidase-thiocyanate-hydrogen peroxide (LP) system

2. Immunoglobulins
3. Lysozyme
4. Lactoferrin
5. Xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR)

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The LP system

Bovine milk contains high amounts of lactoperoxidase (~30 µg/ml) and constitutes ~ 1% of total serum
proteins. Lactoperoxidase has no antibacterial effect on its own. But combined with oxidized thiocyanate
(also present in milk) and hydrogen peroxide, the resulting chemical compound has an antibacterial effect in
fresh raw milk. For some flora, it is bacteriostatic while it has bactericidal effect against some Gram-positive
bacteria.

SCN − + H 2 O 2 
Lactoperoxidase
→ OSCN − + H 2 O
(Thiocyanate ion) + (Hydrogen peroxide) (Antibacterial compound)

Immunoglobulins

These are antibodies which normally originate from the blood of the cow. Called agglutinins, these
antibodies inhibit acid production in raw and pasteurized whole or skim milk. In principle, agglutinins cause
sensitive strains to form clumps that settle on the bottom of the container and localize acid production.

Lactoferrin

It is an iron-binding protein found in milk, saliva and other body fluids of mammals. It has been shown to
have antibacterial activity against E.coli, Listeria monocytogenes, and other foodborne pathogens and spoilage
organisms. The antimicrobial property of lactoferrin lies in the competitiveness for iron: it chelates the iron
and makes it unavailable to microorganisms. Purified lactoferrin is used commercially in infant formula,
milk, yogurt and nutritional supplements.

Lysozyme

It is present naturally present in milk. Lysozyme inhibits the synthesis of bacterial cell wall and is therefore
have a bacteriostatic effect against Gram-positive bacteria.

Xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR)

It occurs as a major protein component of the milk fat globule membrane surrounding lipid droplets in
milk. The enzyme is capable of reducing oxygen to generate the reactive oxygen species (ROS), superoxide
and hydrogen peroxide. It can also reduce nitrite, yielding reactive nitrogen species (RNS), such as nitric
oxide and peroxynitrite. By virtue of its capacity to generate ROS and RNS, milk XOR may play an
antimicrobial defensive role in the neonatal gut, complementing endogenous enzyme of the intestinal
epithelium.

# M5. What is thermization. Why peroxidase enzyme is used as an indicator of pasteurization of

milk? [5]

For the first part, also see question 2.

Thermization is a heat treatment which can be used to extend the storage life of milk prior to pasteurization
or more severe heat treatments. UK regulations require that:

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 1. Raw cow’s milk used for thermization shall be not more than 36 h oil and shall have a plate count at
30°C of not more than 300000 per/ml
2. The milk shall receive a heat treatment of 57-68°C for 15 s
3. After heating the milk shall show a positive reaction to phosphatase test
4. Thermized milk shall have a plate count at 30°C of 100,000 or less if the milk is to be used for the
production of pasteurized, UHT or sterilized milk.

Thermization reduces the bacterial load of raw milk and, provided the milk is cooled to and maintained at 0-
1°C, storage time may be extended to 7 days without loss in quality. It is important to maintain thermized
milk at a low temperature before further heat treatment, to retard the growth of aerobic spore-forming
bacteria. However, thermization is beneficial in encouraging spores to germinate as subsequent heat
treatment will destroy the vegetative cells, giving a greater level of destruction of bacterial spores than would
otherwise have occurred.

Apart from using thermization to extend the life of milk on receipt at the factory, the process may also be
used to reduce the rate of deterioration of milk hauled from the farm to the factory over long distances.
When dairy farms are dispersed in the countryside a long way from the centers of milk processing,
thermization units at trans-shipment locations can be used to heat treat milk collected from farms and
transferred to large bulk carriers for the journey to factories.

Second part

The peroxidase enzyme present in raw milk is inactivated at 75-80°C. If the milk has been overheated
(>75°C) during pasteurization, inactivation of the enzyme will occur and give a negative peroxidase test. If
the milk is properly pasteurized a blue color occurs within 30 s after mixing. This is called a Storch’s test.

# M6. How do you judge the complete pasteurization of milk? [2.5]

The adequacy of pasteurization of milk is tested by alkaline phosphatase test (also called ALP test, or simply
phosphatase test). Alkaline phosphatase is an enzyme naturally present in raw milk. It is an excellent
indicator to verify completeness of proper milk pasteurization. The thermal resistance of ALP has been
considered slightly greater than that of any non-sporeforming pathogens that might be found in milk, and
hence a condition slightly more rigorous than that for pasteurization. However, it must be noted that the
failure to detect ALP activity does not guarantee that the product is pathogen free

ALP is an esterase that catalyzes hydrolysis of monoesters. The classic test for the determination of alkaline
phosphatase activity is the Scharer Rapid Phosphatase Test. The enzyme cleaves a phosphate group from
the substrate, disodium phenyl phosphate, liberating phenol which then reacts with a color producing
compound to give a blue color. The more enzyme activity present the more phenol is liberated giving a
deeper color blue. The intensity of the blue is then read visually or with a spectrophotometer. Results of this
procedure are expressed as micrograms of phenol per mL of milk. A value of greater than 1 microgram is
indicative of improper pasteurization. The sensitivity allows for the detection of approximately 0.1 % raw
milk contamination in pasteurized milk or the equivalent (i.e. under -pasteurization). A negative control
(boiled milk) and a positive control (raw milk) must also be used in the test.

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ALP test not only determines the adequacy of pasteurization but also detects inadvertent mixing of raw milk
in pasteurized milk.

# M7. Discuss the natural inhibitors found in milk

Already answered in question 5. Since it is only 3 marks, shorten the answer (limit yourself only to principle)

M8. Write down the different ways of aggregation of fat globules [4]

Aggregation refers to a state in which fat globules remain very close together for a time much longer than
they would in absence of colloidal interactions (Brownian motion). Fat globule aggregation is a precondition
for agglomeration, coalescence and creaming. This can be taken as an element of the different types of
instability (destabilization) occurring in the colloidal nature of milk.

According to Fox (2006) droplet aggregation occurs through:

(i) Flocculation: A reversible agglomeration/clustering of fat globules with no loss of identity of the
globules in the floc
(ii) Coalescence: An irreversible increase in the size of fat globules and a loss of identity of the
coalescing globules
(iii) Partial coalescence: An irreversible agglomeration/clustering of fat globules, held together by a
combination of fat crystals and liquid fat, and retention of identity of individual globules as long
as the crystal structure is maintained.

Walstra (2006) describes the phenomenon in a slightly different way. He mentions 3 ways in which
aggregation can occur:

1. In floccules, attractive forces between globules are weak, and stirring disrupts the floccules.
Flocculation does not happen normally with milk fat globules because electrostatic and steric
repulsion prevents it. Some of the glycoproteins in the membrane cause sufficient steric repulsion.
Agglutination in raw milk, which refers to spontaneous flocculation at cold temperature, is an
example.

Agglutinin (an immunoglobulin of milk) complexes with fat globule membrane lipoproteins to form
cryoglobulin, which in turn precipitates onto the fat globules and cause flocculation. This
phenomenon is also termed cold agglutination and occurs only in raw milk. The rate of fat
separation will thus be faster than that predicted by Stoke’s law. As fat globules cluster, the speed of
rising increases and sweeps up the smaller globules with them.

2. In clusters, two globules share part of the membrane material, generally micellar casein. Examples are
so-called homogenization clusters and heat-coagulated fat globules. Clusters usually cannot be
disrupted by stirring.
3. In granules, fat touches fat. Aggregation to granules can only occur if fat globules contain a network
of fat crystals, giving the globules certain rigidity. Granules cannot be disrupted.

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 Floccule Cluster Granule

Fig. Different types of aggregates of fat globules. Gray dots denote (parts of) casein micelles; heavy lines
denote fat crystals

Aggregation of fat globules can be described for two different conditions (i) for raw milk, and (ii)
homogenized milk. The mechanisms of fat globule aggregation in these two cases are different because the
fat globules in homogenized milk have reduced sizes. The globules no longer have the native fat globule
membrane proteins. Instead, they have a new, recombined membrane consisting mainly of serum proteins
and casein micelles. In particular, cold agglutination does not apply to homogenized milk.

# M9. Write the roles of non-fatty constituents in butter making

Butter contains two types of non-fatty constituents of butter, viz. (i) natural non-fat constituents, and (ii)
added constituents (as an ingredient). FAO mentions non-fat constituents as (i) moisture, (ii) salt (in salted
butter), (iii) curd, and (iv) small amounts of lactic acid and ash. There is no mention of color and flavor
additives probably because it is quantitatively unimportant. The most important constituents that very often
require manipulation during butter making are moisture (water) and salt. The roles of moisture and salt are
described below:

Moisture

Since butter is water-in-oil emulsion, the role of water is obvious. In absence of water, the product would be
simply anhydrous fat. The roles of water in butter are:

• Determines the body and spreadability characteristics of butter. According to Kulkarni and
Ramamurthy (1985), moisture content in butter affects rheological properties, structural stability,
and even microbial spoilage.
• Dissolves salt to provide at least two benefits (i) uniform mixing of salt throughout the butter, and
(ii) preservation of butter by compartmentalization of salt (a butter containing 2.5% salt and 16%
water will have over 15% salt in water, which is inhibitory to most spoilage organisms). Additionally,
Smit (2003) mentions that water contributes to reducing calorie in the product.

Salt

• Salt is important for consumer acceptance (taste/flavor) and product stability. Salt acts as a
preservative (by compartmentalization system)

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# M10. How do you explain milk as an oil-in-water emulsion, a colloid suspension and a solution?
Explain the terms “plasma, serum, milk solids not fat and total solids” which are required to
describe milk fractions. [12.5]

Although milk is a fluid food, it has considerable structural organization. Milk can be described as:

1. An oil-in-water emulsion.

An emulsion is a uniform dispersion of one liquid in another liquid which are not miscible. In an emulsion,
one liquid (the dispersed phase) is dispersed in the other (the continuous phase). In the case of milk (which
typically contains 3.5-5% milk), more than 95% of the total milk lipid is in the form of globule ranging in
size from 0.1 to 5µm in diameter. By virtue of hydrophobicity, fat globules are not miscible in water. These
globules, together with fat-soluble vitamins, and the components of fat globule membrane (MGM)therefore
remain dispersed in the continuous serum phase, until destabilized, to give oil-in-water emulsion. The FGM
that cover the liquid droplets are 8-10 nm thick. It is this FGM that gives stability to the emulsion.

2. A colloid suspension

Colloid is a uniform dispersion of microscopic particles in a liquid medium. The dispersed-phase particles
have a diameter of between approximately 2 and 500 nm. Colloids exhibit Brownian motion and Tyndall
effect. Milk has all the above listed properties of colloidal suspension. Milk is a colloidal suspension of
casein micelles (which contains casein proteins, calcium, phosphate, citrate and water), globular proteins and
lipoprotein particles. Because of the virtue of a colloidal suspension, Tyndall effect is also observed: casein
micelles, along with some fat globules in milk scatter and deflect light somewhat uniformly throughout the
visual spectrum. This results in milk being fairly opaque and appearing white to our eyes.

3. A solution

True Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances in which substance dissolved (solute) in
solvent has the particle size of less than 1 nm. Particles of true solution cannot be filtered through filter
paper and are not visible to naked eye. Milk has all the properties mentioned here. Milk contains around
87% water. Water is considered universal solvent. In the case of milk, this water solubilizes lactose, soluble
proteins (whey proteins), enzymes, minerals, acids, vitamins other components. Milk is therefore a solution.

The following terms are used to describe milk fractions:

• Plasma: Milk plasma is defined as milk minus the milkfat globules, which is close in composition to
separated- or skim milk, although separation is never complete.
• Serum: Milk serum is defined as milk plasma minus casein micelles, which is close to the composition
of whey, except for the presence of some proteolytic products from chymosin.
• Solids-Not-Fat (SNF) = proteins + lactose + minerals + acids + enzymes + vitamins
• Total MilkSolids = fat + SNF

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# M11. What are the different preserved milk products? Write down the underlying principle of
preservation of preserved milk products. [5]

Milk is a perishable commodity and spoils very easily. Its low acidity and high nutrient content make it the
perfect breeding ground for bacteria, including pathogens.

Bacteria from the animal, utensils, hands, and insects may contaminate the milk, and their removal or
destruction is the main reason for processing. A brief account of the various principles involved in the
preservation and some examples of preserved products are given below:

Principle Examples Preserved product

1. Preventive Sanitation and hygiene to prevent the entry of Applies to all preserved
measures spoilage microorganism or cross-contamination products

2. Cooling Means of slowing down the growth of bacteria and Applies to all preserved
hence extending shelf life of the product products in general and market
milk, yogurt, ice-cream, etc., in
particular
3. Heating Kills all pathogens as well as reduces the number of Market milk, Sterilized milk,
other bacteria to safe level. The principle is Flavored milk, etc.
exemplified by pasteurization (batch or continuous),
commercial sterilization (in-container or UHT).

It is to be noted that ‘thermization’ is applied for

raw milk only, not for preserved product

Principle Examples Preserved product

4. Fermentation Lactic acid and other metabolites and Yogurt, kefir, sour cream,
antimetabolites produced during fermentation serve cheese, etc.
as natural preservatives
5. Removal of Preservation occurs due to lowering of water Condensed milks, milk
water activity. Hurdles are also present to accentuate the powders
preservative effect.
6. Addition of Salt, sugar and purified natural inhibitors may be Sugar in sweetened condensed
chemicals added. One or more of the above principles may milk, salt in butter, purified
also overlap, thereby producing hurdles against lactoferrin in infant formula
spoilage organisms and nutritional supplements
7. Novel Mano-Thermo-Sonication (MTS), High-Voltage Generally for market milk
methods Pulse/Pulsed Electric Field, High Pressure
Pasteurization (Pascalization), etc.

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# M12. Explain the importance of microbial quality control in milk. [5]

Milk is a perishable commodity and spoils very easily. Its low acidity and high nutrient content make it the
perfect breeding ground for bacteria, including pathogens. Bacteria from the animal, utensils, hands, and
insects may contaminate the milk, and their removal or destruction is the main reason for processing. Milk is
also one of the most widely consumed liquid food by all sections of people, from infants, adults to old. Any
event leading to contamination of milk by pathogens can therefore cause mass scale food poisoning. This
alone speaks of the importance of microbial quality control in milk.

Against the afore-mentioned backdrop, it is thus clear that microbiological testing in the dairy plant is
critical to ensure that raw milk, other ingredients, and finished products are of high quality. Such testing also
serves to verify the adequacy of Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) procedures.

Testing for pathogens is normally not done in the dairy plant, but samples are sent to a laboratory located
far enough from the plant to preclude introduction of unwanted microorganisms through manipulations in
the laboratory

Over time, several methods for the analysis of raw milk and dairy ingredients have evolved. Some of routine
microbiological tests done in dairy are Standard Plate Count, Coliform Count and Somatic Cell Count.
Somatic Cells are not microorganisms but the method entails microscopic procedures.

