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A13101 :
R47
Cultural Resources Overview

Middle Rio Grande Valley, New Mexico

Dr. Linda S. Cordell

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 A CULTURAL RESOURCES OVERVIEW OF THE MIDDLE
RIO GRANDE VALLEY , NEW MEXICO

By Linda S. Cordell

For

Albuquerque District Bureau of Land Management

Carson National Forest
Cibola National Forest
Santa Fe National Forest

USDA Forest Service Bureau of Land Management

Southwestern Region New Mexico State Office
Albuquerque , New Mexico Santa Fe , New Mexico
1

1
1
1

1
 CONTENTS

Page

ii

.
Maps
Figures ii
Tables ii
Preface . iii
Acknowledgements . iv
Introduction 1
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Document . 1
Changing Goals of Investigation : 1890-1978 . 3
Physical Environment of the Study Area . 5
The PaleoIndian Period . 10
Introduction . 10
Early PaleoIndian 10
Late PaleoIndian 12
Assessment of PaleoIndian Cultural Systems 13
Problems of Chronology 13
Assessment of PaleoIndian Demography , Subsistence and
Social Organization . 17
The Archaic Period . 23
Introduction 23
Archaic Assemblages . 25
Assessment of Archaic Cultural Systems 28
Archaic Paleoclimatic Reconstruction . 29
Archaic Populations . 30
Archaic Subsistence 30
Discussion ... 32
Anasazi Prehistory . 34
Taos and Cimarron Districts 34
The Albuquerque District 41
Gallina District 46
Chama District . 50
Santa Fe District . 53
Pajarito Plateau 60
Assessment of the Anasa zi Cultural Systems 64
Publeo III in the Chaco Area 65
Anasazi Economy 67
An Ecological Approach . . 99
Culture History . . 104
Southern Athabascans ( Dine ) . 106
Assessment of the Protohistoric Period . 109
Historic Period 111
Historical Literature . 112
Exploration and Early Settlements 113
Patterns of Land Use and Settlements . 118
Mining . 121
Railroads . . 128
Lumbering Prior to 1930 . . 129
Assessment of the Historic Period 129
Management Considerations 132
General Concerns .. 132
Specific Recommendations . . 136
Appendices
I. Locations of Source Documents and Files 138
II . Personnel Employed on this Project . . 140
Bibliography 141
Introduction . 141

i
 MAPS
Page

1. The Study Area and Puebloan Archeological Districts . 2

N
.

*
2. Effective Temperature
3. Growing Season
4. Annual Precipitation .

5. Average Growing Season in the Study Area and Growing

Season Variability for Selected Stations .

6. Average Rain fall in the Study Area and Rainfall

Variability for Selected Stations .
7. Spanish Exploration and 17th Century Missions . 114
Spanish Settlements and Administration Units : 1540-1821 116
9. Mexican Administrative Units 117
10. Santa Fe Trail 120
11 .Civil War Military Operations . . 122
12. U. S. Forts and Stage Routes . 123
13. Mining Districts Prior to 1920 . 124
14. Early Railroads ... 130
15. Areas of Substantial Erosion . 134

In Map Pocket

FIGURES
Page

1. PaleoIndian Point Types and Series:

Radiocarbon Dates 14
2. Deviations from Mean Tree- ring Widths 69
3 , a-j . Growing Season Variability Graphs for
Selected Stations . 70
Ą, a- r . Rainfall Variability Graphs for Selected Stations 80

TABLES
Page

1. Wild Plants Used as Food by the Rio Grande Pueblos 8

2. PaleoIndian Projectile Point Series . 15
3. Correlation of Phase Designations Used in the
Study Area .. , 34
4. Key Dates in the History of New Mexico 111
5. Major Mining Activity Prior to 1920 . 125
6. Ghost Towns . 128
7. Comparison of Distances Travelled from Taos and Laguna . 135

ii.
 PREFACE

We are always pleased to see a useful and planning efforts, the content is such that
innovative project come to fruition . archeologists should also find this volume
About two years ago we conceived the use ful. We feel particularly fortunate in
idea of working jointly in areas where our having secured the services of Dr. Linda
developing cultural resource programs Cordell for the writing of this overview .
could mutually profit. Both agencies Her specialized knowledge of the area ,
have a need for cultural resources in for conscientious work habits , and positive
mation which will be useful in our plan professional attitude toward the project
ning processes . Out of these consid have been the real contributors to its
erations , we made a decision to jointly success .
produce a series of Cultural Resource
Overviews for the State of New Mexico . We trust that our continuing joint efforts
in cultural resources management will
This document is the first in the series benefit not only the agencies but the
and , we feel, represents a landmark resource itself. The users of the re
publication for both land managers and source , the American people , stand to
archeologists . While designed as a base gain a greater understanding of past
line document for input into National
human behavior and what that may teach
Forest and Bureau of Land Management us about ourselves and the future .

lunchen urundu
at the
mere mshener
ARTHUR W. ZIMMERMAN M.J. HASSELL
State Director
Regional Forester
USDI Bureau of Land Management USDA Forest Service
New Mexico Southwestern Region
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Any of the scope attempted here

work
wor k Jan V. Biella , Gregory Burtchard , Charles
must rely on the knowledge and expertise M. Carrillo , Richard C. Chapman , Bruce
of many individuals . Certainly one of the R. Donaldson , Theodore Frisbie , Leo L.
most gratifying experiences I have had in Flynn , Dee F. Green , Mark E. Harlan ,
writing the report has been in discovering Richard Lang , Stephen Le Blanc , E. Pierre
the willingness of so many people to share Morenon , Yvonne Oaks , Richard K. Olmo ,
their ideas with me , provide leads to data Fred Plog , Kathleen Quinn , Margaret C.
sources and comment on my views.
Individuals
Rugge , Albert H. Schroeder, David Snow ,
who were instrumental in David E. Stuart , Ronald K. Wetherington ,
providing access to materials included in John Young , Gwen Young , and Marta
this report are John Beardsley , Jan V. Weigle for giving their time and thoughtful
Biella ,
Eileen Camilli , Rodney C. Ewing , comments .
Mark E. Harlan , James N. Hill , Valerie
Hume , Cynthia Irwin - Williams, W. James Dee F. Green and Leo L. Flynn are , of
Judge , David I. Kirkpatrick , Ernest course , responsible for the coordination of
Lyckman , Richard Lang , E. Pierre
the project as a whole , but beyond that
Morenon , Randal Morrison , Stuart each has provided considerable encour
Peckham , Arthur Renfrew , James N. agement and consistently helpful advice.
Spuhler, Frances Leon Swadesh , Diane Donna Calkins typed the manuscript.
Traylor, Lawrence Wells, and Marta Weigle .
I am sincerely grateful to all of those
In addition , critical comments and highly mentioned , and , of course , I take full
informative di scussions with many col responsibility for the content of this
leagues were invaluable to me . I am document , its lapses and shortcomings .
especially grateful to Harry W. Basehart ,

Albuquerque , July 23 , 1978

Linda S. Cordell

iv
 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study is to provide a STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

detailed synthesis of known cultural OF THE DOCUMENTS
resources in a portion of New Mexico .
The study area (Map 1 ) has been defined Both casual exploration and intensive
by the Forest Service , Southwestern research have been conducted in the study
Region and the Bureau of Land Manage area for nearly 100 years . Known archeo
ment , Santa Fe , for which this overview logical sites number in the thousands .
was prepared . It comprises most of the The data on which this report is based are
Rio Grande drainage from Albuquerque of variable reliability and quality . Some
north to the Colorado State line . The areas have been surveyed for cultural
study began on January 1 , 1978 , and was resources , but others have not . Surveys
completed on July 31 , 1978 . During the have consisted of noting interesting ruins
first three months , a search of available from automobiles or airplanes to complete
literature was conducted . Materials were coverage , on foot, and recording all iso
obtained from the Zimmerman Library at lated artifacts and sites within designated
the University of New Mexico , Albuquer areas . Excavation has varied from limited
que ; the Laboratory of Anthropology , of testing of sites to complete excavation .
the Museum of New Mexico , Santa Fe ; Fort Data recovery techniques used in exca
Burgwin Research Center , Taos ; the Kit vation are equally variable . In some
Carson Foundation , Taos ; the Office of cases , no vertical or horizontal controls
Contract Archeology, University of New were maintained nor was fill screened . In
Mexico ; the Regional Office of the Forest other cases both natural and arbitrary
Service , Albuquerque ; the Albuquerque levels were mapped , all fill was screened
Office of the Bureau of Land Management ; and various samples ( soil , pollen , flota
the Carson National Forest , Taos ; The tion , etc. ) were taken . Although expect
School of American Research , Santa Fe ; able in view of the length of time over
and the Clark Field Archive of the which investigation has been carried out
Department of Anthropology , University of and the dramatic changes in archeology
New Mexico ( see Appendix 1 ) . The report during that time , there are still no survey
was written and graphics prepared over and excavation standards that are met
the next four months
months (see Appendix 2 ) . consistently . The descriptive body of this
report reflects the problems of non
The report is addressed primarily to comparability of investigation and data
professional archeologists working in the recovery . It is an overview of what has
field of cultural resource management . It been documented and of the observations
is intended to provide an evaluation of which scholars believed were important to
what and how much is known about the make .
cultural resources within the study area in
order that the significance of these In a real sense , the report is an overview
resources may be evaluated in the light of of the field of archeology in the study
present understanding . Archeological area as reflected in the literature . Un for
research is currently in a state of transi tunately , therefore , this study cannot and
tion in which priorities are being re does not address some issues which are of
evaluated . It is to be expected that as importance both to current research and
research interests change , management management . For example , there is more
strategies will be re - evaluated contin in formation on details of architecture and
uously . Future research directions will, ceramics than there is on the distribution
in large part , develop from the concerns of types of sites with respect to various
of management agencies . There are two land forms . On the other hand , the
reasons for this . First , most of the emphasis on the available literature must
cultural resources which are available for be considered an important beginning ,
study are , and will continue to be , on because no other synthesis of this material
public land , especially in the West . exists and many of the site reports and
Second , only the agencies which administer survey reports , although available in
various archives and files , are not in
public lands have the financial, personnel
and technical resources to pursue holistic , published form . With the vast quantity of
integrated , and long - term research reports , notes , articles and monographs on
designs . the study area , a guide to what is available