1. Standard plate count (SPC) or Aerobic plate count:

This gives idea about the microbial load of milk and hence is useful in making decision on whether to reject
or accept milk, immediately process or delay processing, etc.

2. Coliform count:

Coliforms are indicator organisms and are generally only present in foods that have been fecally or
environmentally contaminated. Presence of coliforms gives a warning of the possible presence of Salmonella,
a pathogen of fecal origin. Presence of coliform in pasteurized milk indicates either fault in pasteurization or
post-pasteurization contamination.

3. Somatic Cell Count:

Somatic cell count indicates the presence of mastitis (an infection of the mammary gland) in the cow.
Somatic cells are blood cells that fight infection and occur naturally in mil. The presence of mastitis will
increase the somatic cell count.

# M13. What affects melting point and hardness of fatty acids? What is cytolysis? [2+3.5]

The terms melting point and hardness of fatty acids are interrelated. Fatty acids with high melting points remain
solid or semi-solid at room temperatures and are therefore hard. The melting points of fatty acids are
affected by many factors, some of which are:

1. Chain length or molecular weight: fatty acids of long chain (and therefore high molecular weight) have
higher melting points.

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 2. Degree of unsaturation: Saturated fatty acids have higher melting points compared to the unsaturated
counterpart. For example, oleic acid (C16:1) has a melting point of 15°C but stearic acid (C16:0) has
a melting point of 69°C. The degree of unsaturation/saturation also has relevance to Iodine Number
(Iodine Value) of fatty acids. Saturated fatty acids have low iodine number.
3. Molecular packing: Unsaturated fatty acids have kinks at unsaturation points and thus allow very loose
packing. During heating, the molecules slip more easily than the closely packed, unkinked saturated
counterpart.
4. Isomerism: The cis-trans isomerism significantly alters the melting points of fatty acids. For example,
cis-oliec acid has a melting point of 15°C but the trans form (isooleic acid) has a melting point of
42°C.
5. Polymorphism: Fat crystal can exist as α, β′ and β crystals. The β form has the highest melting point
6. Distribution of fatty acids: Distribution of fatty acid residues over the three positions of glycerol
molecule in a triglyceride also affects melting point of fat. For example, PPB has a higher melting
point that the PBP counterpart (where P = palmitic acid, B = butyric acid).

Cytolysis

Cytolysis, or osmotic lysis, occurs in animal cells and certain bacteria when a cell bursts due to an osmotic
imbalance that has caused excess water to move into the cell. It occurs in a hypotonic environment, where
water moves into the cell by osmosis and causes its volume to increase to the point where the volume
exceeds the membrane's capacity and the cell bursts. The presence of a cell wall prevents the membrane
from bursting, so cytolysis only occurs in animal and protozoa cells which do not have cell walls. Cytolysis
does not occur in plant cells because of the cell wall that contains the turgor pressure.

In milk, lysozyme is present naturally. Cytolysis would be expected to occur when bacterial cells are treated
with a hypotonic solution with added or natural lysozyme, which destroys the bacteria's cell walls. The
antibody IgM also has cytolytic property.

# M14. Discuss about the factors influencing heat stability of milk [2.5]

Heat stability of milk is affected by a myriad of factors, of which pH is the most significant (Stepaniak,
2011).

Heat stability of milk is expressed as the number of minutes at a particular temperature, for example 140°C,
before visible coagulation of milk occurs – the heat coagulation time (HCT) (Sun, 2005). A number of
factors interact in a complex manner, which ultimately determines the heat coagulation of milk. A summary
of different factors influencing heat stability of milk is as follows:

1. pHand acidity of milk

pH (active acidity) affects both the molecular dissociation of casein components and formation of
aggregated protein complex through protein-protein interactions. Further, pH strongly affects the salt
equilibrium between the colloidal and ionic states of the minerals of milk. Maximum heat stability is
observed between pH 6.6 and 6.8.

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2. Protein composition

Various genetic variants of the casein fractions display variable heat stability. The heat coagulation of milk is
related to the ratio between κ-casein and β-lactoglobulin. Higher heat coagulation temperature is observed
at higher levels of β-lactoglobulin.

3. Mineral balance (salt balance)

The heat stability of milk is also determined by the relative concentration of various salts present in colloidal
and ionic states. An increase or decrease of any of the components of the ratio (Ca2++ Mg2+)/(citrate3-+ and
phosphates3-) disturbs the salt balance, resulting in lower heat stability.

4. Concentration of milk solids

High solid concentration is accompanied by concomitant shift of salt from ionic state to the colloidal state
as well as drop in pH, which ultimately lowers the heat stability of milk.

5. Homogenization

Homogenization disrupts fat globules and increases surface area by many folds. Adsorption of micellar
casein on the new surfaces causes a shift in colloidal state, which in turn affects the equilibria between the
colloidal and ionic states. This ultimately reduces heat stability of milk, although only marginally.

6. Forewarming

Increases heat-stability for milk destined for subsequent sterilization. However, at low pH, forewarming has
been found to reduce heat stability of milk.

7. Hydrolysis of lactose

This increases heat stability throughout the pH range 6.5-7.5 (Sun, 2005)

Heat stability of milk can be increased by adding lecithin in homogenized milk (McCrae, 1999). Addition of
calcium chloride, phosphates and citrates also increase heat stability. Phosphates and citrates increase heat
stability by chelating calcium.

# M15. How can bacteriological control be implemented in a dairy? [2.5]

The bacteriological control in dairy industry involves control of microorganisms right from the collection
center, dairy plant, production, to the point of dispatch. Some methods and principles of microbiological
control in dairy are given below:

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Method Principle Remarks
Asepsis (i) Preventive steps: such as hygiene and For both raw milk and finished
sanitation, good housekeeping to prevent goods
entry of contaminants

(ii) Packaging and storage: Avoid defective

packaging, store in a clean place at a
suitable temperature low temperature
Retarding growth (i) Low temperature: Instant cooling to retard For both raw milk and
microbial growth processed products

(ii) Concentration, drying: Reduction in water Condensed milk, milk powder

activity
Removal (i) Physical removal: Bactofugation to remove During and after production of
bacteria and cells, rinsing of pipelines different milk products
during CIP

(ii) Chemical removal: Removing/killing

microorganisms with acids, alkalies and
detergents in CIP

(iii) Removal by destruction: Pasteurization,

sterilization, thermization to decrease
microbial load

These apart, dairy environment and water supplies also pose significant microbiological hazard. Control of
airborne microorganisms in dairy plants can be done by installing air filters, UV irradiators and regular
chemical disinfection. Microbiological quality of both ingredient water and process water (e.g., rinsing water)
must also controlled. Typically, water for dairy industry must have less than 1000 cfu/ml. Present day
techniques for the treatment of water include disinfection with chlorine, ultraviolet-light, ozone,
microfiltration, and other processes.

# M16. Discuss about the factors affecting the milk yield. [?]

Variation in yield of milk is a regular phenomenon in any milch animals. There two main factors, viz., (i)
Internal factors (genetic make-up and other physiological factors and (ii) External factor (Environmental
and management factors) and several sub-factors that affect milk yield. The dairyman has hardly got any
control over the physiological factors but has some control over the environmental factors.

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Factors Subfactors
1. Internal (i) Species: For example, buffalo yield more milk than local Indian cow
factor (ii) Breed: For example, Holstein gives more milk than Jersey
(iii) Individuality of animal: Larger cows generally secrete more milk
(iv) Dry period: Dairy cows are usually dried-off for two months prior to the next
calving. Milk yield is usually reduced when the dry period is less than 40-60 days
(25-40% less milk)
(v) Lactation number: Maximum in the 4th or 5th lactation
(vi) Parity/age: Milk yield increases up to 5th parity (20% due to body weight and 80%
due to recurring pregnancy)
(vii) Milking intervals: Unequal milking interval reduces yield. Incomplete milking for
several consecutive days can permanently reduce milk yield for entire lactation
(viii) Milking frequency: Milking twice a day yields 40% more than once a day.
(ix) Pregnancy: It has an inhibitory effect in yield
(x) Estrus: Yield is reduced compared to post-estrus period. Estrus refers to “a
regularly recurrent state of sexual excitability during which the female of most
mammals with accept the male and is capable of conceiving”

2. External (i) Dry period: Dairy cows are usually dried-off for two months prior to the next
factor calving. Milk yield is usually reduced when the dry period is less than 40-60 days
(25-40% less milk)
(ii) Temperature and humidity: This is dependent on the breed.
(iii) Feed and water supply: Galactopoisis is closely related to an adequate feed intake by
lactating animal. Shortage of water has the most dramatic effect
(iv) Disease: Mastitis decreases milk yield by destroying the secretory tissues
(v) Geographic region: This is related to (iii)
(vi) Other management factors: Dairy husbandry, feed management, etc.

# M17. What are the qualities that make lactic acid bacteria suitable in dairy production? [3]

The desirable properties of lactic acid bacteria varies somewhat, depending on the specific fermented
product and the bacteria selected (for example, the probiotic LAB). Even in the same product group, there
are several variations (several cheese and yogurt types, for example).

According to Marhta and Steele (2001), properties desired of lactic cultures for industrial use may differ
from those found in typical wild-type microorganisms. For example, most dairy fermentations require rapid
acid production and the lack of off-flavor production, whereas wild type organisms are often slow acid
producers and produce such off-flavors as fruity, bitter, and malty. Buchenhu¨skes(1993) summarized
selection criteria for lactic acid bacteria to be used for food fermentations. These include:

(1) Lack of pathogenic or toxic activity (e.g., production of biogenic amines)

(2) Ability to produce desired changes
(3) Ability to dominate competitive microflora
(4) Ease of propagation
(5) Ease of preservation
(6) Stability of desirable properties during culturing and storage.
14
Other authors have mentioned following properties of LAB as desirable:

(1) Ability to rapidly produce lactic acid

(2) Lack of associated off-flavors
(3) Resistance to bacteriophage infection
(4) Minimal nutritional requirements (although they are fastidious)
(5) Bacteriocin production
(6) Heat resistance

It is obvious that rapid acidification of the raw material prevents growth of undesirable microorganisms.
There several other desirable properties applicable to specific product, for example:

(1) Flavor production: in yogurt, cheese, etc.

(2) Salt tolerance: in the case of cheese
(3) Polysaccharide production: in certain Nordic fermented milks

# M18. What are the building blocks of dairy processing? [2]

The frequently used components in dairy processing constitute the building block. These blocks differ from
product to product but also overlap considerably. Following is the list of building blocks of liquid milk.

Building blocks Remarks

1. Heat exchangers For cooling, thermization, pasteurization, sterilization, regeneration

2. Centrifugal separators For clarification, bacteria/cell removal, cream separation

3. Membrane filters Fractionation and purification of milk components

4. Evaporators For concentration

5. Deaerators For removing entrapped air

6. Pumps For transport of liquids

7. Pipes, valves and fittings For transport of liquids

8. Tanks For storage of liquid, mixing, fermentation, etc.

9. Automation For integrated plant control, planning, scheduling, etc.

10. Service systems Management of power supply, refrigeration, compressed air, water
supply, steam, etc.

15
# M19. What are the factors affecting the quality of yogurt? How do you preserve cultured milk
product? [2.5+2.5]

First part of the question

Numerous factors must be carefully controlled during the manufacturing process in order to produce high-
quality yoghurt with the required flavor, aroma, viscosity, consistency, appearance, freedom from whey
separation and long shelf life:

1. Choice of milk: should be free from antibiotics, bacteriophage and low microbial load
2. Milk standardization: Fat and dry matter content affects yogurt quality.
3. Milk additives: Sugar and stabilizers can be added to alter the quality (consistency, sweetness, etc.)
4. Deaeration: Removes off-flavors, improves stability and viscosity, shortens fermentation time
5. Homogenization: Prevents creaming by uniformly distributing milk fat. Improves viscosity and stability
6. Heat treatment: Brings firmness in the curd, reduces whey separation
7. Choice of culture: Variation in the quality (flavor, viscosity) can be brought about by choosing specific
LAB strains.
8. Culture preparation: Aseptic process must be used for culture preparation.
9. Plant design: The coagulum formed during fermentation is sensitive to mechanical treatment. This
makes the selection and dimensioning of pipes, valves, pumps, coolers, etc., very important as well
as the plant lay-out.

Pre-treatment of the milk thus includes a number of measures which are all very important to the quality of
the end product. The mechanical treatment to which yoghurt is subjected during production also affects its
quality.

Second part of the question

Preservation of cultured milk product (This question is not good, not clear. May be it is asking for
production of cultured milk)

Production of cultured milk

In general, there are two types of retail cultured milk products dominate the market, viz., (i) set type, and (ii)
stirred type, with several variations. Although many of these fermentations involve specific microfloras,
their technologies have considerable degree of similarity. A generic process for producing different types of
cultured milk products is given in the flow diagram below (Tamine, 2008).

16
# M20. Discuss the desirable attributes of fermented milk products. Differentiate the set and
stirred yogurt [?]

Given the widely variety of fermented milk products produced, it is difficult to list attributes that will apply
to all. For example, misti doi should be light brown in color and sweet in taste but this can connote bad
quality for other products. Villi (a Nordic cultured milk) should have characteristic ropiness, set-type yogurt
should have firm gel, stirred or drinking-type yogurt should be pourable, and so on. The probiotic cultured
milks such as yakult has a completely different story. Nevertheless, Chandan (2008) has mentioned that the
desirable attributes of fermented milk products include:

1. Color typical of the flavor

2. Body that has significant viscosity or is a soft gel
3. Texture is smooth
4. An abundance of particulates that are typical in color and are distributed uniformly throughout the
product.

Difference between set and stirred yogurt

Stirred and set yogurts are distinctly different yogurts in spite of both being natural yogurts. There are
differences in production as well as sensory attributes. A comprehensive list given by Walstra et al 92006) is
as follows:

17
Set yogurt Stirred yogurt
• Fermented after being packed • Almost fully fermented before being packed
• Made from concentrated milk • Always made from non-concentrated milk
• The product is not stirred • The product is stirred before packaging
• Higher incubation temperature (45°C) • Lower incubation temperature (30-32°C)
• Low inoculum size (0.25%) • High inoculum size (2.5%)
• Very short incubation time (2.5 hrs) • Long incubation time (16-20 hrs)
• Rich in flavor, far less firm, and prone to syneresis • Smooth, fairly thick, but still pourable
• Has higher titratable acidity (about 130 mM) • Has lower titratable acidity (90-100 mM)
• Traditionally approach • Modern approach
• Greater buffering capacity • Less buffering capacity
• Gelling agent may be added to prevent wheying off • No gelling agent added

# M21. Explain the different forms of lactose in terms of their sweetness [2.5]

In terms of sweetness, lactose exists in two forms (i) normal lactose, and (ii) lactulose. Lactulose is an isomer
of lactose, wherein the glucose moiety of lactose is converted by alkaline isomerization to fructose. It is
therefore composed of β-D-galactose linked to β -D-fructose in a (1→4) configuration. Lactulose is 1.5
times sweeter than lactose. Its sweetness is classified as 0.48-0.62 that of sucrose. Unlike lactose, lactulose
cannot be hydrolyzed by human intestinal enzymes. Lactulose may further epimerize via a 2,3-enediol to
form epilactose by epimerization of glucose moiety to mannose. On the other hand, normal lactose is only
0.32-0.41 times as sweet as sucrose.