1
 PUEBLOAN ARCHEOLOGICAL DISTRICTS

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2
and what is not , what has been learned determined , and I hope that this will be
and what has not , is essential. My hope accomplished in the future .
is that , at a minimum , this report con
stitutes such a reference .
CHANGING GOALS OF INVESTIGATION
There are additional limitations in this 1890-1978
repo rt whi ch refl ect both the condition of
various records and files as well as my Between about 1890 and 1915 , investigations
abilities . Although the overview provides were directed toward discovery of the
a synthesis of the literature , not every kinds of ruins existing in the study area .
site in the study area for which there is Attention was focused on documenting the
information has been included . Data , such large habitation sites and noting their most
salient physical characteristics . These
as minimal site descriptions , and in some
cases , unanalyzed excavation notes exist inquiries were largely exploratory in
for many sites , but the time available for nature . The United States , in 1848 , had
preparation of this document precluded the come into possession of a vast amount of
possibility of an attempt to organize and land and the first concern was to discover
synthesize this information . Computerized the resources in this territory . It is
files which contain limited descriptive important that documents written during
survey and site data are available at some this exploratory period are still classics
institutions and agencies but not at others . which are cited in the current literature .
In most cases , these files currently are Thus , Bailey's ( 1913 ) study of life zones in
being established , and at present contain New Mexico is still used as a guide to
information which are of variable quality fauna and flora . Hewett's ( 1906 ) survey of
and comprehensiveness . No attempt was the archeological resources of the Pajarito
made to incorporate this material, because Plateau has not been superseded by a
there was not enough time for me to deter document of similar scope . Nelson's ( 1914 )
mine the reliability or comparability of the work in the Galisteo Basin remains the
records . Generalizations based on com most comprehensive guide to the ruins of
puter files which are in preliminary states that area . Although the early workers
of preparation are likely to be in error . wrote accounts which are biased toward
Because the agencies plan additional and the larger ruins , often only the most
more comprehensive overviews of states impressive of which are described , these
and regions , I have assumed that records people , because they brought a variety of
and computer files will be in a more suit experiences and observation to their work
able condition in the future allowing for and had travelled the country extensively ,
study and inclusion when subsequent made observations of regional differences
reports are written . which are still important. In fact , until
today , the works of the earliest scholars
The section on historic resources probably are probably the most comprehensive in
is the weakest part of this report , reflect viewing the study area within the context
ing my lack of training and experience of Southwestern and North American arche
with archival and ethnohistoric documents . ology as a whole . The workers of this
Also , although I have attempted to bring period also had considerable contact with
my knowledge of prehistoric archeology to and interest in contemporary Indian popu
the evaluation of all material included lations , and the distinctions between
here , I have had no first hand experience " prehistoric " and " historic " archeology
with PaleoIndian or Archaic archeology . were not considered important . For these
The reader probably will find my descrip rea son s , man y insi ghts of the firs t investi
tions of geologic structure , landforms,
gators are closer to modern concerns than
fauna and flora to be very basic , but this those characteristic of the intervening
will not handicap resource managers whose years .
work in specific localities provide a far
better understanding of these features . From about 1915 , and continuing today , the
Additionally , there has been insufficient major research emphasis in the study area
time for me to examine artifact collections has been with 1 ) establishing chronological
from the study area . In the body of this relationships and 2) determining the
report , I use descriptions from the litera "cultural affiliation
affiliationss"" of various peoples
ture . In several places , I suggest that whose ruins were investigated . Chrono
the degree of variability exhibited among logies have been derived in several differ
artifact types in several classes should be ent ways . The first schemes , based

3
excavation and survey , were " develop the varying interests of a few
mental " ( Kidder 1924 ; Roberts 1936b ) . archeologists . No research institution has
Methods of chronometric dating were un maintained a consistent long - term focus
available . Evolutionary theory of the time and program of Rio Grande archeology .
assumed a progression from simple to more Second , tree - ring chronologies and ceramic
complex forms. Therefore , in develop cross dating , largely developed in the San
mental schemes , the crudest artifacts or Juan and elsewhere , have been assumed to
type of sites were generally considered provide reliable chronological control for
items were
oldest and more sophisticated items the Rio Grande . This assumption currently
ranked in serial progression . The litera is being questioned , but no major revision
ture of the study area still contains the in thinking is yet reflected in most reports .
biases of developmental thinking at all
levels . Thus , pithouses are " cruder " than Attempts to determine the " cultural affili
above ground masonry pueblos and should ation " of types of artifacts and of sites
therefore be older . The fact that pit have been conducted on varying levels of
houses were used in some portions of the specificity . In some cases only the
broadest categories , such as Plains or
area until relatively recent times is viewed
as a problem of " lag " or marginality . Southwest or Mogollon or Anasazi , have
Again , prior to the availability of specific been considered relevant . In other
studies , the ancestral communities of
dating techniques , developmental schemes
were also derived through the application various modern Rio Grande Pueblos have
of the direct historical approach , or work been sought . Research emphasis on the
ing backward from the known . Kroeber's specification of the linguistic affiliation of
( 1916 ) study of Zuni potsherds is a classic people known through archeological mate
rials is a continuing interest . Whether
study of this sort , and it is not surprising
that analyses of ceramics ( items which do concerned with broader or narrower affin
show considerable variability ) figure most ities scale of observation has been
the scale
specific artifact types ( such as elbow
prominantly in these schemes . Although
subsequent research has verified the pipes , cylindrical beads or snub - nose end
importance of ceramic types as frequently scrapers ) , attributes of artifacts or archi
good chronological markers , researchers in tectural features ( such as jars with pointed
the study area have tended to view varia bottoms , pots finished by scraping , or
bility in ceramics only with reference to pithouses with ramp entryways ) . The
the temporal dimension . When types ( such appropriateness of the scale of observation
as Gallina B / w or Taos B / w ) are found to the level of problem interest has not
which remain stable through time , " lag " or been questioned .
" isolation " are invoked as explanatory
devices . Further , unlike other areas of Since about 1970 the range of problems
the Southwest , researchers in the Rio addressed in the study area has broad
ened . A few surveys have been oriented
Grande have continued to interpret ceramic
types as univariate phenomena . With a toward defining patterned relationships
few exceptions , ceramic attributes have not among types of sites and configurations of
been considered separately , as potential land forms and natural resources . Some
aspects investigators have experimented with
sources of information on various
of behavior . surve y desig n and have inclu ded obse r
vations about distributi ons of single arti
With the advent of tree - ring dating , facts as providing relevant information
research became almost exclusively con about past behavior ( in addition to obser
cerned with developing refined local chro vations of habitation and special use sites ) .
nologies . This work continues , and it is Recent excavations have involved attempts
interesting that despite the emphasis on to monitor changes in artifact classes as
time frameworks and the ease with which these relate to activities , and most
tree - ring specimens may be processed , research recently has attempted , one way
there are areas within the boundaries of or another , to consider paleoenvironmental
the study region which are inadequately information and human adaptation . In most
dated . There seem to be two major cases ; however , inquiries have been
reasons for this lapse . First , the amount " grafted on " to traditional ways of viewing
of work in the study area , until the recent site and artifact variability in terms of
revolution engendered by contract and chronological and / or cultural markers .

public archeology , has been conditioned by Few issues of method have been raised .

4
Readers of this report should realize that latite , rhyolite and rhyolitic ash flows .
it contains both in ferences made by other The Toledo and Valles calderas are the
investigators as well as my own interpre major structures of the Jemez and were
tations . All in ferences derived from the formed by collapse after extrusion of the
literature are followed by citation refer Bandelier Tuff ( Trainer 1974 ; Voodward
ences . My own comments range from 1974 ) .
generally conservative statements to those
of amore speculative nature . In each The Rio Grande Rift, a late Cenozoic
case , I have prefaced remarks with feature, was superimposed on the Laramide
phrases such as " in my opinion " or " I structures . It is comprised of a series of
think " or " I believe " or " it is my judge north - northeasterly trending grabens ,
ment that . " Although this approach may referred to as basins . Within the study
distract somewhat from the flow of narra area , the basins are , from north to south ,
tive, I want to draw attention to the fact a portion of the San Luis Basin ( which
that these observations are my own and extends into Colorado ) , the Espanola
should not be taken as generally accepted Basin , the Santo Domin go and Albuquerque
by all archeologists working in the study Basins . The San Luis Basin is comprised
area . I hope that readers will evaluate my largely of volcanic rocks , whereas the
remarks critically . Espanola , Santo Domingo and Albuquerque
Basins are composed primarily of sedimen
tary rocks of the Rio Grande Rift
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE ( Woodward 1974 ) . The Pajarito Plateau ,
.

STUDY AREA which slopes gently eastward from the

Jemez Mountains toward the Rio Grande
The study area includes portions of the where it terminates in steep slopes and
Southern Rocky Mountains ( the Sangre de cliffs caused by downcutting of the river
Cristos, the Brazos uplift, and the Jemez is comprised of " an apron " of volcanic
Mountains) , the Rio Grande Rift , and the rocks from the Jemez Mountains (Woodward
Chama Basin , which is part of the 1974 ; Purtyman and Johansen 1974 ) . The
Colorado Plateau (Woodward 1974 ; Chama structurally is part of the
Basin
Thornbury 1965 ) . Although the Sangre de Colorado Plateau . Within it , the principal
Cristos are frontal range
the range in New structure is the broad , north - trending
Mexico , geological ly they belong to the Chama syncline which runs from the
granite belt of western
western Southern Rocky Brazos uplift north of Tierra Amarilla to
Ranges . Most of the Sangre de Cristos the Jemez volcanics between Coyote and
consist of complexly faulted sedimentary Abiquiu . The major rocks of the Chama
rocks and a core of Precambrian schists , Basin are sedimentary ( Woodward 1974 ) .
gneisses , pegmatite and local bodies of
granite and diorite . The mountains were The most important river within the study
formed during the Laramide Orogeny of the area is the Rio Grande , which enters the
Late Cretaceous and early Tertiary San Luis Valley near Del Norte , Colorado
( Thornbury 1965 : 343 ; Woodward 1974 ) ; they and continues south - southwest . The Rio
were glaciated during portions of the Grande and its tributaries carry a con
Pleistocene , and numerous rock streams siderable amount of silt and alluvial debris
were formed either then or in recent times ( Powell 1958 , Thornbury 1965 : 343 ) . The
( Powell 1958 ; Thornbury 1965 : 343 ) . The principal tributaries of the Rio Grande
Brazos uplift trends northwesterly and within the study area are the Red River ,
extends into Colorado . That part in New Taos Creek , Embudo Creek , Rio Santa
Mexico is about 50 miles long and up to 25 Cruz , Rio Pojoaque , Rio Santa Fe , Rio
miles wide . It consists of a
a core of Galisteo , all on the east , and the Rio
Precambrian rock overlain by a thin veneer Chama and Rio Jemez on the west ( Harper ,
of Tertiary volcanic and continental clastic Cordova and Oberg 1943 ) .
rocks (Woodward 1974 ) . The Jemez
Mountains were formed after initial develop The climate within the study area (discus
ment of the Rio Grande Rift and continued sed in more detail on pp . 145-150 ) , is
to build contemporaneously with later generally considered to be semi- arid . The
stages of rifting. The Jemez are com mountainous areas and other high eleva
rocks .
prised of a complex pile of volcanic basalt, tions receive more precipitation than the
The earlier eruptions were of lower lying basins . Mean annual precipita
followed by extrusions of andesite , quartz tion at Santa Fe is about 14 inches , and at

5
Albuquerque about 9 inches . About half Effective Temperature is a standardized
the precipitation occurs as winter snow measure of annual temperature , computed
storms . The remainder consists of summer from the following formula :
thunder storms which also account for 50 %
of the runoff ( Hunt 1967 : 253 ) . There is a ( 18 XofWMCº ) -10 ; ( XofCMCº )
close negative correlation between elevation ET
and frost- free period . ( XofWMCO - XofCMCº ) +8

Vegetation is zoned in response to altitu Where WMCO = warmest month in degrees

dinal changes in climate , although expo centigrade
sure , degree of slope , soil composition and CMCº = coldest month in degrees
depth of soil modify the zonal configu centigrade
ration . In general, the basins , river
valleys and mountain slopes up to about Any measure of annual temperature pro
7,000 feet lie within the Upper Sonoran vides only one dimension along which
Life Zone . Riparian communities exist near distribution s of plant and animal popu
perennial water , and shorter grasses and lations may be viewed . Nevertheless , the
more xeric shrubs are found away from study area contrasts with other portions of
major streams and water sources . Above New Mexico in being relatively cooler on a
the Upper Sonoran Life Zone plants charac year round basis . Preliminary implications
teristic of the Transition Zone occur and derived from this observation include the
above these , plants of the Canadian and suggestion that many of the larger fauna
Hudsonian Zones . In general , timberline ( deer , elk , mountain sheep ) were probably
occurs at about 11,000 feet . Several more abundant in the area than elsewhere
studies of vegetation patterning done in in New Mexico ; that two agricultural crops
conjunction with archeological research , per year are not possible ; the growing
are available , including those of Witter season for one crop in any year may be
( 1975 ) , Tierney and Jones ( 1977 ) , Dickson inadequate ; and aboriginal housing during
( 1975 ) , and Drager and Loose ( 1977 ) . The winter may reflect design for heat reten
latter study , based on several ethnobotani tion . A final observation which can be
cal reports , indicates that the Upper made by inspection of Map 2 is that the
Sonoran and Transition Zones contain 35 study area shows a rough bipartite
and 30 edible plant species , respectively . division with respect to annual tempera
The Canadian and Hudsonian Zones have ture . The area from Albuquerque north to
only 7 and 3 edible plant species ( Drager about Espanola is both warmer and less
and Loose 1977 : 38 ) . variable with respect to annual temperature
than the area from Espanola north . Recent
A variety of faunal resources occur within research ( Lewis R. Binford , personal
the study area . Some , such as cottontail communication 1977 ) on patterning of cul
rabbits and jackrabbits are virtually ubiq tural adaptations of hunters and gatherers
uitous , their distributions depending on in relationship to Effective Temperature on
type of ground cover ( Cordell 1977 ) . a global basis has indicated that food
Larger game animals , such as elk , mule storage correlates with Effective Tempera
deer , and bighorn sheep are found at tures of 15 and below , and that population
higher elevations . Mule deer may be densities are highest in areas of Effective
found at any elevation but when concen Temperatures between about 14 and 18 .
trated in numbers tend to be within the The latter relationship includes an obser
Transition Zone . Antelope occur at vation that the increase in population
various elevations where there is a suitable densities will also be more marked as
abundance of grassland ( Findley et al. rainfall decreases or becomes more erratic .
1975 ; Cordell 1977a ) . The region supports The implications are that populations of
a diverse avifauna , with migratory hunters and gatherers should have grown
waterfowl present in winter along the more rapidly in areas of New Mexico outside
rivers and at playas . the study area , and that if the adoption of
agriculture is conditioned to some extent
In a productive , though general way , the by demographic pressure , the study area
study area may be compared to other parts should have lagged behind other parts of
of New Mexico by visual inspection of Maps New Mexico in using cultigens .
2, 3, and 4 ( in Map Pocket ) . Map 2
indicates Effective Temperature values in Map 3 shows the distribution of average
the area and elsewhere in New Mexico . number of days of the growing season ,

6
measured from first to last killing frost, In sum , very general and basic climato
for the state of New Mexico . Since a logical data indicate that compared to other
minimum of 120 days is required for corn , portions of New Mexico , particularly the
it is obvious that several small localities San Juan basin , the study area provides
within the study area are not suitable for more abundant habitats for game animals ,
this crop today . On the other hand , much more diverse vegetation , including edible
of the Rio Grande Valley proper is , at plants , moisture regimes which are gener
least marginally , suitable for corn horti ally favorable for horticulture and a situa
culture . Local variability in the length of tion in which there is relatively close
the growing season is marked . The Map proximity of areas which would have been
of growing season does not evidence the appropriate for crops to those which could
bipartite division observed in the effective not be used for cultivation but would
temperature map , which indicates that support diverse and abundant plant and
winter temperature is more extreme north animal species . This situation is ideally
of Espanola , except in the high mountain suited to a human adaptation involving a
ous areas . One might there fore expect mixed subsistence base with horticulture ,
cultural adaptations which would serve to where practicable , supplemented by wild
moderate relatively cold winters to appear food resources .
north of Espanola . These might include
more consistent selection of exposure and Both archeological and ethnographic data
orientation of surface dwellings and indicate the importance of wild plant and
increased depth of pithouses . The map animal foods in the study area . The
indicates that the greatest variability in archeological data are presented , by appro
growing season within the shortest distance priate time period , in the next chapter .
occurs along the west slopes of the Sangre Table 1 provides a list of wild plant foods
de Cristos . One would expect that wild used by the ethnographically known Rio
Grande Pueblos . Hunting among the
plant foods would mature and be available
sequentially in this area , and for that modern Rio Grande Pueblos has not been
reason it would be attractive for gathering of major importance since the introduction
activities . of European domestic livestock , however
its past importance is reflected in contem
Map 4 displays average annual precipitation porary ritual ( Ortiz 1969 ) and in the
for New Mexico from 1931 to 1952 , measured archeological record (Cordell 1977a ) . Game
in inches . Although average precipitation , taken by the Rio Grande Pueblos included
like average length of growing season , may
small animals ( such as rabbits and
be misleading due to the variability from rodents ) , deer , elk , mountain sheep ,
one year to another , the map indicates pronghorn , and bison . Small birds , and
that the study area is relatively well water fowl are represented in late prehis
watered compared to many other parts of toric archeological assemblages ( Cordell
the state . This observation , combined 1977a ) .
with the Effective Temperature figure of
less than 14 , indicates that relatively lower Evaluation of paleoenvironmental recon
densities of hunters and gatherers would structions are presented within the context
have existed in the area compared to the of the cultural narrative . Detailed discus
regions immediately around it . Further , sions and graphic representations of varia
agriculture, once adopted , would have bility in rain fall and growing season within
been relatively more secure than in other the study area are presented on pp . 67 to
99 , of the narrative .
parts of New Mexico , although portions of
the study area would be unable to support
horticultural economies at all because of
the short growing season .

7
Table 1 Wild Plants Used as Food by the Rio Grande Pueblos *

Latin Name Common Name Plant Part Storable Emergency

or use ** Food

Amaranthus graecizans pig weed , amaranth P. X

Amaranthus retroflexus pigweed , amaranth P X
Cleome serrulata Rocky Mountian beeplant S, P х
Portulaca oleracea common purslane р X SP
Rumex crispus curly dock , sour dock P
Taraxacum officinale common dandelion P (y)
Pinus edulis pinon pine SP x
Yucca baccata yucca , datil , soapweed , f Xf f
broad - leaved yucca
Yucca glauca yucca , soapweed , amole , S, P, f x
narrow - leaved yucca
Helianthus annuus sunflower S X
Allium recurvatum wild onion r
Chenopodium leptophyllum narrow - leaved P ( y)
lambsquarter
Chenopodium album lambsquarter P ( y)
Amelanchier prunifolia serviceberry
Asclepias galioides milk weed Pir
milk weed P
Astragalus diphysus
Koeleria cristata June grass S
Nolina microcarpa bear grass SP
Chenopodium lambsquarter S
Atriplex argentea saltbush
Atriplex cornuta salt bush
A triplex philonitra saltbush
Berberis haematocarpa redberry , f
algerita berry
Berberis fendleri barberry f
Bossekia parviflora thimbleberry f
Celtis reticulata hackberry , paloduro f X
Celtis douglasii hackberry f
Vicia americana vetch P.s
Ciatris punctata glazing star
Petalostemon oligophyllus prairie clover r
Cycoperdon puffballs x
Polyporus halowii bracket fungus P X
Fomes kutokani Р
Mimulus geyeri monkey - flower P
Monarda Menthaefolia horsemint , oregano , P
bee - balm
Chrysothamnus conifis rabbit brush P ( buds )
Polanisia trachysperma clammy weed P ( y)
Stanleyella wrightii desert plume P ( y)
Sophia sophia P ( y)
Sophia halictorum tansy mustard P (y)
Echinocereus spiny hedgehog Pf
triglochidiatus cactus
Echinocereus fendleri hedgehog cactus Pif X
Echinocereus gonocanthus hedgehog cactus P, f
Equisetum laevigatum smooth scouring rush , P
horsetail
Fragaria bracteata strawberry f
Habenaria sparsiflora bog orchid Pir , f e
Holodiscus dumosus ocean spray , f
rock spiraea

8
Table 1 ( continued )

Latin Name Common Name Plant Part Storable Emergency

or use Food

Juglans major walnut S X

Juniperus monosperma one seeded juniper S, f X
Rocky Mountain juniper
Juniperus pachyphloea alligator juniper f X
Lathyrus decaphyllus wild pea , peavine f
Populus wislizeni valley cottonwood P
Portulaca retusa P
Prosopis glandulosa mes quite S
Strombocarpa pubescens screw bean tornillo P x
Prunus americana wild plum f
Pseudocymopterus P
aleti folius
Ptelea tomentosa wafer ash f
Quercus utahensis oak S
oak S X
Quercus gambelii
Pectis papposa fetid marigold P, r, f X
Phellopterus bulbosus wild celery
Physalis neo- mexicana ground - cherry P, r, f x
Physalis longifolia ground cherry Pir , f х
Pinus scopulorum rock pine , SP е
western yellow pine inner bark
Rudbeckia laciniata cone flower Per
Rumex venosus dock , sorrel P
Rumex mexicanus Mexican dock P
Smilacina amplexicaulus Solomon's seal f
Solanum elaeagnifolium bull nettle silver r, f
prickly nightshade
Solanum fendleri wild patato r ( tuber )
Solanum jamesii wild potato r ( tuber ) X
Hoffman seggia densiflora Indian potato r ( tuber )
Vitis arizonica wild grape f, P , r X
Opuntia arborescens chollas , cane cactus P X
Opuntia clavata f
Opuntia polyacantha f
Opuntia engelmannii prickly pear cactus P, f X
Opuntia camanchica prickly pear cactus f
Mammilaria pincushion , ball cactus
Ribes inerme gooseberry f
Ribes leptanthum gooseberry f
Robinia neo -mexicana New Mexico locust P ( flowers )

Sources : Harringtonn ( 1967 ) ; Castetter ( 1935 : Harrington ( 1916 ) ; White ( 1944 )