# M22. Why is HACCP implementation important in dairy industry?

Foodborne diseases continue to be one of the biggest problems for public health throughout the world. The
risk related to the production of food products can be reduced to an acceptable level or eliminated through
the application of HACCP methodology. Milk being a complete food is an excellent growth medium for
spoilage as well as pathogens. If their growth is not controlled, milk can be a source of pathogens. Besides,
milk is consumed by all strata of population, from an infant to an elderly person, both the groups being
vulnerable to diseases. Milk and milk products, if contaminated with pathogens, can therefore cause huge
loss in health and well-being of the consumers. In fact, there are plenty of past records where milk has been
implicated for food poisoning. In the early 1980s a UK brand of dried baby milk suffered from Salmonella
contamination problem. In 1983, 14 of 49 people in Massachusetts died after consuming pasteurized milk
that was supposedly contaminated with L. monocytogenes. Two years later, consumption of contaminated
Mexican-style cheese manufactured in California was directly linked to more than 142 cases of listeriosis,
including at least 40 deaths. For a potential problem of such a magnitude, safety surveillance becomes a
must, and HACCP is the perfect answer. The structured, logical and straightforward technique applied in
HACCP is the most effective means of controlling foodborne diseases.

Another reason for implementing HACCP in dairy industries is for prepared against yet unidentified
pathogens. Many of the pathogens of most interest today were not recognized as foodborne disease agents
prior to 1980, e.g., E. coli 0157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes and Campylobacter jejuni.

18
# M23. Suggest the best way of improving the hygienic quality of milk [2]

Milk is highly nutritious media, in which microorganisms can rapidly multiply and cause spoilage and
diseases. More than 90% of all reported cases of dairy-related illness are of bacterial origin. Disease is mainly
due to consumption of unpasteurized milk containing Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes, or Campylobacter. The
most common spoilage organisms of milk are Gram-negative rods, Gram-positive spore formers, lactic acid
bacteria, yeasts and molds.

Raw milk, as secreted by healthy cows, is free of microorganisms. However, the activities like milking,
handling, transportation, etc. all lead to increase in microbial population if not properly controlled. The
production of hygienic quality of milk thus requires following control actions:

• Maintain sanitary and hygiene protocol in milking and collection

• Immediate chilling of raw milk to 4-5°C to retard the growth of pathogens and spoilage microbes
• Forewarming/thermization (57-68°C for 15 s) to reduce the microbial load if the milk contains
heavy microbial load. This is followed by immediate cooling of milk.
• Bactofugation to remove microorganisms
• Pasteurization to destroy all the pathogens. The process will also reduce microbial load to acceptable
level.
• Routine hygiene and sanitation (CIP of storage tanks, pipelines, pasteurizers, washing/cleaning of
floor, tankers and crates) to kill/remove contaminants and remove biofilms, milkstone, etc.
• Hygienic plant design
• Supply of clean air (to avoid airborne contaminants)
• Training of workers on Good Hygienic Practice
• Use of potable water
• Hygienic packaging , handling and storage

# M24. Define pasteurized, sterilized and UHT milk. Compare and contrast the nutritive value and
shelf life of pasteurized, sterilized and UHT milk. [5]

Pasteurized milk

Pasteurized milk is a product prepared by heating every particle of milk at a specified time-temperature
regime (63°C for at least 30 min, or 71°C for at least 2 sec, or equivalent for reducing the population by 5
log cycles) so that even the most heat resistant pathogen (Coxiella burnetii) is destroyed, with minimal
chemical, physical and organoleptic changes in the product.

Sterilized milk

Sterilized milk in dairy refers to milk that has been heat-processed to ‘commercial sterility’ (free from
microorganisms that grow under the prevailing conditions). It is therefore not sterile in the absolute sense.
Two methods are used for the production of sterilized milk for ambient storage: (i) in-container sterilization,
and (ii) Ultra High Temperature (UHT) treatment following by aseptic packaging.

19
UHT milk

UHT milk is a long-life (commercially sterilized) milk produced by aseptic heat processing at ultra-high
temperatures (135-150°C for a few seconds) in UHT plants by either indirect heating, direct steam injection
or infusion.

Comparison of nutritional value

Nutritional Processed milk

component Pasteurized In-can sterilized UHT sterilized
Fat No changes No changes No changes
Lactose No changes Formation of lactulose (>600 mg/L) Formation of lactulose
(<600 mg/L)
Proteins Partial denaturation Partial denaturation of whey Partial denaturation of
of whey proteins proteins whey proteins
Lysine loss 0.4-0.8% 6-10% 0.4-0.8%
Mineral salts Minimal Partial precipitation Partial precipitation
Thiamine loss Minimal 20-50% 3%
Biological value -- -- 0.85

# 26. Discuss the factors which affect the hardness of butter.

Walstra et al (2006) list following factors which affect the hardness (consistency) of butter:

(i) Temperature, (ii) fat composition, (iii) method of manufacture, (iv) storage conditions, and (v) working of
butter.

The consistency of butter is primarily determined by the properties of the fat crystal network. Initially, the
crystals are kept together by van der Waals forces, but they soon become much strongly bonded to each
other due to sintering.

At the molecular level, hardness and melting point of butter is related to the properties of fatty acids and
glycerides, which in turn depend on: (i) degree of unsaturation/saturation in fatty acids, (ii) chain length of
fatty acids (molecular weight), (iii) cis-trans isomerism, (iv) distribution of fatty acid in the triglyceride, (v)
polymorphism, and (vi) molecular packing of fatty acids.

20
 STORAGE TECHNOLOGY

# S1. Post-harvest grain handling in Nepal [2.5]

Rice, maize, wheat and millets are the major coarse grains in Nepal. The post-harvest grain handling
system in Nepal is still primitive, typical of the system applied for small-scale sustainable agriculture
in the tropics. According to various reports, about 70% of the grains remain in the farm where a
larger part of the loss occurs.

Harvesting of grains in every part of Nepal is manual. Threshing, drying, milling and storage
activities vary according to the grain type and geographical region (hills or Terai). In the hills, rice
threshing is done by bullock pairs or by beating on the floor. Transportation is manual, either on
human back or mule after bagging.

In the recent years, significant change has occurred in the Terai in two areas of grain handling:

(i) Threshing: With the exodus of men abroad for work, mechanized rice and wheat threshers
(power threshers) are being increasingly used.
(ii) Transportation: Bullock carts have been replaced with all-purpose tractors. Tractors are
used for carrying harvested grains from the field as well as transportation of bagged
grains to granaries, market for selling or mills.

According to FAO (1992) report, the on-farm loss figures for handling and storage for grains (from
harvesting to storage) are: ~16% (for paddy), ~14.5% for maize, and ~13.8% for wheat. With
improved handling practices and shift towards mechanization over time, some reduction in the loss
can be expected.

# S2. How does absorption and desorption of moisture affect the quality of stored products?
[5]

Moisture-sorption and desorption, collectively called sorption cycle, is an inherent property of all
seed grain bulk. Grains absorb or desorb moisture until equilibrium moisture content (EMC) is
reached, and this is generally 7-36% (depending on the RH).

Moisture is the key to safe storage of grains. Biological activities occur only if moisture is present,
with minimum quantity for such activity varying with the microorganism concerned.

Focusing only on stored grains, moisture sorption has several disadvantages, desorption is
advantageous, but sorption cycle again has several disadvantages. These are listed below:

Moisture sorption leads to:

• Dry matter loss due to increased rate of respiration of the seed

• Quality loss due to attack by microorganisms and insects. Along with loss in nutritional
quality, toxins may also be formed.
• Several enzymatic and chemical reactions may occur, ultimately leading to loss in nutritional
quality

21
 • Hotspot formation, when the effect of surrounding temperature is considered
• Increases bulk density (leads to storage space and handling problems)
• Increases surface frictional properties (leads to processing problems)

Desorption is advantageous in that the above defects can be minimized or eliminated. In particular,
dry grains have restricted respiration rate, nutrient mobility and enzymatic reactions are restricted,
microbial growth is retarded.

According to Ajisegiri (2005), sorption cycle affects grain properties (and therefore quality) in
following ways:

• Changes in the size, shape, color and texture of the stored grains
• Leads to faster rate of ageing
• Adversely affects nutritional composition of grains
• Increases the rate of dry matter loss

Variation in moisture content cause phase changes (changes in lattice structure) in the product. As
water molecules enter the leave the lattice, holes in the form of pathways are created due to
continuous entry and exit of water molecules. As sorption process involves temporary bond
formation in all biomaterials, this process significantly weakens the structure of the grain. The
sorption cycle, in turn, results in dull color of the grain and increased susceptibility to microbial and
insect attack.

# S3. Define infestation and disinfestation [1+1]

The term ‘infestation’ has been defined variously, depending on the context. In grain storage,
infestation refers to the state being invaded and overrun by pests, which include insects and rodents.
Examples are attack of grain by weevils, fungi, mouse, etc.

In the above context, disinfestation implies all the measures used to control invasion (by prevention,
removal or destruction) of grains by insect and rodent pests. Typical examples include using traps
for trapping mouse, fumigation for killing insects.

# SP4. Preventive measures of insect control in stored grains [4]

Bellinger (2012) has listed following preventive measures for insect control in stored grains:

1. Use of properly dried grain

High grain moisture, along with excessive dockage or broken kernels, favors insect reproduction.

2. Avoiding overfilling of bins

This results in inadequate space to inspect or treat the grain.

22
3. Sanitation

It is crucially important to reduce the initial insect population and prevent development of any insect
pests in the crop products. Before bringing grain into store, the following steps are necessary:

• Remove infested material.

• Do not mix new grain with old.
• Old material that must be kept should be thoroughly fumigated
4. Cleaning of the storage structure
• Brush away all traces of spilled grain, dust, etc.
• Remove dust from handling equipment and machinery
• Disinfect sacks and baskets by sunning or chemical treatment
• Large structures usually require chemical treatment
• Small rural structures can be cleaned by using smoke, and making use of the sun and
rain-after some time insects will usually leave a clean empty storage space

5. Use of grain protectants

In this context, it refers to preventive action against re-infestation, and not killing of insect pest in
the infested grain. The most common grain protectants are Chlorpyrifos-methyl (EC or dust),
Malathion (EC), and Primiphos-methyl (EC).

# S5. Mycotoxins in stored grains

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of molds which may contaminate foods, animal feeds, or the
raw materials for their manufacture, and that happen to be toxic to man or his domestic animals.

FAO estimates that 25% of world food crops are affected by mycotoxin. Some of the known
mycotoxins of grains are (you may use only a few examples):

Aflatoxins have the greatest relevance in grains in general and maize and peanuts in particular.
Aflatoxin B1 is the most toxic. It is a potent carcinogen and teratogen. The toxin is very resistant
and persistent and atmospheric cooking can destroy only up to 70% of the toxin. This implies that
decontamination is less effective than the preventive measures. Preventive measures include sorting
out of moldy grains, adequate drying, and storage in a cool and dry environment to prevent
development of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus.

Quantitation of aflatoxin is relatively involved, but rapid screening can be done by a simple test
called BGYF (blue green yellow fluorescent) test.

23
# S6. Maize storage in the hills

Maize storage in the hills of Nepal is generally carried out in the cribs, generally in the form of tied
maize cobs, the vernacular term of which is “Jhutta”. Jhutta may be prepared either as naked cobs or
sheathed cobs by tying together the inverted sheath of cobs. The jhutta is then hung on a vertical or
horizontal pole for both drying and storage. Studies have shown that this method of storage is the
best method of storage in the rural context. It does not require bins or rooms for storage. Due to
plenty of aeration, the maize cobs dry well and the incidence of aflatoxin is very rare. The following
picture gives detail of the maize storage system in Nepal.

reverved sheath/husk

naked cob sheathed cob

24
 Cobs hung on a horizontal pole Maize stored in vertical pole

# S7. Pesticide residues

A pesticide is a substance or a mixture of substances used for killing pests. Applications of pesticides
to crops may leave residues in or on food when it is sold, and those specified derivatives are
considered to be of toxicological significance.

The levels of these residues in foods are often stipulated by regulatory bodies in many countries.
Exposure of the general population to these residues most commonly occurs through consumption
of treated food sources that contain remnants of pesticides.

Many of these chemical residues, especially derivatives of chlorinated pesticides, exhibit

bioaccumulation which could build up to harmful levels in the body as well as in the environment.
Persistent chemicals can be magnified through the food chain and have been detected in products
ranging from meat, poultry, and fish, to vegetable oils, nuts, and various fruits and vegetables

Although the most of the general population may not be exposed to large portion of pesticides,
many of the pesticide residues that are attached tend to be lipophilic and can bio-accumulate in the
body. Concerns have been raised about the possible role of continuous low-dosage exposure in
causing certain cancers. Pesticide residues have a wide range of potential health effects. They may
cause physical irritation to the skin as well as act as carcinogens, endocrine disruptors, and nervous
system disruptors.

Some of pesticides used in food crops are Chlorpyrifos (against insect infestation), Ethion (for
berries), phorate (for roots and rhizomes), etc. To prevent pesticide residues entering our food
chain, guidelines regarding use (concentration, minimum number of days before the crop is
consumed, etc.) must be meticulously followed.

# S8. Post-harvest loss

It is the loss that occurs between harvest and the moment of human consumption. They include on-
farm losses, such as when grain is threshed, winnowed and dried, as well as losses along the chain
during transportation, storage and processing. According to FAO, the expression of post-harvest

25
losses means a measurable quantitative and qualitative loss in a given product. This definition must
also take into account cases of product deterioration.

The post- harvest loss figures for different crops are different. Perishable crops like fruits and
vegetables may reach a loss of up to 40% in the 3rd world countries like Nepal, the reason being lack
of transportation and storage facilities, frequent strikes, and so on. In the case of grains, the post-
harvest loss figure reaches up to 16% and this is primarily due to manual handling, poor storage
conditions and inadequate control of insects and pests.

To clarify the sequence of losses and also to illustrate its magnitude, an example of grain can be used
here.

Crop in the field

Late harvest Attack by birds and other pests

Insufficient drying Development of molds and insects

Threshing Scattering, spillage,

encouragement of insect
growth on damaged grains
Poor storage Loss due to molds, insects, rodents
Transportation problem Quantitative loss of grain
Defective packaging Quantitative loss of grain
Milling/processing Quantitative loss of grain

Fig. Example of post-harvest loss

# S9. Grain drying methods

Grain drying is the phase of post-harvest system during which the product is rapidly dried until it
reaches the safe moisture level (~12-14%). The aim of this desiccation is to lower the moisture
content in order to guarantee conditions favorable for storage or for further processing of the
product.