**
P =Potherb or green , S =Seed or nut , r= Root or bulb , f = Fruit or berry ,
( y ) = ( young plant)

9
 THE PALEOINDIAN PERIOD

INTRODUCTION pre - Folsom levels of Sandia Cave ( Hibben

1941 , 1955 , 1957 ) have a suggested antiquity
This portion of the report provides a
of greater than B.C. 10,000 . Sandia Cave ,
summary of the culture history of the located on the eastern wall of Las Huertas
study area . It is divided into five Canyon , about 15 miles northeast of
chapters : PaleoIndian , Archaic , Later Albuquerque , has been the subject of
Anasazi Prehistory , Southern Athabaskan , considerable dispute . Although radio
and Historic Period . The chapters refer carbon dates ranging from 35,000 years
specifically to chronological periods . Thus
ago to 17,000 years ago have been reported
although the terms Paleolndian and Archaic ( Crane 1955 , 1956 , Hibben 1955 ) for the
are frequently employed as referencs to Sandia artifacts , questions have arisen
kinds of subsistence adaptations ( viz . big with respect to the association of cultural
game hunting and broad spectrum hunting material and the fossil bone which was
and gathering with the later addition of radiocarbon dated , the interpretation of
limited horticulture ) , the terms as used the Sandia
the stratigraphic position of
here will refer only to the chronological artifacts within the cave , and other
positions generally assigned to these problems ( Bryan 1965 : 144-124 ; Irwin 1971 :
manifestations . PaleoIndian therefore 45 ; Irwin - Williams n.d .: 7 ; Judge n.d .:
refers to artifactual remains dating from 13 ; Stevens and Agogino 1975 ) .
the late Pleistocene ( ca B.C. 9500 to ca.
B.C. 5500 ) , and Archaic to remains dating The diagnostic Sandia " culture " artifacts
from ca. B.C. 5500 to A.D. 400. The sec consist of two types of distinctive , single
tion on Later Prehistory covers archeo shouldered points , some of which show
logical materials dating from ca. A.D. 400 basal fluting and wear patterns restricted
to ca. A.D. 1600. The section on the
to one lateral edge ( cf. Wormington 1957 :
Historic refers to cultural resources post 262 ; Judge n.d .: 130 ) . Surface finds of
dating A.D. 1600 . Sandia points have been made in locations
from Oregon to the Eastern seaboard . The
The organization of each chapter neces only site , besides Sandia Cave , where
sarily differs somewhat due to both the Sandia artifacts have been recovered
amount of information available for each through excavation is the Lucy Site , about
time period and the manner in which the 55 miles east of Sandia Cave in Torrance
variability among resources has been
County , New Mexico ( Roosa 1956a , 1956b ) .
treated in the literature . Thus , the
The Lucy site ; however , has been subject
sections dealing with the PaleoIndian and to aeolian deflation and has produced a
Archaic periods examine the focal area as a mixed assemblage including Sandia points ,
whole and relate known remains to regions
Clovis points , Folsom points and Archaic
beyond the study area . The section treat artifacts .
ing the later prehistory presents culture
history by archeologically defined culture Willey ( 1966 : 41 ) , emphasizing the basal
" districts , (Wetherington 1968 ) , and the fluting on some of the Sandia points ,
section on historic archeology and
suggests that Sandia may either be ances
resources organizes the data in terms of tral to Clovis or " a contemporary regional
both the chronology of historic events and variant " of Clovis . Judge ( n.d. 13 ) ,
major themes ( cf. Cultural Properties considering the unilateral wear observed
Review Committee 1973b ) . on some of the Sandia points , as well as
their widespread geographic distribution ,
suggests that Sandia " points " may be
EARLY PALEOINDIAN Clovis knives ; therefore a functionally
distinctive Clovis tool . Recent re - investi
Within the study area , the PaleoIndian
gation of the remaining stratigraphy in
Period is known through both excavation Sandia Cave , as well as reviews of the
and site survey and has been a major published reports , have not demonstrated
focus of archeological investigation since that the artifacts are indeed of pre - Clovis
1927 ( Cordell 1976 ) . Of reported sites , the antiquity , and the finds are generally

10
 viewed with considerable skepticism during surveys as surface finds . In their
( Agogino 1968 : 2 , Irwin- Williams n.d .: 7 , survey of 3000 square miles of the Central
Judge n.d .: 14 ) . Great antiquity was
.
Rio GrandeValley , Judge and Dawson
initially attributed to an assemblage of ( 1972 , also Judge 1973 ) reported a
see
crude , chopper-like implements , termed single Clovis campsite and one Clovis
" Los Encinos " found in a chert quarry at " locality . " The term " locality " was used to
Cerro Pedernal near Coyote , New Mexico refer to " sites which yielded less than 2
( Bryan 1931 ) . Although there is some percent of the total number of artifacts
indication that the high quality chert at per ( Dawson and Judge 1972 :
culture"
this locality has been utilized since the 1211 ) . Although systematic , this survey
Clovis period (Varren 1975 ) , the Los employed the technique of " site pattern
Encinos artifacts probably represent recognition , " a form of purposive sampling
quarry debris and not a distinctive , which the environmental correlates of
in which
cultural assemblage
ancient cultural ( Judge n.d. known PaleoIndian sites were first located
14 ; Wormington 1957 : 221 ) . on aerial photographs and marked localites
later visited in the field . The constella
Clovis artifacts have been consistently and tion of environmental features examined
" narrowly dated " to between B.C. 9500 consisted of playas , dune ridges with
and B.C. 900 9000
0 (( Irwin - Williams n.d .: 8 ) views of broad open areas which could
and represent the earliest well - documented have been suitable rangeland for
PaleoIndian manifestation in the Southwest . Pleistocene megafauna , and well- developed
The diagnostic Clovis artifact is a fairly drainage systems ( Judge and Dawson 1972 :
large ( 7cm . average length ) , bifacial , 1211 ) . Because the survey was designed to
lanceolate point with a concave base . maximize recovery of PaleoIndian campsites
Fluting generally occurs on both faces and aa total of 59 PaleoIndian occupational
( occasionally one face ) , but extends for loci were recorded , it is interesting that
only a short distance along the length of the two Clovis loci were not considered
the point . Flutes frequently terminate in adequate for comparing other PaleoIndian
hinge fractures and multiple flutes are not materials recovered . Judge and Dawson
uncommon . Clovis points exhibit heavy ( 1972 : 1214 ) do note that the single Clovis
basal and lateral grinding ( Judge n.d .: campsite recorded was near a water source
23 ) . A second variety of Clovis point , ( playa ) which would have been reliable
sometimes referred to as Type 2 , is similar during the prevailing climatic conditions
to the Type 1 point described above but is and was as close to the probable hunting
generally smaller with a triangular blade area as the more numerous Folsom sites
which is widest at the base ( Wormington and , therefore , closer to these hunting
1957 : 57-58 ; Sellards 1940 ; Hester 1972 ) . areas than the later PaleoIndian sites
Other Clovis artifacts known from exca encountered .
vated sites include transverse end
scrapers made on flakes , distinctive side Wendorf ( 1960 : 56 ) noted that Clovis points
scrapers with converging edges , " ear occur as surface finds in northeastern New
form" side scrapers , bifacially flaked Mexico . Lyons ( 1969 : 86 ) indicates that
knives , and gravers . Bone artifacts Clovis sites are rare in the Estancia Valley
reported include possible points , foreshafts but reports six isolated surface finds ,
and a shaft wrench ( Hester 1972 ; Haynes three near Lucy , one near Progresso
and Hemmings 1968 ; Lahren and Bonnichsen ( Roosa 1968 : 79 , 192 , 118 ) , one at the
1974 ) . Excavated Clovis sites generally Kendall Homestead and one at Lammon
include mammoth remains , but bison , Ranch ( Haynes 1955 : 152 ) . A single unfin
horse , tapir , camel , cervids , canids , ished point " which would fall within the
antelope and jackrabbits also occur in some range of the Clovis type" was recovered
of these localities ( Hester 1972 ; Haynes and from the Rio Valdez Divide , in the south
Hemmings 1968 ; Haury , Sayles and Wasley ern Sangre de Cristos , at an elevation of
1959 ; and cf. Judge n.d .: 22-27 ) . 11,500 to 12,000 feet ( Wendorf and Miller
1959 ) . Other lithic materials recovered
Unless the Sandia points are included as from this locality were not typologically
par ' of the Clovis assemblage , and Sandia related to Clovis , and therefore Wendorf
Cave therefore considered a Clovis site , and Miller ( 1959 : 40 , 49 ) suggest that the
there are no excavated Clovis sites re Clovis specimen may have been deposited
ported within the study area . Clovis at the site by a later group of people .
artifacts ; however , have been recovered They consider this particularly likely

11
because the elevation of the site was above assemblages include a variety of scrapers ,
an identified late - Wisconsin moraine . especially end scrapers , bifacial knives,
denticulates reclettes
and ( Irwin and
The potential of the study area for pro Wormington 1970 ) . Side scrapers and bone
viding significant information about Clovis tools are less common than in Clovis assem
adaptations will be discussed more fully blages (Hester 1972 ; Irwin and Wormington
below , but two comments will be made at 1970 ) . At kill sites , Folsom is most often
this point. First , although the survey by associated with Bison antiquus , as
mammoth and other characteristic
Dawson and Judge might be interpreted as
indicating minimal utilization of the Rio Rancholabrian fauna had become extinct by
Grande Valley by Clovis populations , the Folsom times . At the Lindenmeier site , a
only excavated open campsite of the Clovis well - documented Folsom camp near Fort

period lies just south of the study area . Collins , Colorado , faunal remains recovered
This is the large Mockingbird Gap site , in addition to bison , included antelope ,
situated 30 miles southeast of Socorro , New canids and rabbit .The presence of camel
Mexico (Weber and A gogino 1968 ; Current at the Lindenmeier site however has been
Second , questioned ( Roberts 1935 , 1936a , 1937 ;
Research 1970 ; Judge n.d .: 25 ) .
although Wendorf and Miller ( 1959 ) doubt Wilmsen 1974 ) . Most writers characterize
the Folsom complex as an evolution and
the utilization of high elevations in the
Sangre de Cristos by Clovis hunters , refinement of Clovis , " the result of the
Clovis points have been recovered at or readaptation of existing hunting - gathering
above timberline ( 11,000 and 11 , 500 feet ) in populations to altered conditions at the end
Rocky Mountain National Park , Colorado of the Pleistocene " ( Irwin -Williams n.d .:
( Husted 1965 : 494 ) . 13 ) .

Two excavated Folsom sites occur within

LATE PALEOINDIAN the study area ; the Rio Rancho site
( Dawson and Judge 1969 ; Judge 1973 ) and
Folsom and Midland artifacts have been the Folsom levels of Sandia Cave ( Hibben
radiocarbon dated to ca. B.C. 8800 to 1941 ) . In addition , Folsom sites have been
B.C. 8000 at excavated sites ( Irwin - Williams documented through site surveys ( Judge
n.d .: 11 ; Judge n.d .: 53 ) . Folsom points and Dawson 1972 ; Judge 1973 ; Lyons 1969 ) ,
are highly distinctive, lanceolate , fluted and finds of isolated Folsom points have
points . They are smaller than Clovis been reported ( Blevins and Joiner 1977 ;
points ( averaging about 5 cm . in length ) , Lyons 1969 : Kirkpatrick 1976a ;
81-86 ,
fluted on both sides for the length of the Hibben 1951 ) . Sandia Cave yielded remains
point , and basally concave . The lateral of two complete Folsom points and two
Fol som bases in addition to nonfluted
edges of Folsom points are carefully fin
ished with pressure retouch and ground points , other artifacts and faunal remains .
along their lower portion (Judge 1970 ; Unfortunately , the problems associated
n.d .: 31 ) . Midland points resemble Folsom with the interpretation of the cave deposits
points in size and outline but are thinner in general preclude evaluation of these
and lack fluting. Both Folsom and Midland data ( cf. Wormington 1957 : 85-86 , Judge
points have been recovered from the same n.d .: 32 , Stevens and Agogino 1975 ) . The
sites , the Scharbauer site , near Midland , Rio Rancho site is located 15 miles west of
Texas is the classic example ( Wendorf et Albuquerque , An open campsite , it

al. 1955 ) . Judge ( 1970 ) has convincingly yielded 36 points and point fragments , 108
argued that despite the morphological scraping tools , 12 knives or cutting tools ,
similarity between Folsom and Midland 16 piercing or incising tools , 21 large
bifaces and 37 utilized flakes . Faunal
points , the two types resulted from quite
different manufacturing processes . At the remains were not recovered , and the site
was not radiocarbon dated ( Dawson and
multicomponent Hell Gap site in Wyoming ,
Midland has been interpreted as overlying Judge 1969 ; Judge 1973 , Judge n.d .: 32 ) .
Folsom ( Irwin -Villiams et al . 1973 ) ,
However , the two radiocarbon dates for The Rio Rancho site was one of 14 Folsom
the Midland components fall within the campsites Judge and Dawson (1972 , Judge
range fo r ie .. B.C. 8300 ) .
for Folsom (( ie On 1973 ) recorded in their survey of the
temporal grounds , therefore, Folsom and central Rio Grande . In addition to
Midland are considered together in this these campsites , 14 Folsom " localities "
report . In addition to points , Folsom were recorded . Compared to the later

12
PaleoIndian campsites analyzed in this ( 1969 : 81-86 ) noted а concentration of
survey , the Folsom sites were closest to Folsom sites at both the northern and
playas . These sites also tended to be southern ends of the Estancia Valley ,
situated on the northern ends of the rather than at its western or eastern
potential hunting areas and near these margins . He suggests that this pattern of
areas but farther from raised over - views site concentration may relate to proximity
than the later PaleoIndian campsites ( Judge to the Pleistocene Lake Estancia and co
and Dawson 1972 : 1213 ) . access areas from the High Plains to the
Sandia Mountains and the Galisteo
Utilizing both different frequencies of tool Drainage . The Folsom type site ( Figgins
types recovered at the Folsom campsites 1927 , Cook 1927 , Toulouse 1937 , Anderson
and microscopic determination of " hard " 1976 ) is an exception to the patterned
vs. " soft " wear on scraper edges , Judge positive association with reliable sources of
and Dawson ( 1972 ) then defined three water , but because it is a kill site rather
types of Folsom campsites . Armament sites than a campsite may not be expected to
contained lithic debris indicative of the con form . The survey by Oaks ( 1977 ) was
processing of the Folsom preform . of limited scope but was designed to test
Armament sites were most consistently the purposive sampling strategy used by
located in situations offering a good over Judge and Dawson ( 1972 ) . Oaks ' survey
view of the hunting area . Processing sites included an intensive ground coverage of
were defined on the basis of a predomi one section of the Blanco Trading Post
nance of tools showing evidence of " soft " Quad , and site pattern recognition ground
wear ( polished , rounded , working edges ) . check of areas in the Blanco Trading Post ,
These sites were statistically significantly Kimbeto and Pueblo Bonito quads which ,
correlated with proximity to playas . Base on the basis of prior examination of aerial
camps were defined in terms of diversity photographs , consisted of a constellation of
of tools recovered , indicating multiple playas , ridges , arroyos and open potential
activities , and were found to be correlated hunting areas . Oaks ( 1977 ) reports that
with proximity to sources of fresh water . no PaleoIndian material was recovered .

The survey data provided by Judge and Whereas the relative chronological positions
Dawson ( 1972 ) and Judge ( 1973 ) are the of Clovis and Folsom are quite well
most comprehensive evidence of Fol som documented through geological interpreta
utilization of the study area . Surve ys tions and radiocarbon dates , this is not
outside the study area include those of true of the proliferation of PaleoIndian
Broilo ( 1971 ) in the Balckwater Draw area , complexes which characterize the latter
Lyons ( 1969 ) on the Estancia Basin , portion of the Late PaleoIndian Period .
Wendorf and Hester ( 1962 ) on the Llano
Estacado , Irwin - Williams ( 1973 ) in the
Arroyo Cuervo area , and Oaks ( 1977 ) in ASSESSMENT OF PALEOINDIAN
the Nageezi area of New Mexico . Except CULTURAL SYSTEMS
for the survey by Oaks , the environmental
data recorded for the other surveys are Problems of Chronology
not comparable with that of Judge and
Dawson , so that it is not possible to test Figure 1 provides a plot of all radiocarbon
the associations proposed by the latter . It dates available for PaleoIndian complexes
is worth noting that both within the study on the Plains and Southwest . The radio
carbon determinations , except for the
area and adjacent regions to the north and
east , Folsom materials suggesting campsites temporal priority of Clovis , are insufficient
seem to be absent from high elevation for even minimal interpretation . There is
settings ( cf. Husted 1965 ) but do seem to no evidence for the sequential appearance
be correlated with water sources which of specific projectile point types . This is
would have been reliable during the period particularly important because archeologists
of occupation of the Southwest . Broilo commonly use point morphology as the only
( 1971 ) documented that Folsom artifacts criterion for the chronological placement of
from the Blackwater Draw area came pri- , surface finds . Further , although Clovis is
marily from within the confines of the widely distributed geographically and other
Draw itself , which would have provided point types are more limited in
reliable water for bison herds . Lyons distribution , geographic boundaries do not

13
 11,000 10,000 9,000 8,000 7,000

1 1

LEVI
LEVI
AB
AB
AB
AB
CAB

HG
HG
LE HG

LEGEND

CLOVIS AGATE BASIN , HELL GAP

FOL SOM FIRSTVIEW

MIDLAND ALBERTA

PLAINVIEW CODY
RADIO - CARBON DATES PLOTTED
FREDERICK , LUSK AT ONE STANDARD DEVIATION

PALEO INDIAN POINT TYPES & SERIES

Figure 1 .

14
separate areas in which the point types point " ( emphasis mine ) . There is no
are found , except that Alberta points seem reason to assume that similarity of function
to occur only in in the Northern Plains . of any set of attributes or artifacts has
temporal implications . Rather , it must be
The chronological ordering of PaleoIndian demonstrated that the function being
point types is based on two sources of monitored is one that is expected to
information : stratigraphy and technologi change through time . This has yet to be
cal analysis . Although stratigraphic done . Thus, chronological problems of the
analysis is reliable , there are only two PaleoIndian period are far from resolved ,
multicomponent PaleoIndian sites in the and further research should be
Southwest and Plains which contain encouraged .
" diagnostic " point types . These are
Blackwater Draw and Hell Gap ( discussed The late PaleoIndian chronology is impor
more fully below) . At both sites , the tant for the study area because of a
stratigraphy is not only complex , but the suggested hiatus in PaleoIndian occupation
various PaleoIndian points do not always between Folsom ( Midland) and Cody times
occur within the same locality at each site . ( or between ca. B.C. 8000 and ca. B.C.
The chronological ordering of types , 6600 ) . Two multi- component sites , outside
therefore , is based on interpretations of the study area , provide information about
both horizontal and vertical stratigraphy . the chronological positions of post- Folsom
Technological analysis relies on similarity remains . Blackwater Draw Locality 1 yields
either in overall point morphology or in the following sequence , based on the
specific attributes as a guide to chrono re-interpretation by Haynes and Agogino
logical proximity . Overall point morphol ( 1966 ) : Folsom and Agate Basin (con
ogy , in all likelihood ,, is the result of sidered contemporary ) followed by
several determining factors and not a Firstview ( formerly referred to as the
" genetic " pattern . Therefore , form is not " Portales Complex " ) , followed by the Cody
an appropriate temporal indicator in the Complex The geologically complex Hell
absence of independent dating techniques . Gap site, near Guernsey Wyoming provides
Technological criteria which rely on specific the following sequence , based on material
attributes are more promising chronological recovered from five separate localities at
indicators , and Judge's ( n.d. ) use of the site : Goshen ( Plainview ) , Folsom ,
" series " is probably the most sophisticated Midland , Agate Basin , Hell Gap , Alberta ,
approach of this kind . Judge ( n.d .: 7 ) Cody Complex and Frederick
offers a taxonomy based on two criteria of ( Irwin -Williams et al . 1973 , Judge n.d .:
.

basal morphology : the technique used to 54 ) . Within the study area , isolated finds
thin the point and the direction of smooth of Midland , Plain view and Agate Basin
ing of the lateral edges of the point . His points are reported , but Hell Gap points
trial classification is reproduced in Table are lacking ( Agogino 1961 , Judge 1973 : 78 ) ,
2. However , Judge ( n.d .: 7 ) notes that as are Alberta and Frederick points . The
basal morphology " is closely related to absence of Alberta points does not seem to
hafting technology , and is , therefore , a be particularly significant, they are known
sensitive indicator of the function of the only from sites considerably further north

Table 2 : PaleoIndian Projectile Point Series ( After Judge n.d.: 9-10 )

Series Types
Fluted Point Clovis , Folsom

Laterally - Thinned Series Midland , Plainview ( includes Plainview , Meserve , Milnesand )

Frederick ( includes Frederick , Lusk , Jimmy Allen )
Constricted Base Series Agate Basin , Hell Gap
Indented Base Series Firstview ( includes Firstview , San Jon , Portales Complex )
Alberta
Cody Complex ( includes Eden and Scottsbluff)

15
and may represent north Plains manifesta influenced by the palynological evidence
tions which did not extend into the Rio for a period of relatively less effective
Grande or the Llano Estacado . The moisture from about B.C. 8000 to about
Firstview complex , as defined recently by B.C. 6500 , which coincides with the Hell
Wheat ( 1972 ) includes both the Portales Gap and Alberta occupations of the High
complex of Blackwater Draw ( Hester 1972 ) Plains . The dry period , referred to as
and San Jon points from the San Jon site , the Yellow House Interval ( Wendorf 1961)
24 miles southeast of Tucumcari , New has been documented in the Llano Estacado ,
Mexico ( Roberts 1943 ) . Wheat ( 1972 : but Irwin - Williams believes most of New
163-164 ) considers Firstview to be a central Mexico was unoccupied at that time . On
and south Plains manifestation , but the other hand , the two Firstview kill sites
Firstview complex artifacts are not reported reported , Olsen - Chubbock ( Wheat 1972 ) ,
from the Rio Grande Valley . Thus , Hell and Blackwater Draw Portales complex
Gap and Alberta points fill the interval ( Hester 1972 ) have been radiocarbon dated
between Folsom and Midland and the Cody to B.C. 8,150 + 500 and B.C. 7,890 + 290
complex on the north Plains , and the ( Judge n.d. 45 ) which is not completely
Firstview complex partially fills this inter consistent with her view . Irwin - Williams
val on the central and south Plains . and Haynes (1970 : 63 ) correlate the Cody
Either the Rio Grande Valley was not complex with a return to conditions of
utilized by Paleo Indian hunters during this relatively greater moisture , suggested by
interval or the " Belen " sites comprise the palynological data, dating to ca. B.C.
local PaleoIndian manifestation of this time 6,700 . On the other hand , Judge ( n.d .:
period . 50 ) notes that radiocarbon dates from the
three dated Cody complex sites average
Unfortunately , Belen points have not been ca. B.C. 7,498 , which slightly preceeds
dated by chronometric techniques but two the expected date based on the paleocli
lines of evidence indicate that they may matic reconstruction . Averaging radio
date between Folsom and Cody complex in carbon dates is likely to be misleading ,
the Central Rio Grande . First , the points particularly if the range of dates is con
have been considered distinctive on typo siderable ( see Figure 1) , and of 11 exca
logical grounds ( Baker 1968 , Judge 1973 : vated Cody complex sites , only six radio- '
69-72 ) . Second , the settlement technology carbon determinations are available .
noted for Belen sites (Judge and Dawson Because Belen and Cody complex sites
1972 ) is both distinctive and forms a occur in the study area , the potential for
pattern which fits logically between that clarifying the dating of these PaleoIndian
observed for the Folsom sites and for the industries and the climatic conditions in
Cody complex , assuming increasing climatic the central Rio Grande Valley coinciding
dessication for the entire period . Belen with them is considerable .
points are non- fluted , laterally thinned ,
with a slight basal concavity and resemble The Cody complex includes three varieties
Clovis points in overall morphology but are of finely flaked projectile points ( Eden ,
smaller in size . In general , they appear Scottsbluff Type I , Scottsbluff Type II )
related to Milnesand and Plain view types and the distinctive , transverse Cody
( Judge 1973 : 258-259 , Judge and Dawson knife , often made from broken Scottsbluff
1972 : 1210 ) . Judge and Dawson ( 1972 ) points ( Judge n.d. 48 ) . One excavated
recorded nine Belen campsites and four Scottsbluff site is reported for the study
Belen "localities . " The Belen sites were area . This is the R-6 site , one mile
found consistently on or very near over northwest of Sapello , New Mexico , exca
views of potential hunting areas and some vated by Dennis Stanford ( Judge n.d .:
what farther from water ( playas ) than 49 ) , though not yet reported . Judge
Fol som sites . The same intercultural ( n.d .: 49) considers the site a quarry ,
variation in site type ( armament site , and states that it yielded 89 lithic imple
processing site , base camp ) was demon ments and one structure but no radio
strated for Belen as had been documented carbon dates , In addition to R - 6 , Judge
for the Folsom camps . and Dawson ( 1972 ) reported 5 Eden (Cody )
complex sites and 4 Eden ( Cody )
It should be noted that Irwin - Williams " loc ali tie s " in the ir sur vey of the Middle
( n.d .: 16 ) considers " Firstview " and San Rio Grande Valley . These sites were
Jon to be variants of the Cody complex . located in areas of more pronounced topo
Her interpretation apparently is greatly graphic relief than those of the other