Drying permits a reduction of losses during storage from causes such as:

• Premature and unseasonable germination of grain

• Development of molds
• Proliferation of insects

Grains can be dried by following methods:

1. Sun drying

26
 2. Solar drying
3. Batch drying
4. Continuous drying

Sun drying is very common in Nepal and similar countries and is often seen in the rural areas.
Grains are dried on mat, cemented (plastered) yards, and even asphalt roads. A slightly improved
version is observed in small rice mills.

Solar drying is common in the tropics. The grains are usually spread on a flat surface directly in the
sun. Several versions of solar driers are available but at the simplest, it consists of an enclosed space
with a transparent glass or plastic cover. Air draft is drawn from the bottom and leaves from a sort
of black chimney at the top. The temperature may reach up to 70°C.

The batch drying system has two main variations: (i) batch drying and storage (ii) batch drying.
Grains are dried in layers or after filling the bin, by blowing warm air from the bottom. The drying
may take several days or weeks. All the on-farm static dryers are designed on deep bed principles.

The continuous drying systems are of 3 principle types, depending on the direction of the flow of
hot air relative to grain flow, viz.: (i) cross-flow, (ii) co-current, and counter current. There are
advantages and disadvantages of all the methods. Cross-flow dryers are less energy-efficient
compared to the other two methods.

The temperatures of dry air for drying food and seed grains range from 49 to 60°C. For feed grains,
the range is 82-104°C.

hot air

blackened chimney

grain bed
air draft

Solar dryer

dried
drying zone drying front
heated air undried

Batch drying system

27
# S10. Chemical control of mites

Mites commonly occur in grain storages in damp or moist grain, residues, oilseeds and animal feeds.
Tyrophagus putrescentiae and Acarus siro are the most common grain mites. Mites multiply under high
humidity (>65% RH) and the upper temperature limit of 35-37°C. They cause damage by eating the
germ of the grain and spreading fungi in the commodity.

Mites in grains can be chemically controlled by two methods: (i) using repellents (e.g., DEET), and
(ii) mite killers. The common chemicals for killing mites in stored grains are Methoprene, pyrethrum
product, and spinosad. The exposure period is ~ 3 weeks. The commonly used grain protectants
such as pyrimiphos-methyl and chlorpyrifos-methyl are known to be ineffective now. Phosphine can
also be used to kill mites but this is possible only if done in a sealed, gas-tight storage.

# S11. Pesticide resistance in stored product

Pesticide resistance describes the decreased susceptibility of a pest population to a pesticide that was
previously effective at controlling the pest. Pest species evolve pesticide resistance via natural
selection: the most resistant specimens survive and pass on their genetic traits to their offspring.

The incidence of pesticide resistance is a growing problem in stored product protection. Resistance
to one or more pesticides has been reported in at least 500 species of insects and mites (Georghiou,
1990). Currently, there are 122 insect pest species which are resistant to malathion (DARP, 2003).
Stored-product insect pests have been found to be resistant against several insecticides including
biosmethrin, chloripyrifos-methyl, cyanophos, dichlorvos, etc. The development of cross-resistance
(to different members of the same pesticide group) and multi-resistance (to different pesticide
groups) in insect strains of many important insect species is a serious concern all over the world.

Due to reliance on synthetic pesticides for the management of stored-product insect pests, a
considerable number of problems are arising, including toxic residues in treated products, handling
and health hazards, pest resurgence, and genetic resistance of insect species. The serious problem of
resistance to pesticides has created a worldwide interest in the development of alternative strategies.
Among the viable alternatives are the use of plant-derived materials (such as extracts, plant oils, and
powders), biological control agents such as Bt and Trichogramma species, insect growth regulators,
inert dusts and diatomaceous earth, and solar heating. Among the discussed alternatives, use of a
single method might not be fruitful to resolve the current pesticide resistance problem. Therefore, a
combination of two or more alternative control methods or a combination of conventional chemical
insecticides and alternative techniques should be considered as a sustainable long­term strategy.

# S12. How is hotspot formed in grain? Explain. [5]

In grain storage, the term ‘hot spot’ refers to a small area or region with a relatively hot temperature
in comparison to its surroundings. It also refers to region of intense activity of insects present in the
grain.

Hot spot in grain storage is due to a combination of factors, viz.:

28
 1. Temperature differential (the difference between the temperature of the grain and the
outside temperature)
2. Moisture accumulation
3. Grain respiration
4. Insect respiration
5. Presence of impurities in grain
6. Lot to lot variation in moisture content of the grain stored

The relation of these factors in the creation of hotspots is described next:

When such grain bulks (with varying moisture contents) are stored in containers or bins, higher
moisture at any localized spot increases the rate of respiration. Insects and microorganisms also
grow and respire. The storage fungi of importance are Cladosporium, Penicillium, and Aspergillus. Grains
may also contain ‘hidden insects’. The bacteria of importance in grain storage are mostly from the
Bacillus genus, e.g., Bacillus subtilis.

Grain is a poor conductor of heat. As such, heat does not dissipate or escape easily quickly in some
portions of the bulk. If high temperature differences exist in the bin as induced by solar radiation, air
convection currents are generated causing moisture migration. In this phenomenon, the convected
air (through the inter-granular space) picks up moisture from warmer grain and transfers this
moisture to the cooler grain where condensation of moisture would likely take place. This results in
grain damage which is attributed to molding, caking, rotting, and sprouting. This is considered
critical in areas where large seasonal changes in temperature exist. The respiration of insects, molds
and the grain itself also creates localized heating in the grain bulk which could also raise the
temperature of the region they occupied. This center of insect activity is known as the "hot spot".
The hotspot expands in size because insects migrate because of its high temperature and create
identical conditions alongside through further respiration. The water produced by respiration tends
to rise in the warm air of the hot spot and condenses in the cold grain. Both phenomena can cause
damage and loss due to mold infestation.

1 kg of water generated by this activity produces heat equal to 26,100 kJ. This amount of heat is 10.9
times the heat needed to change 1 kg of water from liquid to gaseous form!

The following figure summarizes the events occurring during hot spot formation in stored grains.

29
Maintaining a low temperature in the grain bulk can deter the development and growth of fungi and
could also inhibit insect infestation. Generally, at low temperature, the rate of multiplication of
insects is very low.

Aeration systems preserve stored grain and keep it dry by reducing the temperature of grain and
reducing moisture migration. Appropriate aeration can prevent convection currents and
condensation from occurring.

# S13. Discuss the basic principles of grain storage [5]

The primary aims of storing grains are normally as follows:

1. To maintain quality
2. Maintain supply of grain (because of seasonal nature)
3. To provide a reserve for contingencies such as droughts, floods, and war.
4. To speculate on high prices either in domestic or in the export market.
5. Retain viability for planting

The components of grain storage system are:

1. The stored product

2. The storage structure
3. The environmental factors
4. The storage pests
5. The personnel involved

The interrelationship of these five components or factors has been shown in the figure below:

30
 Storage structure
Personnel

Harmful Insect pests

environment

Stored product

Fig. 5 components of grain storage

Types of storage

Storage systems may be classified according to storage capacity, handling method or container
structural material, such as:

(1) Farm house storage: sacks, wooden boxes, drums, etc.

(2) Granary (sack or bulk handling): concrete, wooden, metal sheet, etc.
(3) Warehousing (indoor): sacks in piles, uncovered bulk container, etc.
(4) Silos (outdoor, vertical or horizontal): polygon bins, metal sheet, concrete, clay-straw, etc.,

Sometimes, storage structures are also classified as conventional and modern. The basic steps in grain
storage are outlined in the following figure.

Preparation of grain for storage

- Cleaning
- Screening
- Grading
Drying
- Sun drying
- Solar drying
- Batch drying
- Continuous drying
Addtional treatments
(using grain protectants, etc.)

Preparation of storage structure

Storage
- Listed earlier in the text
Storage management
Fig. Principles steps of grain storage

31
# S14. What are mycotoxins? How are they emanated? What intervention strategies are
needed to mitigate production of mycotoxins? [2+2.5+8]

First part (also discussed elsewhere earlier)

Mycotoxins are poisonous secondary metabolites produced by certain fungi. There are many such
compounds, but only a few of them are regularly found in food and animal feedstuffs such as grains
and seeds. Nevertheless, those that do occur in food have great significance in the health of humans
and livestock.

The effects of some food-borne mycotoxins are acute, symptoms of severe illness appearing very
quickly. Other mycotoxins occurring in food have longer term chronic or cumulative effects on
health, including the induction of cancers and immune deficiency.

Information about food-borne mycotoxins is far from complete, but enough is known to identify
them as a serious problem in many parts of the world, causing significant economic losses.

A list of mycotoxins that can occur quite often in grains is given below:

Mycotoxin Producing microorganism Grain implicated

Aflatoxins Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus Maize
Ochratoxin Penicillium and Aspergillus species Barley, wheat
Zearalenone Fusarium graminearum Maize, wheat
Deoxynivalenol /nivalenol Fusarium culmorum Maize, wheat, barley
Fumonisins Fusarium moniliformes Maize

Aflatoxins consist of aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, and G2. Aflatoxin B1 is the most toxic. When it finds its way
into milk, it is termed aflatoxin M1. Aflatoxin B1 is a potent carcinogen and has also been correlated to
liver cancer, teratogeny, etc. In India and Nepal, the tolerance limit of aflatoxin B1 is 30 ppb.

Aflatoxin B1

Second part

Because of many types of mycotoxins, specific modes of contamination conditions are different. In
general, conditions that favor growth of molds in grains during storage leads to danger of

32
mycotoxins production. According to literatures, storage of grains with high moisture content under
warm condition leads to mold growth and subsequent mycotoxins production.

Referring to Aspergillus flavus members, they are common and widespread in nature. They can
colonize and contaminate grain before harvest or during storage. Host crops, which include maize,
sorghum and peanuts, are particularly susceptible to infection by Aspergillus flavus following
prolonged exposure to high-humidity environment, or damage from stressful conditions such as
drought, a condition that lowers the barrier to entry. The native habitat of Aspergillus is soil, in
decaying vegetation, hay, and grains undergoing microbiological deterioration. It invades all types of
organic substrates whenever conditions are favorable for growth. Reports show that Aspergillus can
grow in the temperature range 8-40°C and moisture 16-30%. However, the aflatoxin production is
limited to 11-40°C and moisture 16-25%. Thus, growth of the mold does not always imply aflatoxin
production.

Third part

Toxin-producing fungi may invade at pre-harvesting period, harvest-time, during post-harvest

handling and in storage. In general, prevention of the contamination of fungi and their mycotoxins
in agricultural commodities can be divided into these following three levels.

1. Primary prevention

The step of prevention should be initially carried out before the fungal infestation and mycotoxins
contamination. This level of prevention is the most important and effective plan for reducing fungal
growth and mycotoxin production. Several practices have been recommended to keep the
conditions unfavorable for any fungal growth. These include using fungal-resistant varieties of
growing plants, control of field infection, proper drying and storage of grains, etc. In particular,
mycotoxin producing fungi do not grow at water activity (aw) < 0.7.

2. Secondary prevention

If the invasion of some fungi begins in commodities at early phase, this level of prevention will then
be required. The existing toxigenic-fungi should be eliminated or its growth to be stopped to
prevent further deterioration and mycotoxin contamination. Several measures may be used, for
example, redrying of products to stop the fungal growth, removal of contaminated seeds,
inactivation or detoxification of mycotoxins, etc.

3. Tertiary prevention

Once the products are heavily infested by toxic fungi, the primary and secondary preventions would
not be then feasible. However, some measures should be done to prevent the transfer of fungi and
their health hazardous toxins highly contaminated in products into our daily foods and environment.
Some of the few practices include complete destruction of contaminated products, detoxification or
destruction of mycotoxin to the minimal level.

33
Fungal growth inhibition

The inhibition of fungal growth can be achieved by physical, chemical and biological treatments.
After the crops have been harvested, drying and proper storage and suitable transportation of the
commodities are of prime importance. Several favorable factors contribute to the growth of fungi
and aflatoxin production, namely high moisture content, humid climate, warm temperature (25-
40°C), insect infestation and pest damage. Many means and measures to prevention of fungal
contamination have been emphasized and practically done. Drying seeds and commodities to the
safe moisture levels (< 9% for peanut kernel, and < 13.5% for corn), maintenance of the container
or warehouse at low temperature and humidity, keeping out insects and pests from the storage, and
Gamma-irradiation of large-scale commodities are some of the physical treatments proposed.

In the chemical treatments with synthetic fungicides, use of organic acids (propionic, butyric,
malonic, benzoic, sorbic, lactic, citric and their sodium salts), sodium chloride, fumigants (ammonia
and phosphine), plant herbs (Plumbago indica, black pepper, etc.), onion and garlic extracts (allicin and
related substances), chitosan, etc., are some of the techniques available.

Decontamination of mycotoxins

Foods and feeds contaminated with mycotoxins should be removed, inactivated or detoxified by
physical, chemical and biological means depending on the conditions. However, the treatment has
its own limitations, since the treated products should be health-safe from the chemicals used and
their essential nutritive value should not be deteriorated. The following methods are suggested to be
applied for effective decontamination of some mycotoxins.

• Physically, fungi-contaminated seeds can be removed by hand picking or photoelectric

detecting machines. The method would consume time and labor or expensive.
• Organic solvents (chloroform, acetone, hexane and methanol) have been used to extract
aflatoxins for agricultural products, but mainly in vegetable oil refining process.
• Heating and cooking under pressure can destroy nearly 70% of aflatoxin in rice compared to
under atmospheric pressure only 50% destroyed. Dry and oil roastings can reduce about 50-
70% of aflatoxin B1. Since aflatoxin resists to higher temperature up to 260°C, long-time
cooking and overheating would destruct essential vitamins and amino acids in treated foods.
• Ionizing radiation such as gamma-rays can stop growth of food spoilage organisms,
including worms and insect pests but cannot completely destroy the toxin and its
mutagenicity at normal dose of 1-5Mrad.
• Chemical treatment has been used as the most effective means for the removal of
mycotoxins from contaminated commodities. The method should be sure that the
detoxification system is capable of converting the toxin to a nontoxic derivative(s) without
deleterious change in the raw product. Many common chemicals have been brought to test
the effectiveness in detoxification of aflatoxin. These chemicals include acetic acid,
ammonia, formaldehyde, hydrogen peroxide, methylamine, phosphine, phosphoric acid, etc.

34
# S15. Describe the major factors associated with infestation on grains. What are the
practicable measures for grain protection in various ecological regions of Nepal? [2+3]

First part

Grains in storage can be infested by insects, microorganisms (mainly molds), and rodents. A number
of biotic and abiotic factors and their interactions are responsible for insect multiplication and
subsequent grain damage. According to Bhargava and Kumawat (2010), major factors responsible
for enhancement of insect damage are:

1. High grain moisture content due to prevailing high atmospheric humidity generally above
the safe moisture level (14% for paddy, 13% for milled rice, etc.)
2. Fewer fluctuations in diurnal and seasonal temperatures.
3. Unscientific fabricated or constructed traditional storage structures with are neither
moisture-proof nor can prevent cross infestation of the insects.

Insect damage as well as the events such as hot spot formation due to improper storage practice
and/or environmental changes promotes mold growth and subsequent mycotoxin formation.
Unsanitary conditions, small holes, etc., in the storage structure or premise attract rodents that eat
away grains and drop filth.

Second part

Nepal has three main ecological regions, running east to west, viz., (i) mountains, (ii) hills, and (iii)
terai. The measures that can be applied to protect grains in these areas are different because of
variations in:

• Climate
• Major grain produced
• Granary type
• Level of operation
• Access to technical input

The simplest preventive measure applicable to all cases is adequate drying of grains, minimal damage
during harvest and storage, separate storage for new and old grains, and sanitation and hygiene. A
brief discussion on storage of grains in different ecological regions is given below.

Mountain region

Millet, buckwheat, maize, etc., are the major crops of the Himalayan regions. Since these are barely
subsistence crops, they are not stored for longer than 4 months. The most practicable measures for
this region are the use of low-cost bins and storage huts. Readily available herbal mixtures such as
Artemisia (titepati), Zanthoxylum (timur) can be used as grain protectants. Acoruscalamus (bojho),
although very effective, has been banned by FDA because it is carcinogenic. However, it can be
used for seed grains.

35
Hills

The measures applied for storage in the mountains apply here also. The scale of operation is larger
but still predominantly on-farm storage. Paddy can be stored (after drying) in storage huts, wooden
or bamboo structures called bhakari. Because of easy access to cities, chemical grain protectants can
also be used. Depending on grain type, bags (for paddy) or cribs (for maize) may be used. Storage of
maize in cribs has been regarded as a very successful measure against aflatoxin production.

Terai

The climate is very hot and humid. There is maximum chance of insect infestation and mold growth.
Preventive measures such as adequate drying, cleaning of storage structures and bags, etc., can be
used. The major grains are paddy/rice and maize. The storage systems range from very simple on-
farm storage to storage in mills, and government-owned large godowns. Chemical grain protectants
can be used. Such large scale operations must have facilities for fumigation, controlling rodents and
birds. Grasses can be burnt inside solid wall bins and mud-plastered baskets to kill of insects and
mold spores.

# S16. Describe, in brief, the methodology for determining the MRLs of pesticides in food
grains in Nepal. [4]

Pesticides are toxic in nature and do not differentiate between targeted and non-targeted species,
and hence should essentially be subject to safe and judicious use.

In Nepal, there exists provision of standards setting for the pesticide residue limits ensuring the food
safety. Fixing MRLs on pesticide residues is carried out by standardization committee. The
committee may invite, where considered necessary, an expert in the concerned field, to take part, as
an observer, in the meeting of the committee. The committee may form, as necessary, a sub-
committee for any specific function. The committee may frame necessary by-laws to set its
procedures. Provided, however, that such by-laws shall come into force only upon approval of the
Government of Nepal. Till 2008, Government of Nepal has set the mandatory pesticide residue
limits for 36 pesticides as per Food Law and Regulation. The name of pesticides, food commodity,
and their MRLs are notified for public in Nepal Gazette.

A diagrammatic representation of the methodology for fixing MRLs in food grains is given below.

36
 Technical sub-committee for standardization Food Standardization Committee

Identification of food commodity that Endorsement of proposed

standard in Standardization Committee Amendment of
need to set standard standard by
Committee as
Collection of samples from different Approve the food standard necessary
geographical region
Recommend for notification
Analysis of sample
WTO notification
Study of analytical report and
reference materials, information Notification to WTO member
and standards After Amendment of
WTO member countries for their comments standard as per
comments on
Preparation of draft standard scientific basis
Process for Nepal
Gazette publication
Endorsement of draft standard in
Technical sub-committee
Nepal Gazette publication
Propose the standard to Publication of Food Standard in
Standardization Committee Nepal Gazette through NOAC

Fig. Pesticide MRLs determination process of Nepal

# S17. How do you recognize rodent pest infestation? Describe the implication of filth
contamination of food in international trade. [2.5+2.5]

Rodent infestation can be identified by inspecting:

• Smears: These are gray marks left on surfaces by repeated contact with the oils in the mouse
fur
• Rodent droppings around food packages, in drawers or cupboards, and under the sink
• Nestling material such as shredded paper, fabric, or dried plant matter
• Signs of gnawing/chewing of food packaging
• Holes chewed through walls and floors that create entry points into the home
• Stale smells coming from hidden areas

The traditional domain of inspecting and analyzing the end product does not necessarily meet the
requirement of emerging trade regime of WTO and related agreements such as the SPS (sanitary and
phytosanitary) and TBT (technical barrier to trade) agreements.

Filth contamination (also termed filth adulteration) has greater relevance to SPS measures, which
refers to any of the laws, rules, standards, and procedures that governments employ to protect
humans, other animals, and plants from diseases, pests, toxins, and other contaminants. Inability to
comply with the SPS rules is considered a violation of basic rules of international trade and is
therefore subject to barrier to trade.

37
Filth contamination has become the greatest problem facing developing countries in their efforts to
expand food and agriculture exports to developing countries. US FDA Statistics (1997) reveals that
filth contamination was the main factor for detention and rejection of food consignments in the
international trade. The filth contamination comprises of hair, rodent excreta and urine,
decomposed substance or otherwise unfit for food. Filth contaminants are potential carries of
diseases and the food implicated ranges from spices to seafood.

Thus, addressing the filth problem could be the single most important improvement, something that
is easily understood by all stakeholders.

# S18. How do you determine deterioration of wheat grains in sites? [5]

Visual inspection is the first approach to determining grain soundness, with particular attention to
signs of sprouting, and fungal or insect damage (Wrigley and Batey, 2003).The status of storage can
be assessed by measuring temperature at different points in the grain mass. Increase in temperature
above the initially stored temperature indicates deterioration. This may be due to grain respiration,
microbial activity or insects. When the temperature reaches around 50°C food grains are killed and
respiration begins to stop. Increase in temperature above 50°C is due to microorganisms. Further
changes and destruction continue due to development of bacteria and fungi until a temperature of
70 to 80°C is attained. Electrical resistant properties change with deterioration and this can be
measured using electrical resistance probes.

When wheat deteriorates during storage, many chemical changes occur. Under normal storage
conditions (low humidity, moderate temperatures) the changes occur slowly, but with unfavorable
conditions the changes can be rapid. Changes are due to inherent metabolic processes in the wheat
grain, especially in the germ, and to invasion by microorganisms. It appears that fungi are involved
to some degree in all cases of grain spoilage in storage, but yeasts and bacteria are not involved
except in extreme cases.

Among the chemical changes associated with wheat deterioration, the extent to which fats have been
hydrolyzed by lipases has been used as a criterion of soundness; this is usually determined by
measuring the fatty acid content.

Mold growth can be recognized as white, grey, black or green discoloration on the grain surface.
Other signs of the presence of mold are:

• dustiness of grain;
• caking of grain;
• feed refusal by animals for no apparent reason;
• a bad and moldy musty smell
• darkening of grain

38
# S19. Describe the sigmoid curve for illustrating adsorption system of water by cereal grain
in the water sorption isotherm. Characterize the phenomenon of bound water in improving
storability of paddy grain. [12.5]

First part

Along with the intrinsic drying kinetics, in order to describe the drying process and its effects on
water activity, which controls the biological change in storage, a sound knowledge of the relationship
between equilibrium moisture content (EMC) and equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) is essential.
This relationship is described by the EMC/ERH sorption isotherm equations.

More than 200 EMC/ERH equations are available. However, no single equation has the ability to
describe accurately the EMC/ERH relationships for various grains over a broad range of relative
humidity and temperature. A typical adsorption isotherm for parboiled rice is shown below:

30

25

20

15

10

0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0
Water activity
Fig. Moisture sorption isotherm of parboiled rice at 34oC

Description

The sorption isotherm curves of almost all cereals show sigmoid curve characteristics of Type II
isotherm (as shown in the figure, the graph obtained using BET model). This indicates that the
adsorption that occurs in cereals is typically a non-Langmuir, multilayer adsorption and cereals are of
a microcapillary structure. In addition, the adsorption in cereal samples decreases as temperature is
increased.

The moisture sorption characteristic of an agricultural material describes its equilibrium moisture
content at any relative humidity and the ability for moisture exchange between the agricultural
material and its environment (Chukwu and Ajisegiri 2006). When grains, including rice, absorb water
they undergo changes in their constitution, dimension, phase transformation, and storage and
processing requirements. These changes become relevant in storage studies since environmental
factors such as relative humidity and temperature are very much different in different locations.
These factors are critical for the storage stability or shelf-life of grains. The knowledge of moisture-

39
sorption phenomena of these grains is a basic requirement for the design of the dehydration and the
processing equipment and shelf-life prediction

Second part

An important characteristic of the excellent storability of grains is their low moisture content.
Moisture then, is an important to assess and control in arresting/minimizing deterioration in quality
during storage.

Biological systems contain free and bound water, both contributing to factors such as cereal quality,
taste and storage properties. Bound or combined water is associated with other components in the
cereal and cannot be easily removed by drying. The bound water is a minor part of the total water
content of the food. Absolute determination of bound water is difficult but water activity (Aw: vapor
pressure P of food/vapor pressure Po of water) can be measured. A low Aw signifies a higher
proportion of the water is bound. Raw cereal is a less-watery food whereas cooked cereals are
medium or more watery foods.

The Aw necessary for the growth of microbes is around 0.95 for bacteria, 0.85 for yeast and 0.75 for
mold. Thus raw cereals are resistant to microorganisms but most processed cereal foods are not.
Lipid oxidation, non-enzymatic browning and other reactions occur more at high Aw as found in the
cereal prepared for consumption.

# SP20. Describe the changes in carbohydrates during storage of grain products. [5]

Grains contain more than 65% carbohydrate predominantly starch. Small amounts of
oligosaccharides and monosaccharides of hexose and pentose are also present. The carbohydrate of
quantitative importance is therefore starch, which further consists of amylose and amylopectin.
Discussion will therefore be limited to:

1. The fate of starch ingrain during storage

2. The fate of starch ingrain products during storage.

Fate of starch in grain during storage

Crystallinity of starch increases with storage time and occurs at the highest rate and to the greatest
extent in storage at 4°C. This leads to what is termed retrogradation. Retrogradation is very sensitive to
water content in starch gels, and is maximum at around 50-60% starch content.

Fate of starch in grain products during cooking

The changes in starch that occurs during cooking/baking/parboiling, etc., can be described under
following headings:

1. Gelatinization
This refers to the irreversible loss of the crystalline regions in starch granules that occur upon
heating in the presence of water. Gelatinization dramatically increases the availability of starch for
digestion by amylolytic enzymes.

40
 2. Retrogradation

Gelatinized starch is not in thermodynamic equilibrium. There is, therefore, a progressive re-
association of the starch molecules upon aging. This recrystallization is referred to as retrogradation,
and may reduce digestibility of the starch. The retrogradation of amylopectin is a long-term
phenomenon occurring gradually upon storage of starchy foods. Amylose, however, re-associates
more quickly. Since the retrograded starch is resistant to amylase attack, it is also called resistant starch.

The staling of bread (the bread becomes firm upon storage) is attributed, at least in part, to
retrogradation of starch during storage of baked product.

3. Parboiling

During parboiling of rice, the kernels are subjected to a pre-treatment involving heating and drying.
This process reduces the stickiness of the rice, possibly by allowing leached amylose to retrograde
and/or form inclusion complexes with polar lipids on the kernel surface.

4. Starch-texturization

In pasta products, gluten forms a viscoelastic network that surrounds the starch granules, which
restricts swelling and leaching during boiling. Here also, significant amounts of resistant starch are
formed.

5. Dietary fiber

During milling of cereal grains to refined flours the outer fiber-rich layers are removed, resulting in a
lower content of total dietary fiber (which means increase in starch counterpart). Heat treatment
may affect the dietary fiber in different ways, including breakdown of glycosidic bonds.

6. Maillard browning

Reducing sugars combine with amino acids and proteins to form brown coloration in baked
products. This coloration is due to Maillard reaction.

# S21. Relate the interrelationship between dormancy and germination property of seed
grain. [5]

Seed dormancy is defined as a state in which seeds are prevented from germinating even under
environmental conditions normally favorable for germination. These conditions are a complex
combination of water, light, temperature, gases, mechanical restrictions, seed coats, and hormone
structures.

Experts classify dormancy into various types, such (i) Physiological dormancy (PD), (ii)
Morphological dormancy (MD), (iii) Morphophysiological dormancy (MPD), (iv) Physical dormancy
(PY), and (v) combinational dormancy (PY+PD).

41
Whatever the dormancy type, it should not just be associated with the absence of germination;
rather it is a characteristic of the seed that determines the conditions required for germination. When
dormancy is considered in this way, any environmental cue (stimulus) that alters the conditions
required for germination is by definition altering dormancy, which may not be true. Also by
extension, when the seed no longer requires specific environmental cues it is non-dormant, which
again may not be true.

Dormancy is a seed characteristic which defines the conditions required for germination and
therefore any cue that widens the environmental requirements for germination should be regarded
as a dormancy release factor. A wide range of factors can therefore alter (physiological) seed
dormancy, e.g. temperature, light, nitrate or naturally occurring chemical signals (ABA and four
other terpenes) in leachate from litter that covers the seeds in their habitat. However, there is an
important distinction in the seeds response to these factors.

o There are factors that are related to slow seasonal change. These factors (e.g. temperature) are
integrated over time to alter the depth of dormancy, and the sensitivity to other factors (e.g.
light).
o There are other factors that indicate in a more immediate way that conditions are suitable for
germination (e.g. light), which could be considered to terminate dormancy and therefore induce
germination. Each of these factors therefore remove successive blocks to germination, but this
process usually needs to be carried out in a set order for it to work, i.e. in the process described
light must come last to be effective.

# S22. How does Aspergillus flavus invade grains and produce aflatoxin? [5]

Aspergillus flavusis found globally as a sporophyte in soils and causes diseases on many important
agricultural crops. Common hosts of the pathogen are cereal grains, legumes, and peanuts.

Conidia of A. flavus are said to be the primary inoculum for the mold. The conidia can land on and
infect either grains or legumes. The spores enter the corn through the silks and thus infect the
kernel. In both grains and legumes, infection is minimized to small areas, and discoloration and
dullness of affected areas is often seen. Growth is rapid and colonies appear downy or powdery in
texture. Hypheal growth usually occurs by thread-like branching and produces mycelia. Once
established, the mycelium secretes degradative enzymes or proteins which can break down complex
nutrients.