16
PaleoIndian occupations reported . Playas but are not limited to , the following: ( 1 )
were apparently no longer important as problems in locating PaleoIndian sites
sources of water ; rather , the nearest because of geological processes of deposi
water source tended to be a stream . The tion and soil formation which cover and
sites also were farther from water sources obscure remains ; ( 2 ) "low site visibility"
and hunting areas than either Folsom or ( Deetz 1972 ) caused by probable low popu
Belen campsites. Judge and Dawson (1972 ) lation densities and the ephemeral nature
suggest that : of sites left by transient hunters and
gatherers ; ( 3 ) problems of site recognition
by Eden ( Cody ) times , how due tothe relatively few arti fact types
ever , the amount of effective mois that are diagnostic of PaleoIndian cultures ;
ture might well have deteriorated to and ( 4 ) lack of detail in paleoenvironmental
the extent that the playas reconstruction , except for a few very small
themselves were no longer adequate areas which have been the subject of
sources of water for the animal intensive research such as the Llano
population . The animals would then Estacado ( Wendorf and Hester 1962 ,
seek out grazing areas located Wendorf et al . 1974 ) .Nevertheless ,
closer to streams , rivers , and Americanist archeologists should keep in
springs . Human groups at mind that we have considerable knowledge
this time would select areas near of the Middle and Upper Paleolithic archeo
the game supply for their campsite logy of Europe , despite similar problems
locations . Indeed all of the Eden associated with time-depth , and that much
( Cody ) sites in our sample were can be said about the adaptation of the
found near sources of water which Australopithecines , where not only extreme
are still running today . ( Judge and antiquity but the lack of extant analogous
Dawson 1972 : 1214 ) . species makes behavioral interpretations
extremely difficult . Part of the problem in
It is generally agreed that the Cody com the Americas seems to be that the coordi
plex represents the final PaleoIndian nated interdisciplinary research that is
utilization of the study area and that essential to PaleoIndian archeology is not
succeeding complexes are Archaic . facilitated by the institutional structuring
within which most research takes place .

Assessment of PaleoIndian The absence of securely dated pre - Clovis

Demography , Subsistence, and occupations in the Southwest " poses one of
Social Organization the most pressing unsolved problems in
American prehistory " ( Irwin-Williams and
Most PaleoIndian research has been con Haynes 1970 : 61 ) . Noting that sites which
cerned with chronological questions , either may pre-date Clovis are found primarily in
demonstrating the antiquity of man in the mountain settings Judge ( n.d. 62-63 )
New World or determining the relative suggests that these human groups " were
chronological poisitions of various com involved in a generalized , broad - spectrum
plexes (cf. Wilmsen 1965 , Cordell 1976 ) . adaptive strategy that did not make exploi
Only since the 1950's , and more recently, tation of the low diversity grassland areas
has professional archeological interest in economically efficient. Although presented
as a qualified suggestion , Judge's state
delimiting PaleoIndian adapation developed.
It is instructive that discussions which ment indicates that the more mountainous
attempt to address issues of PaleoIndian portions of the study area would be the
demography, subsistence strategies , and most likely places in the Southwest and
social organization have either been pub Great Plains to provide evidence of pre
lished during the 1970's ( Irwin -Williams and Clovis occupation . The major problem ;
Haynes 1970 , Dawson and Judge 1972 , however , is the identification of artifacts
Gorman 1972 , Wilmsen 1970 , 1974 ) or are which might be of pre - Clovis antiquity .
still in press ( Irwin -Williams n.d. , Judge This difficulty is not unique to the
n.d. ) . South west . Those few sites in the
Americas that may be pre- Clovis have not
In general there are difficulties in yielded standardized diagnostic arti facts .
assessing PaleoIndian cultures that
are In essence, archeologists do not know what
related to the great age of the remai ns and to look for . Further , the notion of a
should not be minimized . These include , generalized , broad -spectrum adaptive

17
strategy implies an equally generalized tool comparable . The assumption is supported
kit that would evidence considerable vari by the lack of storage facilities associated
ability from one activity locus to another . with PaleoIndian campsites which would , if
present , indicate potentially larger popu
If the problem of locating and identifying lation aggregates . But , modern hunters
pre-Clovis manifestations is to be handled and gatherers inhabit the least productive
systematically , there would seem to be two environments in today's world , and there
potentially approaches .
useful First , is really no basis for assuming equallye low
systematic exploration of rock shelters and population densities in the absenc of
cave sites which ' have yielded Clovis competition from agriculturalists . An
and / or Folsom remains could provide strati alternative proposal ( which is also not free
graphic evidence of pre - Clovis occupation . of ethnographic analogy ) by Paul Schultz
Second , detailed geological investigations Martin ( 1973 ) assumes that Clovis repre
could indicate areas where soils of the sents the first migration of man into the
appropriate antiquity are exposed . The Americas and that Clovis population growth
recent restudies of Sandia Cave show that and demographic structure would be limited
this site is not potentially in formative for only by the available food supply , con
the first strategy , and , as yet , no other sisting of abundant and " unsuspecting "
appropriate cave sites are reported in the Pleistocene mega fauna . Martin's approach
study area . Two sites , one in New Mexico has been to estimate the potential
and the other in Texas probably are useful Pleistocene biomass available in North
in this regard . Hermit's Cave ( Ferdon America and to simulate the growth and
1946 , Schultz Martin 1970 ) in the
and spread of Clovis populations based on the
Guadalupe Mountains near Carlsbad and estimated available food . Un fortunately ,
Friesenhahn ( Sellards 1952 , Evans
Cave Martin's work is flawed by so many un
1961 ) near San Antonio are logical places to founded assumptions that it provides
see evidence of pre - Clovis manifestations, neither a realistic model nor implications
The suggested systematic geological appropriate for empirical tests . For
research has not yet been attempted , example , he assumes a consumption rate of
although Lyons' ( 1969 ) discussion of the 10 lbs . of meat per person per day , an
geology and PaleoIndian archeology of the exclusive reliance on meat , extreme waste
Estancia Basin contains in formation which on the part of PaleoIndian hunters , and
would be use ful to such a study . population growth rates of between 1.4 %
Irw in - Wil lia ms and Hay nes ( 197 0 ) con sider and 3.4 % annually at the migration front .
PaleoIndian research in northwestern New Basic to his model is the notion that Clovis
Mexico , southern and eastern Arizona and hunters were efficient exploiters of
portions of southern Cali fornia to have Pleistocene mega fauna . ( The reader is
been more intensive and interpretations , re ferred to Martin and Wright 1967 for a
there fore , more reliable than in other more complete discussion of some of these
areas of the Southwest , and some general issues . )
statements are available which may be
evaluated . Although clearly interrelated , Demographic interpretations and analyses
brief separate discussions are provided of the later PaleoIndian cultures , have
about demography , economy , settlement generally been pursued in the same manner
syste ms and social organization . as discussed for Clovis , and there is little
to add . The assumption of low population
Approaches Clovis demography , and
to density and small band size is generally
PaleoIndian demography in general , rely accepted , but this has raised problems of
heavily on possibly inappropriate ethno interpretation for two major issues. First ,
graphic analogy and controversial computer the rather late post- Folsom PaleoIndian kill
simulations . Except in " unusual " environ sites subjected to care ful excavation indi
mental situations ( such as the Aleutian
cate that a tremendous amount of meat was
Islands ) , population densities for modern used . The best studies , both outside the
hunters and gatherers are quite low , ( not central Rio Grande area , are Wheat's ( 1972 )
more than one person per square mile ) , discussion of the Olsen - Chubbock site , in
and band size issmall, ( not more than Colorado and Frison's ( 1974 ) analysis of
about 50 persons ) . Because Clovis and the Casper site , in Wyoming . The
other PaleoIndian groups were hunters and Olsen - Chubbock site represents a bison
gatherers , it is generally assumed that jump , and Casper a bison trap . In both
group size and population densities were cases the amount of meat taken ( estimated