Specifically, A. flavus causes ear rot in corn and yellow mold in peanuts either before or after harvest.
Infection can be present in the field, preharvest, post-harvest, during storage, and during transit. It is
common for the mold to originate while host crops are still in the field. A. flavus has the potential to
infect seedlings by sporulation on injured seeds. In grains, the pathogen can invade seed embryos
and cause infection, which decreases germination and can lead to infected seeds planted in the field.
The mold can also discolor embryos, damage seedlings, and kill seedlings, which reduce the price of
the grains. The incidence of A. flavus infection increases in the presence of insects and any type of
stress on the host in the field as well as a result of damage. Stresses include stalk rot, drought, severe
leaf damage, and/or less than ideal storage conditions. Generally, excessive moisture conditions and
high temperatures of storage grains and legumes increase the occurrence of A. flavus toxin
production.

42
# S23. Explain the ecology of insects and pests in stored grains. [2.5]

The answer to this question is too long. It should have at least 5 marks!!!

Pest ecology is the study of factors that regulate the distribution and abundance of pests. It also
includes their interactions and associations with the various biotic and abiotic environments.

The common pests of stored grains are:

• Rusty grain beetles (Cryptolestes sp)

• Lesser grain borer (Rhizopertha dominica):
• Rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae)
• Sawtoothed grain beetle (Oryzaephilus surinamensis)

The common rodents of stored grains are:

• Norway rat (Rattus novegicus)

• House mouse (Mus musculus)

Rusty grain beetles are the most common species that infest stored wheat, and the lesser grain borer
and rice weevil are the most damaging. The sawtoothed grain beetles are found less frequently but
they can reach high densities.

Mice and rats eat and contaminate the grains. The contamination is about 10 times the amount of
grain they consume. In one year, a pair of house mice will shed ~ 10,000 droppings and 475 ml
urine. They also spread several diseases and create conditions favorable for mold and bacteria
development. Rats are intelligent and communal animals but mice are territorial and cannot tolerate
any other mice (and rats) in their territory.

Insect pests of grain range from grain feeders to fungal feeders and obligatory to facultative types.
Insects are generally not found in newly harvested grains. Grain is more likely to become heavily
infested if a bin is close to other bins storing infested grain. The dispersal of rusty grain beetles and
red flour beetles in to the grain mass results in an exponential decrease in the number of insects
from top to bottom. Lesser grain borer is less mobile and remains near the surface in the center of
the bin.

Insect population growth is most rapid when grain is warm and moist and therefore shows a
seasonal trend: the populations infesting grain stored increase steadily over the summer until the
grain begins to cool in the fall. A typical example is shown in the accompanying figure.

43
There occur changes in the proportion of insects in different developmental stages. For example,
after several generations, the population of rusty grain beetle approaches a stable age distribution,
with a ratio of 15 immatures for every adult. Because only the adults in grain samples are generally
counted, actual insect population densities are often underestimated.

Under favorable conditions (30°C and 70% RH) competition strongly affects the success of pest
populations. For example, Oryzaephilus surinamensis is unable to compete successfully with the
other insect species and an increase in most species is inhibited by the presence of other species
competing for food and living space. The whole-seed feeders S. oryzae and R. dominica often
initially benefit the broken-seed feeders T. castaneum, C. ferrugineus, and O. surinamensis by
breaking wheat kernels open, but population pressure soon reverses this trend (White and Sinha
1980).

The distribution of insects in bulk grain is typically non-uniform and is determined by gradients
of temperature and moisture, distribution of dockage and broken grain, and insect inter- and
intra-species interactions. Rhyzopertha dominica and S. granarius are rarely found in grain bulks
below 127 and 63 cm, respectively, (Keever, 1983) while C. ferrugineus moves downward in a
grain mass (White and Loschiavo, 1986).

Note: If the question bears more marks, add this remark and the figure below: “Understanding of
the pest ecology requires concept of food web of pests and other species of stored cereal grains. A
generalized representation for the same is given in the accompanying figure”.

44
# S24. Elucidate the principle and operation of evaporative cooling system in cellar storage
of fruits and vegetables. [5]

Evaporative cooling system is also termed zero energy cooling because no electrical and/or mechanical
energy is needed for its operation.

This method is based on the cooling effect created by evaporation of water when dry air is blown
over the wet product. In the process of evaporation, water absorbs latent heat of vaporization (2260
kJ/kg) from dry air to change its phase from liquid to vapor. The method is suited to areas where
low ambient humidity (<65% RH) air is readily available. This is a relatively inexpensive method
suitable to precool produce that require relatively warmer storage temperatures, such as tomatoes
and cucumber.

The principle can be translated into several designs, such as pot design, almirah design, static design,
etc. A very simple, low-cost conceptual design using locally available materials is shown in the
accompanying figure. The roof, which can be made from locally available paddy or wheat straw, has
not been shown. For operating the system, the commodity is placed in the chamber in trays/baskets
and the sand is kept permanently wet by continuously dripping water on the sand. The cooling
effect occurs when water from the sand evaporates. Depending on the humidity and temperature of
the surrounding, a temperature difference of 7-8°C and extension of shelf life by 2-4 folds can be
achieved by evaporative cooling system.

The system is suitable for tomato, cucumber, okra, guava, mango, lime, beans, etc.

45
# S25. Explain with diagram the moisture migration in the grain bin with cooler
surrounding air and warmer surrounding air. [12.5]

You may find the answer almost the same as in the case of hot spot formation but you will have to
elaborate on the fundamental difference. Following is an example:

When the grain bins are exposed to warmer or cooler surrounding air for extended periods of time,
such as in summer and winter, the bin surface gets warmer or cooler than the central part. This
temperature difference leads to development of natural convective air current inside the bin (30-60%
air space within the grain mass), and thus the slow movement of both moisture and air from warmer
part of the grain to the colder parts.

A bin grain has 30-60% air space within the grain mass, and this air surrounding the grain is at the
same temperature as the grain. When the bins are exposed to cooler surrounding air, a drop in
temperature occurs in the grain and air near the bin walls. This temperature differential between the
grain at the center and that at the bin walls creates a convective current in the air. Cooling causes the
air to become heavier and settle toward the bin floor. As the air moves toward the bin floor, and
then into the center of the bin, it becomes warmer and lighter. This causes the air to rise through the
warm grain where it continues to increase in temperature. As the air increases in temperature, it
moisture-holding capacity increases and it begins to absorb small amounts of moisture.

The slowly moving air rises into the cooler grain mass in the upper portion of the bin where the air
is cooled. Some of the moisture in the air is deposited in the grain by both moisture condensation
onto the cold grain surfaces and by moisture diffusion into the cooler grain. As a result, a high
moisture region is formed at the surface of the grain bulk (shown in figure).

46
When the bin is exposed to warm surrounding air for extended periods, a reverse convective air
current develops (as shown in figure). The warm air, along with moisture, moves up along the bin
walls and then down to the bottom through the center. The moist air eventually cools at the bottom
of the bin and creates a region of high moisture region at the center (bottom) of the bin.

Warm air Warm air Cold air Cold air

High
moisture

Warm grain
Cold grain

High
moisture

Fig. Moisture migration in stored grain:

(left) when outdoor temperatures are greater than the grain temperatures:
(right) when the outdoor temperatures are lower than the grain temperature

It may be noted that moisture migration resulting from insect activity (hot spot) is accompanied by generation of energy
due to respiration (and therefore heating up of the grain mass). Moisture migration due to warmer or cooler
surrounding air does not generate energy, and this is the fundamental difference.

The above figures are only oversimplified representation of moisture migration phenomenon in
grain bulk in bins. Many researchers have tried to develop mathematical models for the prediction of
moisture migration in stored grains due to temperature gradients, but without much success. Very
limited validations of the predicted moisture migration have been reported. According to Gough et
al (1990), the shape of convection current does not have to be toroidal (as given in the figure above).
Air movement should be downward near the wall and upward in the central column without
forming a closed loop. The air rising in the central column would disperse in the headspace by
diffusion after releasing its moisture to the grain. The same air may not necessarily return near the
wall. According to researchers, for moisture migration when outdoor temperatures are higher than
the grain temperatures, air currents may not form closed loops in the grain or headspace.

47
# S26. Define infestation. How would you select the proper method of disinfestation?
Explain one method of disinfestation in detail. [12.5]

First part

Already given elsewhere, but briefly again,

The term ‘infestation’ has been defined variously, depending on the context. In grain storage,
infestation refers to the state being invaded and overrun by pests, which include insects and rodents.
Examples are attack of grain by weevils, fungi, mouse, etc.

In a much broader sense, infestation imply invasion by any organism injurious to stored foodstuffs
of all types (especially grains and pulses), including vegetables, fruits, seeds and diverse types of plant
and animal materials stored for human purpose, including a wide range of prepared foods.

Second part

As such, grains can be disinfected by physical, chemical, and various other alternative methods, such
as integrated pest management (IPM) approach. The selection of proper method depends on various
factors, including:

• Grain type (maize, wheat, rice, etc.)

• The grain storage structure (silos, mud bins, bags, etc.)
• The extent of infestation by pests
• The pest type (rodents, molds, insects, etc.)
• Pest control objectives and constraints
• Intended use of the grain (for seed or food)
• The object to be treated (the pest or the storage space, walls, etc.)

A few example of the selection of disinfestation methods are as follows:

• Space treatments: Aerosols or vapors are used. They are quite distinct from true fumigations.
Example – pyrethrins with or without synergists
• Grain protectants: May have repellents or insecticidal properties and may be traditional or
synthetic (commercial). Examples: Malathion (EC), and Primiphos-methyl (EC).
• Fumigation: To obtain more-or-less immediate disinfestation of commodity and space
enclosing.
• Contact dusts: Kept in runways frequented by house mouse. The mouse ingests this poison
while grooming.

Third part

Treatment of grain by fumigation

Fumigation is a method of pest control that completely fills an area with gaseous
pesticides(fumigants) to suffocate or poison the pests within. It is used to control pests in buildings

48
(structural fumigation), soil, grain, and produce, and is also used during processing of goods to be
imported or exported to prevent transfer of exotic organisms.

Fumigation generally involves the following phases:

1. The area intended to be fumigated is usually covered to create a sealed environment; next
the fumigant is released into the space to be fumigated
2. The space is held for a set period while the fumigant gas percolates through the space and
acts on and kills any infestation in the product
3. The space is ventilated so that the poisonous gases are allowed to escape from the space, and
render it safe for humans to enter.

If successful, the fumigated area is now safe and pest free.

Example: Using methyl bromide or phosphine for grains stored in bags.

For grain stored in bags, the usual method is to cover the bags with a tarpaulin whose edges are
sealed to the ground or the walls. The effectiveness of fumigation depends, on the one hand, on the
actual concentration of the gas and, on the other, on the length of time during which the grain is
fumigated.

Depending on whether methyl bromide or phosphine is used, the duration of fumigation should
be24 to 48 hours for methyl bromide, or a minimum of five days for phosphine. The latter product
is more commonly used, since its application, in the form of pellets spread throughout the grain
mass, is the simpler.

It is essential to recognize, however, that fumigants are very poisonous to people and therefore the
staff that is to use them must be carefully trained in their application. For all these treatments, it is
important to scrupulously observe the recommended protective and safety measures (masks, gloves,
hand-washing, hermetic sealing of phosphine containers, etc.).

# S27. What types of microorganisms are found in stored grains? How do they deteriorate
the products? Explain. [2+3]

First part

Molds, yeasts and bacteria all are found in stored grains. However, their profile depends on many
factors, including the storage microenvironment in the bin (mainly, temperature and moisture) and
the extent of initial contamination. Some of the genera and species representing each group are as
follows:

Mold: Aspergillus oryzae, A. flavus, A. parasiticus, Penicillium, Fusarium spp

Yeast: Several authors make note of the genus Candida found on most of the damp grains and seed
grains stored in airtight silos.

49
Bacteria: The bacterial species that occur commonly on stored grains are generally non-pathogenic,
though contamination with pathogens such as Salmonella, Bacillus u can occur. The non-pathogens
include bacteria such as Bacillus mesentericus and Serratia marcescens, which are responsible for the
conditions “ropey bread” and “bleeding bread”, respectively.

Second part

At the very onset, a distinction between food deterioration and food spoilage needs to be made. Experts
consider “food deterioration” as more benign because the food is still edible, despite some quality
loss. Spoilage is a stricter term where the food becomes inedible. In grain storage, insect infestation
generally leads to food deterioration while infestation with Aspergillus flavus renders the grain
unsuitable for consumption (hence spoiled). In this discussion, both deterioration and spoilage will
be considered together.

1. Alteration of color or texture

• Discoloration: Fungal/bacterial pigments, chemical changes, browning reactions due to
microbial heating
• Caking: Fungal growth
• Physical deterioration: Growth of fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes
2. Unpalatability
• Fermentation: Acid and gas produced from carbohydrates
• Putridity and protein breakdown: Objectionable flavors and odors produced
• Rancidity: Objectionable odors and flavors produced by fat hydrolysis and oxidation
3. Production of toxic chemicals
• Carcinogens: Aflatoxin formed by fungi on food
• Toxic chemicals: Produced by microorganisms that may cause chronic or acute toxicity
if eaten
4. Transmission of disease
• Salmonellosis: Due to presence of Salmonella
5. Alteration of germinative properties
• Loss of seed vigor and ability to germinate
6. Loss in nutritive value
• Loss in carbohydrate, proteins and vitamins

# S28. Write down the biology of stored insect pests with special reference to wheat. [5]

The insects of importance in stored wheat are:

• Larger grain borer (Prostephanus truncatus): Primary pests (grain feeders), adults are black or
brown and cylindrical in shape, produces holes in the grain.
• Lesser grain borer (Rhizopertha dominica): Primary pests, adults are dark reddish brown (3 mm
long), immobile at maturity, make holes and produces large amounts of flour
• Granary weevil (Sitophilus granaries): Primary pest, adults are uniformly dark brown colored (5
mm long), adults unable to fly

50
• Rusty grain beetle (Crytolestes ferrugeneus): Primary pest, adults are flat and reddish brown (2 mm
long), damage is not readily identifiable
• Red flour beetle (Tribulium castaneum): Primary pest, adults are small and reddish (4 mm long),
attacks germs, consumes dead insects.

Insects considered as primary pests of stored products cause damage to stored grains by directly
feeding on the gran at some point in their life cycle. Primary pests will attack grains that are intact
and stable. Whole sound grain is stable when its temperature and moisture content are below the
levels needed for germination. Primary pest species often develop and reproduce very quickly when
the conditions are optimal. This allows for large populations and, therefore, considerable damage to
ensue within a matter of few months.

Many species of stored product beetles feed internally in grain kernels as larvae. Rusty grain beetles,
weevils, and lesser grain borer all develop initially inside the kernel. Of the moths, only the
Angoumois grain moth is an internal feeder.

# S29. Which part of insect is responsible for resistance to chemicals? How do they resist?
[5]

First part

At the root, the mutated gene is responsible for development in resistance to chemicals. If the insect
repeatedly survives the insecticide used, a stable and spontaneous alteration in genetic makeup
occurs whereby the insect and its offspring evolve to be resistant to the insecticide used.

Some authors mention insect cuticle (for cuticular penetration) as the part responsible for chemical
resistance. However, this appears to be a less common mechanism than those described below.
Reduced penetration alone generally results in only low intensities of resistance, but when combined
with increased metabolic resistance or decreased target-site sensitivity it can result in very intense
resistances.

Second part

There are a number of ways insects can become resistant to insecticidal chemicals:

1. Metabolic resistance

Resistant insects may detoxify or destroy the toxin faster than susceptible insects, or quickly rid their
bodies of the toxic molecules. Metabolic resistance is the most common mechanism and often
presents the greatest challenge. Insects use their internal enzyme systems to break down insecticides.
Resistant strains may possess higher levels or more efficient forms of these enzymes. In addition to
being more efficient, these enzyme systems also may have a broad spectrum of activity (i.e., they can
degrade many different insecticides).

51
 2. Target-site resistance

The target site where the insecticide acts in the insect may be genetically modified to prevent the
insecticide binding or interacting at its site of action thereby reducing or eliminating the pesticidal
effect of the insecticide.

3. Penetration resistance

Resistant insects may absorb the toxin more slowly than susceptible insects. Penetration resistance
occurs when the insect’s outer cuticle develops barriers which can slow absorption of the chemicals
into their bodies. This can protect insects from a wide range of insecticides. Penetration resistance is
frequently present along with other forms of resistance, and reduced penetration intensifies the
effects of those other mechanisms.

4. Behavioral resistance

Resistant insects may detect or recognize a danger and avoid the toxin. This mechanism of
resistance has been reported for several classes of insecticides, including organochlorines,
organophosphates, carbamates and pyrethroids. Insects may simply stop feeding if they come across
certain insecticides, or leave the area where spraying occurred.

Very often, cross resistance and multiple resistances develop in insects, in which the insects are resistant to
between two and five different classes of chemicals.

# SP30. Name mycotoxin-producing microorganisms in stored maize. What are the

problems associated with mycotoxin? 2+3

The mycotoxins reported to occur is maize and the associated problems due to these are:

Mycotoxin Fungi associated Symptoms/toxicology

Aflatoxin Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus liver necrosis, liver tumors, reduced
growth, depressed immune response,
carcinogen
Fumonisin Fusarium moniliforme, F. proliferatum equine leukoencephalomalacia, porcine
pulmonary edema
Deoxynivalenol F. graminearum feed refusal, reduced weight gain,
(DON) diarrhea, vomiting
Trichothecenes F. graminearum, F. culmorum, F. poae alimentary toxic aleukia, necrosis,
hemorrhages, oral lesion in broiler
chickens
Ochratoxins Penicillium verrucosum, Aspergillus porcine nephropathy; various
ochraceus symptoms in poultry
Citrinin Penicillium sp., Aspergillus sp. kidney damage
Cyclopiazonic acid Penicillium sp., Aspergillus sp. neurotoxin
Sterigmatocystin Aspergillus sp., and others carcinogen, mutagen

52
# S31. How can you control grain moth in seed grain? How do they damage grain? 3+2

Grain moth (Plodia interpunctella) is also variously called Indianmeal moth, pantry moth, weevil moth,
flour moth, etc.

The Indian mealmoth larvae can infest a wide range of dry foodstuffs of vegetable origin, such as
cereal, bread, pasta, rice, flour, spices, or dried fruits and nuts.

Control

The first step to control the grain moth is to eliminate moth using moth trap and repellents. There
are various types of moth traps available, such as sticky traps, attractant traps, suction traps, etc. The
non-toxic attractant traps are considered very effective. These traps contain sex pheromone which
they cannot resist. Male moths are attracted inside by the female pheromone (the lure) and then get
stuck against the sticky walls inside of the box. The traps will catch the adult stages of any moth as
they hatch from their pupae cocoons.

The next step is to locate the infested site or food. A thorough clean-up of cracks and crevices goes
a long way in controlling any type of grain moth. In severe cases, aerosols containing cypermethrin
can be used.

Thus it is recommended to first eliminate the source of infestation followed by larvae, eggs and
eventual moths in the environment.

How moths damage grain

The female moths deposit eggs on grain kernels. Larvae emerging from the eggs eat through the
kernel and begin feeding on the endosperm or germ. To assist penetrating the kernel, the larvae
sometimes spin a cocoon that they use for leverage. Larvae then pupate within the kernels. Adults
emerge in 4-30 days, mate and begin the life cycle again.

Direct damage to grain is the result of larvae feeding on the seed germ. In grain to be sold for
human and animal consumption, meal moth feeding reduces dry weight. At the same time, grain
weight may increase because of water absorption. The biggest reduction in value is the result of
contamination by larvae droppings and silken webs in the grain.

# S32. Write down the causes of deterioration of grains. Describe the various changes taking
place during grain deterioration. 5+7.5

First part

Grain deterioration is caused by loss of proper control over abiotic and biotic factors.

(i) Abiotic factors

These are environmental factors. Degradation of grains during storage depends principally on a
combination of three factors, viz., (i) temperature, (ii) moisture, and (iii) oxygen content.

53
During storage, as during other phases of the post-harvest system, the combined effects of these
three factors can sometimes cause severe losses.

Temperature and moisture are determining factors in accelerating or delaying the complex
phenomena of the biochemical transformations (especially the “breathing” of the grain) that are at
the origin of grain degradation. Furthermore, they have a direct influence on the speed of
development of insects and microorganisms, and on the premature and unseasonal germination of
grain. Storage of grains in places that are low in oxygen causes the death of insects, cessation of
development of microorganisms, and blockage, or slowing down, of the biochemical phenomena of
grain degradation. This favors the conservation of gran but may affect its germinating power.

Thus, loss of control over these abiotic factors will promote interplay of biotic factors that in turn
leads to deterioration of grains. For example high moisture and warm temperature will promote
increased activity of pests, alters chemical and physical properties, compromises safety and
nutritional quality, and reduces esthetic attributes.

(ii) Biotic factors

The principal biotic agents causing deterioration of stored grains are (i) insects, (ii) rodents, and (iii)
microorganisms. Because of relevance, only the biotic factors will be discussed here.

a. Insects

Insect infestations can occur either in the field, before the harvest, or in the places where products
are stored. In some cases, these infestations are difficult to discern with the naked eye, since the
damage is provoked by the larvae developing inside the grain. The insects most likely to infest stored
products belong to the following families:

• Coleoptera (damage by larvae and adult insects);

• Lepidoptera (damage only by larvae).

Insects can be responsible for significant losses of product. Furthermore, their biological activity
(waste production, respiration, etc.) compromises the quality and commercial value of the stored
grain and fosters the development of micro-organisms. Insects can live and reproduce at
temperatures between +15°C and +35ºC.On the contrary, low humidity slows or even stops their
development, and a low supply of oxygen rapidly kills them.

b. Rodents

Rodents invade and multiply in or near storage places, where they can find an abundance of food.
They cause serious damage not only to stored products but also to packaging and even to storage
buildings. The principal rodents, those most common and likely to attack stored products, belong to
the following species:

• Black rat, also called roof rat (Rattus rattus),

• Brown or Norway rat, also called sewer rat (Rattus norvegicus),

54
 • Mouse (Mus musculus).

Prolonged attacks by these pests inevitably results in serious quantitative losses of stored products.
To these losses must be added those arising from the decrease in quality of the foodstuffs, caused by
the filth (excrement, secretions) rodents leave behind in the stored products. This contamination is
as important from the marketing standpoint as it is for hygiene and health. Indeed, rodents are often
the vectors of serious diseases (rabies, leptospirosis).

c. Microorganisms

Microorganisms (molds, yeasts, bacteria) are biological agents present in the soil which, when
transported by air or water, can contaminate products before, during and after the harvest. Their
presence and growth cause severe changes in the nutritive value and the organoleptic features of
grain (taste, smell, aspect).Furthermore, they are responsible for the alteration of important
germinative properties of seeds (vigor and capacity to germinate) and, in the case of molds, for the
potential formation of dangerous poisons (mycotoxins).

Impurities, and cracked or broken grains, foster the development of micro-organisms. Furthermore,
temperature and humidity have a determining influence on the growth rate of these degradation
agents. It has been observed that microorganisms develop at temperatures between -8°C and
+80°C, when the relative humidity of the air is over 65%.On the contrary, atmospheres that are low
in oxygen help check the development of these degradation agents.

Second part

Changes that take place during grain deterioration

Cereal grains suffer countless numbers of physical and chemical changes during deterioration that
translate into dry matter and quality losses. The losses are mainly due to insects, molds, and rodents.
These quality alterations are the main criteria for grading grains. The changes in color, appearance,
and off-odors are highly related to grain condition. More specific changes include fat acidity, the
presence of live and dead insects, molds, and mycotoxins. Damaged kernels lose quality due to
important chemical changes in the starch, lipids, proteins, and other chemical grain components.

(i) Dry matter losses

Grains tend to lose weight during deterioration due to respiration and/or the matter consumed by
insects, molds, and rodents. Deteriorated kernels are also more prone to break during handling,
transportation, and distribution. Dry matter losses due to respiration are mainly the result of the
breakdown of organic compounds into simple rmoieties, including volatile compounds and carbon
dioxide. During the first stages of deterioration the grain tends to increase its weight due to the
absorbed water from the surrounding air and the water produced from the hydrolysis of organic
compounds. This is followed by a loss of weight due to the loss of organic matter. Insect-infested
grains regularly lose 50% or more of their dry matter weight.

55
(ii) Changes in Carbohydrates

The intrinsic grain and the potent mold enzymes breakdown starch into dextrins, maltose, and other
simpler carbohydrates. The starch damage is of utmost importance because it affects the
functionality of wheat, barley, and maize for bread, malting/fermentation, and wet-milling,
respectively. In addition, damaged kernels have higher amounts of reducing sugars due to starch
hydrolysis. These sugars can lower the nutritional value and color of thermal-processed products
(i.e., bakery goods, breakfast cereals, snacks, etc.) due to Maillard reactions.

(iii) Changes in nitrogenous compounds

The protein fraction is the least prone to changes due to faulty storage. The protein content
determined with the Kjeldahl method either does not change or, if changes are seen, they are due to
carbohydrate losses from respiration. However, damaged grains have a higher concentration of
enzymes, soluble nitrogen, free amino nitrogen, and free amino acids, usually quantified via the free
amino nitrogen assay. The protein solubility of the different fractions is also slightly altered. This is
especially important in wheat because deteriorated kernels have lower gluten quality and
functionality.

(iv) Changes in lipids

The most evident changes during grain deterioration occur in the lipid fraction. Grains undergoing
intrinsic and/or extrinsic deterioration tend to contain a lower fat content and the fat is seriously
damaged. There are two major types of changes in the lipid fraction: production of free fatty acids
due to breakdown of lipids and oxidative rancidity. Cereal grains contain significant quantities of
natural antioxidants (i.e., tocopherols, phenolic compounds, and carotenoids) that protector at least
delay undesirable oxidative reactions during storage. The triglycerides, phospholipids, and related
compounds are very susceptible to intrinsic lipases generated in deteriorated grains or produced by
contaminating molds. These enzymes hydrolyze ester bonds yielding free fatty acids.

A high grain moisture content and environmental temperature increase both fungi growth and
activity of most enzymes. The hydrolysis of fats occurs at a faster rate than carbohydrates or
proteins.

# S33. Describe the principle and technology of controlled atmosphere store of fresh fruits
and vegetables. [5]

Even after being harvested, vegetables and fruits are still alive. They continue to consume and
nutrients and respire them to CO2, water and heat. Controlled atmospheric storage (CA storage) is a
method that substantially reduces the respiration intensity and self-consumption of fresh fruits and
vegetables, water loss and disease occurrence by regulating the storage environment in terms of
temperature, RH, as well as concentrations of some gases, such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and so
on.

CA storage prolongs fruit life by lowering the oxygen concentration and increasing the carbon
dioxide concentration in the storage atmosphere. The effects of CA are based on the often-observed
slowing of plant respiration in low O2 environments. Fruit respiration starts to slow down as the

56
oxygen level falls to 10% from 21% present in air. This suppression of respiration continues until O2
reaches about 2–4% for most fruits. Depending on product and temperature, if O2 gets lower than
2–4%, fermentative metabolism replaces normal aerobic metabolism; and off-flavors, off-odors, and
undesirable volatiles are produced. Similarly, as CO2 increases above the 0.03% found in air, a
suppression of respiration results for some commodities. Reduced O2 and elevated CO2 together can
reduce respiration more than either alone. These concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide also
reduce the ability of the ethylene produced by ripening fruits to further accelerate fruit ripening
(Kader, 1986).

CA storage facilities are specially constructed, airtight cold storage rooms with auxiliary equipment
to monitor and maintain specific gaseous atmospheres. Oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethylene levels
should be monitored daily and controlled within narrow limits. Recommendations for CA storage
conditions change as a result of ongoing research. Optimum conditions depend on several factors,
including variety and growing conditions. In general, CA methods are much too expensive for
applying to process fruit. Below is given a typical recommended condition for CA storage of apple.

O2 concentration = 2-3%
CO2 concentration = 1-2%
Temperature = -1 to 4°C
RH = 90-95%
Storage life = 5-52 weeks

It must be considered that higher storage temperatures lead to higher respiration rates, and gas
concentrations recommended above will not be successful.

57
 PACKAGING TECHNOLOGY

# P1. Give an account of present trends of food packaging. [5]

Today, there are several major trends to be seen in packaging. Lighter, better quality materials and
their substitutes are constantly being developed. Greater allowance is made for food safety and
convenience. Furthermore, packaging is also evolving in terms of ‘attractiveness’ (feel, sight, smell).

The major technical trends are varied, such as:

• Cooking in the packaging (system of appropriate valves)

• New packaging for 4th and 5th range products
• Flexible packaging
• Clean materials (less additives, vegetable solvent-free inks),
• Intelligent packaging (traceability, inviolability of products, etc.) with RFID chips, outer labels with micro-
organisms, electronic temperature markers
• Active packaging (action on the product producing cold or heat to improve preservation
including vacuum packing, deep-freezing and freezing, modified atmosphere, etc.),
• Food films for products with a high fat content,
• Isotherm and cooling packaging in PU (polyurethane), aluminized resin (insulated inflatable
wrapping sometimes with a cold diffuser, air liner model).

The innovations include:

• Certain wood microwavable packaging

• The creation of a stacking standard (Common Foot Print)
• A shelf-ready concept (to improve time to market and the efficiency of the logistic chain)
• The light cardboard pallet or layer pallet
• Bag-in-box (preventing oxidation or pollution of liquid content)
• Organic packaging (corn and potato starch) and adhesives (starch)
• Insect-repellent food packaging (releasing a active principle that repels the insect but is harmless to
man)
• The paper bag with perforated lining to keep sandwiches warm and crisp

With all these trends and innovations, the packaging sector demonstrates its constant reactivity and
commitment to improving environmental performance.