18
 from disarticulated bone and butchering Although the archeological remains may be
marks ) is astounding if small group size is considered the most direct and there fore
accepted ; storage facilities in the immediate the most reliable of the three sources of
vicinity of the kills are absent ( as they in formation ,there are the generally ac
appear to be ) , and communication and knowledged problems of differential
transport were limited to foot travel . visibility and preservation . In essence ,
Wheat ( 1972 ) gives a conservative estimate 10,000 year old bison bones are both more
of 69,000 lbs . of usable meat , tallow and likely to preserve and be discovered than
internal organs from Olsen - Chubbock . 10,000 year old hackberry seeds . Further ,
Frison (1974 ) estimates 42,000 lbs . of meat , the tools associated with the killing and
exclusive of tongues , hearts , livers and processing of large game ( projectile points ,
some other internal organs , for Casper , knives and scrapers ) are more distinctive
but suggests that the site may not repre and likely to be preserved than tools
sent a single incident kill . Even if it is associated with the harvesting and pro
assumed that large , communal hunts were a cessing of plants ( digging sticks , baskets ,
relatively in frequent event for PaleoIndian pounding stones ) . Some of the problems
populations , it is nearly impossible to in the use of ethnographic analogy have
account for the processing , transport , and been discussed in the preceeding section .
consumption of the amounts of meat Additional questions will be dealt with in
indicated . the context of specific PaleoIndian com
plexes , as will interpretations of climatic
The second problem in accepting small reconstructions .
group size and low population density for
the PaleoIndian period arises as the result Clovis artifacts , as I have noted , are
of recent theoretical explanations for the frequently associated with mammoth ,
adoption of agriculture on a worldwide although at processing localities the
basis at the end of the Pleistocene . remains of other , generally much smaller ,
Esther Boserup ( 1965 ) has argued that animals have been recovered as well. The
technological innovations , particularly question as to whether or not Clovis
agricultural intensification , are the result hunters were efficient mammoth hunters
rather than the cause of population and whether the focused on
economy
pressure . Lee ( 1968 ) , on the basis of mammoth or other large
animals game
observational ethnographic data , has currently is under debate . Of the ten
demonstrated that hunters and gatherers Clovis sites from the Southwest and Plains
spend far less time on subsistence areas which contained enough in formation
activities than do agriculturalists . These for evaluation by Judge ( n.d. ) for his
two lines of evidence have been used to recent review article , nine sites contained
argue that agriculture is not adopted until mammoth remains ( the exception is Levi
and unless groups are under population Rock Shelter, Zone II , near Austin , Texas ,
stress which requires that their food reported by Alexander 1963 ) . The remains
supply be supplemented ( Bin ford 1968 ; of other animals, including bison , horse ,
Spooner 1972 ) . If one assumes low popu camel , antelope, cervids, canids , small
lation densities for late PaleoIndian and mammals , birds and reptiles , were found at
early Archaic hunters and gatherers , the five of the ten sites . Judge's ( n.d .:
adoption of agriculture during the middle 18-22 ) typology of sites for the entire
Archaic in the Southwest ( and elsewhere ) PaleoIndian period which is based on
becomes paradoxical. As will be discussed frequencies of projectile points and
more fully below , the Southwest in scraping tools, the mean number of arti
general, and the study area in particular , facts per site , completeness of projectile
are excellent locations in which to test points recovered and the presence of
hypothesis about both transition to faunal remains , allowed him to make the
agriculture and agricultural intensification . following distinctions : campsites, kill
sites , processing sites , and quarry sites .
Three lines of evidence are generally used Of considerable importance , however , is
to in fer subsistence economy of the fact that reported Clovis kill sites did
PaleoIndians : archeological remains both not con form to the pattern of kill sites for
faunal and artifactual ethnographic analogy later PaleoIndian periods . Judge ( n.d .:
to modern hunters and gatherers , and 27 ) notes that , based on his criteria, only
climatic reconstruction associated with one site , Miami , Texas ( Sellards 1952 ) ,
propositions about " appropriate " adapta qualifies as a kill site . Sites which have
tions to these cted reconstru conditions . been reported as kill sites in the literature
19
are either processing sites or
Axelrod ( 1967 ) discusses one characteristic
" unsuccess ful " kills according to his
of late Pleistocene climates , corroborated
Unsuccessful kill sites show low by the Llano Estacado data , that has
criteria .
arti fact frequencies , high frequencies of bearing on interpretations of PaleoIndian
complete Clovis points and no butchering subsistence adaptations . This charac
tools . In view of this observation , and teristic is termed climatic equability and
recognition of the difficulties associated refers to thermal moderation or a general
with dependence on mammoth as a prey lack of seasonal variability in temper
species , Judge ( n.d .: 60 ) suggests that atures . In situations of climatic egua
Clovis hunters may have been primarily bility , there is no marked periodicity of
scavengers of mammoth and hunters of resources . For this reason , plant food for
bison and diverse other species . animals would be generally available
Inferences from ethnographic analogy and throughout the year and seasonal congre
climatic reconstruction are important to gation of animals should not occur . ( The
this interpretation of Clovis subsistence . argument disregards aggregation of animal
populations for reproduction . ) It has been
In a comparative study of hunters and argued (Duncan 1975 ) that given conditions
gatherers represented by 58 societies
of high climatic equability at the end of
around the world , Lee ( 1968 ) found that the Pleistocene , the appropriate subsist
11 societies could be considered
only ence strategy for man would be a gener
primarily hunters in that 50 % or mor moree of
alist strategy and that plant foods should
their subsistence came from hunting . Of contribute the major portion of human
the se y e
ll , onl two liv out sid e the arc tic or subsistence in temperate latitudes . Thus ,
subarctic regions . These two groups in studies of modern hunters and
depend about evenly on hunting , fishing gatherers and of " appropriate " subsistence
and gathering . It is not surprising that strategies given the reconstructions of
hunting rather than gathering is the terminal Pleistocene climate , there is the
emphas is th , because the
north
in the far nor suggestion that plant foods and small
growing season is so short that plant foods animals should have played an important
are insignificant. Bin ford ( personal com role in Clovis subsistence .
munication , 1977 ) suggests that all hunters
and gatherers outside the tropical rain Although these arguments are complex and
forests are " generalists . The term problems of recognition and preservation in
" generalist" refers to a strategy in which the archeological data compound the diffi
food is taken in proportion to its abun culties , we may consider the potential of
dance in a particular environment . For the study area for providing relevant
hunters and gatherers in temperate areas in formation about Clovis subsistence and
( not the arctic ) , estimates indicate that
that can be used to test a model of settle
about 60 % of the diet is vegetal food and ment patterns that was proposed to explain
40 % game , which is approximately the material from southern Arizona . Duncan
proportions of these foods available . From
( 1975 ) has contended that despite the lack
these ethnographic studies it may be variations in resource abun
of seasonal variations
in ferred that if Clovis hunters were dance during Clovis times , one would still
primarily mammoth hunters , or even expect an uneven distribution of animal
primarily big game hunters , they would be populations ( potential prey species )
an anomaly , unless climatic reconstructions because of specific geographic features .
indicated that arctic conditions prevailed Her argument is related specifically to the
during Clovis times . Detailed paleoclimatic San Pedro and Sulpher Springs River
reconstructions from Blackwater Draw , on Valleys in Arizona , and she suggests that
the Llano Estacado ( Wendorf and Hester the relatively numerous kill and processing
1975 ) indicate that during Clovis times sites of the San Pedro River Valley
there was considerably more moisture in ( Mur ray Spr ing s , Nac o , Leh ner , and
the area than there is today , that summers Escapule ) reflect the presence of an
were probably cooler than at present , but abundant stream in that valley during
that winters were not cooler than they are Clovis times which would have provided
now . There is certainly no indication of lush grasses attractive to mammoth . She
arctic conditions on the southern Plains argues that geological evidence indicates
( and by extension , the study area ) during that the Sulphur Springs Valley , which
Clovis times . has produced a campsite (Double Adobe )

20
rather than
than kill sites was predominantly Basin , Hell Gap ) , and " Indented Base
grassland and there fore, an area where Series " ( Firstview , Alberta and Cody
evidence of plant utilization and hunting of Complex ) are associated with an average of
small game should occur . The study area , 128.8 bison per kill site . " Viewed as an
as noted , has yielded one Clovis campsite , association between generalized ( combined
one Clovis " locality " and finds of Clovis functions)
kni fe /piercing projectile points
points in high elevation settings . In
represented by the Fluted and Laterally
addition , the Mockingbird Gap site is just thinned series, and points specialized for
south of the study area . No kill sites or piercing functions ( Constricted and
processing sites have been recorded in the Indented Base series ) , it can be seen that
central or northern Rio Grande Valley . distinctions between the subsistence strate
Geological studies of the available camp gies may be reflected in lithic technology
sites and the Clovis " locality " could pro as well " ( Judge n.d .: 61-62 ) .
vide the data to test Duncan's interpre
tative model . In addition , systematic The significance of these associations is
examination of the high elevation sites and
not clear , and the data presently available
materials recovered from these might do not indicate further consistent
provide additional information important to associations . The distinction in size of kill
delimiting the range of resources utilized
is not correlated with the type of bison
during Clovis times that would be useful
(B. antiquus vs. B. occidentalis ) , type of
for testing the proposed generalist nature kill ( trap vs. jump) , geographic area
of Clovis subsistence .
( north vs. south Plains or east vs. west
Plains ) , or time period ( see Figure 1 ) .
There is general agreement on the basic
The range of reported PaleoIndian point
context of PaleoIndian adaptations following types in the study area includes repre
Clovis . Geological interpretations indicate
sentatives of each of Judge's series , and if
a general decrease in effective moisture
for no other reason , the area is important
( with some fluctuations ) and a concomitant
for further interpretations of PaleoIndian
decrease in climatic equability . Further , subistence economy . The lack of reported
mammoth and other Pleistocen e mega fauna kill sites in the study area should not
had become extinct . The decrease in
detract from the potential significance of
effective moisture is reflected archeologi the data available . Campsites do occur
cally by the survey data provided by both and could be highly in formative , because
the central Rio Grande ( Judge and Dawson
they provide the greatest diversity of
1972 ) and the Blackwater Draw area ( Broilo
arti fact types as well as faunal remains .
1971 ) . The fauna associated with post If they are well preserved , the sites are
Clovis kill sites of the PaleoIndian period use ful for paleoenvironmental and subsist
include Bison , either B. antiquus or ,
ence reconstructions . In addition , the
presumably later , B. occidentalis , cervids, environmental contexts of reported isolated
antelope , and small mammals (cf. Judge
point and point fragment finds ( e.g. ,
n.d .: table 1 ) . Excavated campsites and Henderson 1977a , 1977b , 1977 ) might
processing sites have yielded the remains contribute to the reconstruction of the
of antelope , cervids , canids , rabbits , visited by
range of settings used or
other small mammals , birds and reptiles . Paleolndian groups . In the case of iso
Despite the apparent diversity in faunal lated arti facts ; however , considerable
remains, there is general agreement that caution must be exercised because more
post - Clovis Paleolndian adaptations were recent groups ( especially Utes and
focalized on bison hunting ( Irwin - Williams Apaches ) scavenged PaleoIndian and
n.d. , Judge n.d. ) . Judge ( n.d .: 61-62 ) Archaic points . Lithic scatters that
notes an association between his projectile include debitage may eventually provide
point " series " and the numbers of bison unambiguous evidence of PaleoIndian use .
represented at kill sites . Excluding It should be possible to date debitage
Clovis , the " Fluted Point series " ( Folsom ) directly through obsidian hydration if
and the " Laterally Thinned Series " obsidian is present . If obsidian is lacking ,
( Midland , Plainview , and Frederick ) are
it may be possible to differentiate lithic
associated with an average of 29 bison per scatters by determining reduction tech
kill site . Folsom materials yield the lowest niques that are specific to PaleoIndian
number of bison per kill site an average of peoples .
15.25 with 23 as the maximum number .
Both " Constricted Base Series" ( Agate
The only systematic attempt to study the

21
settlement technology of Late PaleoIndians Paleolndian groups have been conducted
is the survey reported by Judge and outside the study area . These are
Dawson ( 1972 ) and Judge ( 1973 ) . The Gorman's ( 1972 ) investigations of Clovis
results of this survey have been dis
data , and Wilmsen's ( 1972 , 1974 ) reexami
cussed . Although I consider that the nation of Folsom materials from the
in formation gathered during this survey is Lindenmeier site in Colorado . Gorman's
completely reliable , I am not convinced of study has been criticised , because he
the utlimate value of " site pattern recog showed a lack of familiarity with his data .
nition " or any other form of purposive
The results of neither of these studies can
sampling . Site pattern recognition was be considered conclusive . For this reason ,
used because it was efficienct in terms of the specific results will not be discussed
man - hours spent in the field ( Judge 1973 ) . here , but the basic similarity in the pro
This is the reason for all sampling strat cedures employed to reconstruct social
egies . The problems with site pattern organization is worth mention . In both
recognition are that it lacks potential for
cases , the investigators used technological
adding new in formation about the environ analysis of arti facts and differential
mental correlates of site locations , and the variability in artifact attributes in order to
strategy cannot go beyond empirical gener in fer the composition of the social groups
alization about site distribution . Thus ,
responsible for the manufacture and use of
Judge ( 1973 ) suggests that site pattern the artifacts . In contrast to Judge's
recognition should be tested outside his ( n.d. ) approach , Gorman and Wilmsen
survey area . Oaks ( 1977 ) did this and
expect variability in projectile point attrib
encountered no PaleoIndian sites . Since
social
utes to reflect different groups
Judge and Dawson ( 1972 ) and Judge ( 1973 ) rather than different functions . It can be
do not indicate how frequently they failed suggested that future research proceed
to find sites in their survey area , there is along two lines if archeologists are to
no basis for evaluating the significance of better understand what attribute varia
Oaks ' ( 1977 ) results . Further , if Oaks
bility monitors . One line of enquiry shoud
had been successful in locating PaleoIndian be experimentation , specifically the ap
sites , we would have learned nothing
proaches currently being used by Frison
beyond what we already know .
( 1974 ) and Tringham ( 1979 ) . Second ,
continued ethnoarcheological observation ,
The two studies explicity designed to
as currently being persued by White and
monitor social organization among
Thomas ( 1972 ) would seem to be essential .