# P2. What are the different physical and mechanical hazards of fiber board box during
shipping? Describe compression test. [5]

First part

Fiberboard boxes are of two main types, (i) corrugated (pleated), and (ii) flat. Both the containers are
used as shipping containers and therefore undergo various physical and mechanical hazards during

58
the distribution chain. The physical and mechanical hazards they undergo and the major reasons for
corresponding hazards are as follows:

(i) Impact/shock: vertical and horizontal impacts (from drops, fall, etc.)
(ii) Vibrations: vibrations from machinery, handling equipment, vehicle suspension, etc.
(iii) Compression/crushing: dynamic or static loading, duration of stacking, etc.
(iv) Puncture: contact with sharp objects (hooks, etc.)
(v) Abrasions: contact with rough surfaces
(vi) Racking or deformation: uneven support due to poor floors, pallet design, etc.
(vii) Tearing: wrong method of handling

Second part

Compression testing is designed to evaluate how much weight a package can withstand, and is
particularly relevant to those in the distribution chain and those producing the packaging raw
material. It is typically used for evaluating the strength of tertiary packaging, such as stacked boxes,
shipping containers made of corrugated fiberboard. However, it is equally applicable to stacks of
yoghurt pots, for example, and has recently been found to be very useful for testing how much
vertical load glass containers can tolerate. The test involves applying an external load to the
packaging to replicate the load that is applied during storage and distribution. A load is applied to
the container until failure or up to its nominal load.

It is usually a laboratory test involving a special machine, a compression tester, to apply controlled
compression on a test specimen. A common method of conducting the test, as described in several
published standard test methods, is to compress a box at a constant rate of 1/2 inch (12.5 mm) per
minute between two rigid platens. The platens can be fixed so that they remain parallel or one can
be pivoted or "floating". The test can be conducted on empty or filled boxes, with or without a box
closure. Conditioning to standard temperature and humidity is important.

The results of the constant rate of compression test can be:

• The peak load

• The deformation at peak load
• The load at a critical deformation (head space, etc.)
• The ability of a container to protect the contents from compression damage

# P3. Why is it important to test the thickness of paper? [3]

Paper can be used for a number of purposes, the most important being printing/writing and
packaging. Whatever the purpose, the quality of paper must be measured. The test of thickness is one
of the several important tests done to determine the quality of paper.

Determination of thickness (also called caliper) of paper is important, both for assuring conformity
with design parameters and for evaluation of various physical properties (basis weight, strength
properties, barrier properties, and stiffness of paper). For example, for specific paper, several
strength properties increase with increasing thickness. In same light, stiffness and thickness of paper
has been shown to be related as follows:

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 Stiffness = constant (material specific) × E × t3

Where, E = elasticity, and t = thickness of paper.

# P4. Properties and uses of regenerated cellulose. [2.5]

Regenerated cellulose (written RCF for the more common term: regenerated cellulose film) in
general has poor barrier properties (except under dry condition in which it has good oxygen barrier
property). It also has poor heat-sealability and flexibility. However, cellophane® (a very common
RCF) and its modified form have properties that are very useful in packaging industries. The general
properties of cellophane according to Yam (2009) are:

1. Dead-fold: Once twisted, it will not spring back like plastic films
2. Ease in tearing: This is because of differentiated tensile strength within cellophane
3. Machinability: Can be cult and sealed easily and economically
4. Appearance: High level of gloss and haze versus certain competing flexible films
5. Resistance to high temperature: This is useful in hot-fill applications and in shrink tunnels
6. Barrier to air and moisture: When coated with PVdC copolymer, it has increased strength, seal
and barrier properties

Typical uses of RFC in packaging are:

1) Twist wrap of individual confectionery because of dead-folding property. The twist does not
spring back.
2) The poor water vapor barrier is fruitfully used to package certain products that need to lose
moisture when packed, e.g., pastries, cakes, etc.
3) Uncoated regenerated cellulose is used to demonstrate tamper evidence on a bottle.

The major use of RCF is in textile industries. However, RCF can be modified in a number of ways
to create very interesting properties for use in packaging industries. For example, it can be mixed
with plasticizers (e.g., humectants) or modified (with coatings and laminates) to prepare composites
having several useful properties. Novel RCF (such as lyocell) with high orientation and crystallinity
has been recently developed and show significant improvements.

Cellulose acetate is also derived from cellulose. It has high transparency and gloss. It can be printed.
It has been used as a laminate with paperboard for confectionery cartons and as a window in carton
design.

# P5. Describe hazards of shipping containers. [5]

The major functions of shipping containers (also called transport packaging) are to protect the
packaged commodity from:

1) Deterioration and spoilage of the product from biotic and abiotic factors (moisture, heat,
microorganisms, insects, rodents, etc.)
2) Distribution damage due to physical and mechanical damage

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There are 4 main types of hazards that occur during shipping, viz. (i) Physical and chemical stacking
hazard, (ii) Climatic hazard, (iii) Biological hazard, (iv) Miscellaneous.

1. Physical and chemical stacking hazard: Some of the more important types and effects are:
a. Leads to distortion, leakage, breakage, bursting
b. Puncturing, piercing, tearing by hooks/nails/bolts, fracturing
c. Crushing by rope, loosening of strap
d. Drop/fall impact during loading unloading and transport
e. Dynamic hazards: vibration, compression, impacts, abrasion
2. Climatic hazard: This type of hazard can be of several types, the more important of which are:
a. High/low temperature, high/low RH, high/low pressure
b. Chemical pollutants like sulfate, chlorides, acids, etc., from the environment
3. Biological hazards: They are caused by insects, rodents, birds and microorganisms during
transportation and storage. They cause decay, spoilage, material loss, contamination and
spillage.
4. Miscellaneous hazards: Rain, sunlight, and variation in temperature and RH, etc., cause stress
cracking. Absorption of water makes the package weak and susceptible to further damage.

It is clear from above that shipping hazard is caused by different biotic and abiotic factors. An
example of the effect of temperature is used here for explanation:

The shelf life of product decreases with an increase in temperature. The concept of Q10
(temperature coefficient) becomes important here. Q10 is a measure of the rate of change of a
biological or chemical system as a consequence of increasing the temperature by 10°C. For most
biological system, Q10 value is 2-3. This implies that for every 10°C rise in temperature the
deterioration rate of the product 2-3 times faster.

# P6. Describe the newer development of modern packaging materials applicable to foods.
[3]

According to Pira International Limited (2007), following are the recent development in packaging
materials:

1. Biodegradable polymers for flexible packaging

a. Biodegradable starch-based polymers
b. Polylactic acid
c. Synthetic biodegradable polyesters
d. Cellulose biodegradable polymers
e. Water soluble polymers
2. Barrier coatings for plastic packaging
a. Metallized films
b. Organic liquid coatings
c. Vapor deposited coating
d. Nano composites
3. Barrier coatings for paper and paperboard
a. Waxes and wax emulsions
b. Metallized papers and films

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 c. Hot-melt, extrusion and laminates
d. Biopolymer barriers
4. BOPP films
5. Clarified polypropylene
6. Tissue converting and packaging
a. Winding and embossing
b. Tissue wrapping

Concomitant with these developments, technologies and regulations and legislations have also been
developed.

# P7. Why HDPE is unsuitable for packaging of orange squash? [4]

As such, HDPE packaging is suitable only for short shelf-life products, usually through cold chain.
The specific reasons why HDPE is unsuitable for orange juice packaging are:

1. HDPE is a very strong flavor scalper. For example, the flavor components of (D-limonene and
oxygenated terpenes) present in citrus fruits are rapidly lost in HDPE packaging
2. HDPE is not transparent: Orange squash must be visible through the package. Since HDPE is
translucent-to-opaque, it has less consumer appeal.

# P8. Describe the fabrication of 3-piece can. [2.5]

Three-piece cans come in two different forms, viz., (i) welded side seams, and (ii) soldered seams.
Welded side seam is the most widely used form of 3-piece can. The fabrication of welded side seam
can is as follows:

Coils of steel are cut into sheets approximately 1 m2. The cut sheets are then coated, and printed if
necessary, to protect and decorate the surfaces. Areas where the weld will be made on the can body
are left bare. The sheets are next slit into individual blanks. Each blank is rolled into a cylinder with
the two edges overlapping by approximately 0.4 mm. The two edges are welded together with AC
current.

After the side seams have been welded, the bodies are transferred to a flanger for the final metal
forming operation: (i) necking and flanging for beverage cans, and (ii) beading and flanging for food
cans. The can rims is flanged outward to enable ends to be seamed on.

The end is then mechanically joined to the cylinder by a double seaming operation, which involves
mechanically interlocking the two flanges or hooks of the body cylinder and end. It is carried out in
two stages. In the first operation, the end curl is gradually rolled inward radially so that its flange is
well tucked up underneath the body hook. In the second operation, the seam is tightened (closed
up) by a shallower seaming roll. Finally, the cans are tested for leakage using air pressure.

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 Double
seaming
Welding

Can body

Can end
Fig. Fabrication of 3-piece can

# P9. Describe with examples, the processing of food products in glass bottles. [2.5]

Glass bottles are used in the packaging of a variety of food products. Typical examples would
include packaging of beer, wine, ketchup, etc. The processing as well as the choice of glass bottles
depends on the type of product to be packed. Here, some examples are provided.

1. Beer packaging (bottling): Beer is a carbonated alcoholic beverage. The bottle must be strong
enough to withstand the internal gas pressure. Also, the product is very susceptible to
sunlight: it develops skunky flavor when exposed to UV light. Finally, the beer is pasteurized
after bottling. With this background about the product and the processing requirement, the
bottle should be chosen as follows:
o Bottle strength: robust, ability to withstand pasteurization temperature
o Bottle shoulder: round (to with internal pressure)
o Color: amber or green (to block UV light from sun)
o Closure: crown cork with resin lining

Packaging is done under carbon dioxide counter-pressure. Since the product is very sensitive
to oxygen, it must first be removed either by CO2 flushing or forcing jet of water into the
bottle to drive away air. In high-speed filling, the bottles are conveyed by a conveyor belt,
then to feeding worm, and finally in a filling carousal. After crown-corking, the bottles are
pasteurized in a tunnel at 65°C for 15 min.

2. Wine packaging: Wine color (especially, the red wine) is sensitive to sunlight, so a colored
bottle must be used. Since it undergoes in-bottle pasteurization at 70°C, it must also be able
to withstand high temperature. Once processed, the wine bottles are closed with either roll-
on aluminum caps or wooden corks. A final level of packaging detail includes labeling and
tamper-proofing.

# P10. Explain the migration in plastic packaging. [3]

More than 30 types of plastics have been used as packaging materials. To improve functionality,
certain chemical compounds are incorporated within these polymeric packaging materials. These

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additives may interact with food components during processing or storage and migrate into the
food. Food components may also migrate away, as is the case of scalping of orange flavors. Thus,
migration is a two-way process. Once these compounds reach a specified limit, food quality and
safety may be jeopardized. Possible chemical migrants include plasticizers, antioxidants, thermal
stabilizers, slip compounds, and monomers. Chemical migration from food packaging is affected by
a number of parameters including the nature and complexity of food, the contact time and
temperature of the system, the type of packaging contact layer, and the properties of the migrants.

Some important chemicals that have been found to migrate into food from packaging material are:

o Plasticizers: Plasticizers have a low molecular weight and can migrate from packaging
materials into wrapped food, thus becoming indirect food additives. Plasticizers such as
phthalate and adipate are commonly used in PVC, PVA and PE.
o Antioxidants: The commonly used antioxidants are BHA, BHT, Cyanox 2246.
o Residual monomers and oligomers for the packaging material: Styrene migrates from cups to hot
drinks
o Slip additives: Fatty acid amides are used to act as lubricants. They migrate to fats and oils.
o Light stabilizers: Stabilizers such as Chimasorb 944, Cyasorb UV 5411, Tinuvin P are some
light stabilizers used in LDPE and PET materials.
o Bisphenol A: It can leach into food from the protective internal epoxy resin coatings of
canned foods and from consumer products such as polycarbonate tableware, food storage
containers, water bottles, and baby bottles.

# P11. Describe the significance of compression test [2.5]

See answer # P2.

# 12. Describe the properties of laminates and their use in food materials. [5]

Laminate is a product made by bonding together two or more materials, whether plastic, paper or
foil. Since there is no universal packaging material, laminates are prepared by assembling materials
with individually desirable properties to create an optimum combination.

Properties and applications of some important laminates

The overall property of laminate is the sum of the properties of individual materials combined for
making a composite material. Therefore, a brief description of properties of individual material
commonly used in laminate production is given first.

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Material
LDPE (low density polyethylene)
PP (polypropylene)
PA (polyamide, nylon-6)
Al (aluminum foil for laminates)
Properties
• Films are soft and clear
• Good heat sealing
• Compatible with most foods
• Fair moisture barrier
• Poor oxygen barrier
• Oriented PP is clear, stiff and glossy
• Good moisture barrier
• Poor oxygen barrier
• Can be hot-filled
• Excellent surface finish
• Strong, stiff
• Chemical resistance (to hydrocarbon)
• High water absorption
• Susceptible to flex cracking when folded
• Can support plastic and/or paper
• 100% barrier to all gases and moisture
• Best dead-fold properties
• Easily punctured (tamper evidence)

Some laminates and their use

Laminate Use
PP/Al/LDPE • Soft drink pouch
PP/Al/PE • Pouch for loose tea
Metallized PP/PE • Stand-up pouches
PE/printed paper/foil/sealing medium • Aseptic box
Printed PP/metallized PP/sealing medium • Snack food bag

# P12. Describe the shrink packaging method for food materials. [5]

Shrink films are composed of three basic categories: polyolefins, PVC and PVdC copolymer. With
the exception of PVdC copolymer film, which can be shrunk in hot water, most of the other shrink
films require temperatures above 100°C to obtain a suitable degree of shrinkage, necessitating the
development of hot air tunnels or heat guns.

Three properties of shrink films are important when selecting a film for a particular application, viz.:

1. The range of temperature over which a film will shrink: Films with a wide softening range are usually
preferred as this makes temperature control of the heating equipment less critical.
2. The degree of shrinkage: The amount of shrink can vary from 15% to 80% depending on the
polymer composition and manufacturing techniques. Films with a steep shrink/temperature
curve (e.g., PP, where a ±5°C variation in tunnel temperature could vary the degree of

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 shrinkage by up to 20%) are more difficult to handle because of the closer temperature
control necessary.
3. Shrink tension: It is the stress exerted by the film when it is restrained from shrinking at
elevated temperatures. Generally, the lower the temperature at which orientation was carried
out, the greater is the shrink tension. Tension of 300–1000 kPa is desirable in order to
provide a tight package after shrinking.

Shrink bag packaging of meat is described below as an example of how shrink packaging is done.

The shrink bag method involves placing the meat into a heat shrinkable barrier bag (typically a
triple-layer coextruded film constructed from EVA copolymer-PVdC copolymer-EVA copolymer).
The bag is then evacuated prior to sealing. Finally, the bag is heat shrunk by placing in water at
90°C. After shrinking, the bag conforms closely to the meat and produces a tight vacuum pack. Very
high vacuum levels are achieved on rotary single-chamber machines, which also heat seal shrink
bags, and owing to their improved productivity and versatility, these machines have become the
industry standard.

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