22
 THE ARCHAIC PERIOD

INTRODUCTION sites , are inadequate . Two of these

or absence of ce
criteria , the presence
Within the study area , the Archaic is ramics and the presence or absence of
known from recent work in the Abiquiu fire - cracked rock , are briefly discussed as
Reservoir District ( Schaafsma 1975 , 1976 , Ceramic vessels for storage and
examples .
1977 ) , White Rock Canyon - Cochiti Lake cooking are a major diagnostic of the
( Biella and Chapman 1975 , 1977 , Chapman puebloan period , because heavy , yet easily
and Biella 1977 ) ; investigations west of broken containers are used by sedentary
Albuquerque ( Reinhart 1967 , 1968 , rather than highly mobile groups . On the
Schaafsma 1968 , Campbell and Ellis 1952 , other hand , Pueblo hunters would not be
Agogino and Hester 1953 , Lent and Schalk expected to carry pottery vessels any
1977 ) ; scattered in formation from the great distance from villages , and the
Chama area ( Snow 1975 , Warren 1975 ) , the remains of their over - night camps would be
Cimarron ( Steen 1955 , Thoms 1976 ) , the characterized appropriately as a- ceramic
Galisteo Basin ( Lang 1977a , 1977b , Honea ( rather than pre - ceramic ) .
1969 ) , and the Pajarito Plateau ( Hill 1978 ) .
Although difficult to assess some of the Loci which were used for hunting or plant
material from the northern Rio Grande , processing by Archaic groups were also ,
( Renaud 1942 1946 ,
1942 , 1946 Ansalone 1971 , Hume apparently , often revisited by later Pueblo
1974a , 1974b ) may be related to the groups . Particularly if such loci are
Archaic . exposed through wind erosion , the assem
blages recovered frequently contain both
Major problems associated with the Archaic Archaic tools and ceramics . Thus , the
include those mentioned for the PaleoIndian Atrisco sites first documented by Campbell
period ( ie . remains obscured by geological and Ellis 1952 ))
((1952 contained both ceramics
processes of deposition , low site visibility , and lithics although the ceramics were
few diagnostic artifact types , and lack of considered intrusive remains of later
detailed paleoenvironmental studies ) . In groups , and the Atrisco assemblage of
addition , unlike Paleoindian research , the lithics is generally accepted as a late
Archaic has been neglected by archeolo Archaic manifestation ( Irwin -Williams 1967 ,
gists until recently , and some problems Irwin - Williams n.d. ) . Many Archaic sites
result directly from the nature of Archaic contain abundant fire - cracked rock , the
and subsequent Pueblo adaptations . result of a food preparation technique
Briefly , the early part of the Archaic is referred to as basket- boiling . ( Baskets
characterized by mobile populations of cannot be placed directly over an open
hunters and gatherers , relying about flame . Tightly woven baskets or baskets
equally on wild plant foods and relatively coated with pitch hold liquid that can be
small game ( deer , antelope , rabbits etc. ) . heated by dropping hot rocks into the
In the later part of the Archaic this basic basket ) . Nevertheless , the presence of
pattern is continued with the addition of fire - cracked rock is not an unambiguous
cultivated maize to the subsistence base . clue to pre - ceramic occupation . Brugge
Puebloan adaptation is differentiated by ( 1965 ) notes that both Eastern and Western
increased dependence on horticulture and Navajo occasionally used agave and that
sedentary communities , but throughout the both used rocks , either in or out of pits ,
Pueblo sequence ( and well into the historic as part of their agave roasting technology .
period ) , hunting and gathering wild food Anasazi use of agave is also documented
plants continued as a supplementary eco ( Euler and Chandler 1978) . If agave is or
nomic activity . Thus a major problem is was present and utilized in a particular
distinguishing limited activity loci reflect setting , fire - cracked rock may not a priori
ing hunting and wild plant food processing be attributed to Archaic peoples . The
associated with the later Pueblo period , difficulties in distinguishing Archaic sites
from sites reflecting those activities as is most obvious in the examination of
practiced by Archaic period groups . It is survey records . The site files of all
important to note that criteria which , on institutions involved in work in the study
logical grounds , might be used to differen area contain hundreds of records of "lithic
tiate Archaic from Pueblo limited activity scatters " of unknown cultural affiliation

23
 ( ie . possibly Archaic , Pueblo , Navajo or of western North
America principally
Apache ) . because of the basic similarity in adapta
tion . These traits, she argues, must be
An understanding of the Archaic is critical separated analytically from those which are
to both the culture history of the study specific to the Southwest and which derive
area ( and to the Southwest in general ) as from its particular culture history . Thus,
well as to questions of major theoretical she considers rather sparse populations
importance in contemporary archeology. and settlement types that include caves
With respect to culture history , whereas and rockshelters, camps near lake shores
specific PaleoIndian " cultures" are geo and camps on level ground near springs
graphically widespread in North America and streams as characteristic of the
( see preceeding section ) , it has been Archaic of Western North America in
suggested (Irwin -Williams 1967 ) that during general . Within this broad pattern , the
the Archaic 1 ) the Southwest becomes aa South west is somewhat set apart by sites
distinctive culture area for the first time , representing seasonal mountain hunting
and that 2 ) the area is characterized by camps , sites on sand dunes , in alluvial
sufficient internal , geographic hetero valleys and on mesa tops . Using this
geneity that distinct traditions , which
continued into later periods,
basic analytical dichotomy , Irwin -Williams
may be ( 1967 ) distinguishes the elemental south
defined . In regard to theoretical issues , western culture, which she terms PICOSA ,
it has been noted that during the later ( an acronym derived from three relatively
portion of the Archaic , horticulture was well - known archeological units : Pinto
adopted by various groups in the Basin , Cochise and San Jose ) characterized
Southwest . Specifying the conditions by the specific site locations mentioned
under which domestication of plants ( and above , the early adoption of domestic
animals ) occurs and spreads is of major crops , circular dwellings with depressed
importance to both current archeology and floors , lack of bone , shell or stone beads
anthropology ( cf. Ucko , Dimbleby and or pendants , specific projectile point types
Tringham 1972 , Spooner 1972 , Boserup and types of other chipped and ground
1965 , Bin ford 1968 ) . stone items , bone awls made on split or
whole metapoedia , coiled basketry , and
Although concerned with excavations later , gourd vessels , cane cigarettes ,
11
outside the study area , the only systematic wooden hoops , " tablitas " and " pahos .
attempt to synthesize and study both the Continuing the second level of analysis
culture history and adaptive technology of ( ie . thosetraits that are distinctive
the Archaic groups in the Southwest is of culture-historical relationships ) ,
Cynthia Irwin - Williams' (1967 , 1973 , n.d. , Irwin - Williams ( 1967 , 1973 ,
n.d. ) distin
and Irwin - Williams and Tompkins 1968 ) guishes four geographical culture areas
work in the Arroyo Cuervo area (between within the Southwest and two major , dis
the Rio Puerco of the East and the Jemez tinctive temporal periods . It is her
River ) .
. Both because Irwin - Williams' " northern sector " which is of concern
scheme is widely used and because it here ; this includes northern Arizona ,
applies to the study area , a brief dis southeastern Utah , southwestern Colorado
cussion of her approach and results are and northwestern New Mexico
given as background to further discussion ( Irwin-Williams, n.d .: 18 ) . This area is
of the Archaic in the central and northern recognized by a distinctive constellation of
Rio Grande . traits which distinguish it from other areas
within the Southwest , and that indicate
Throughout North America ( and in fact , culture -historical relationships. The
most of the world ) , the end of the last mani festations of this area are termed the
Pleistocene glaciation and the concommitant Oshara Tradition by Irwin - Williams (1973 ) ,
shrinking of grassland areas provided the which she believes shows enough continuity
background for the development of adapta with Anasazi to be considered the origin of
tions based on intensive hunting and the Anasazi .
gathering of locally available resources .
The nature of the adaptation is reflected The Oshara Tradition seems to have begun
in broad similarities in types of sites and somewhat later than the Archaic mani fes
arti fact inventories . Irwin -Williams (1967 ) tations to the south and west of it .
suggests that the Southwest shares certain Irwin -Williams ( n.d .: 22 ) notes that the
culture traits with other Archaic cultures PaleoIndian Cody complex continued in the

24
northern Southwest until about 6000 B.C. , Further , if the Jay Phase represents an
whereas at this time in the south and west Archaic adaptation , it is entirely reason
Archaic mani festations were well underway . able to me that many of the artifacts which
She relates this rather prolonged characterize Jay assemblages will reflect
PaleoIndian use of the northern sector to the functional requisites of this adaptation
the gradual eastward and northward and will there fore more closely resemble
shrinking of grasslands at the end of the artifacts from the western portion of the
Pleistocene . The earliest Archaic mani fes Southwest where plant food processing and
tation in the northern area , the first small game hunting are well - documented
phase of the Oshara Tradition , is referred from about B.C. 9000 ( Rogers et al . 1966 ) .
to as the Jay Phase , which Irwin -Williams Basically , I suggest that further work is
dates to between about B.C. 5500 and necessary before specific arti fact classes
B.C. 4800 . Diagnostic Jay Phase artifacts or attributes of artifacts are assigned
either functional or cultural - historical
include large , slightly shouldered projectile
points , well - made leaf- shaped knives , and meaning in terms of the analytical dichot
numerous very well - made scrapers " omy which Irwin -Williams ( 1967 ) , right fully ,
( Irwin - Williams 1973 : 5) . The projectile argues must be made .

points , Jay points , "

"" Jay are probably the
most distinctive items in this inventory .
Irwin - Williams ( 1973 : 5 , n.d .: 23 ) suggests ARCHAIC ASSEMBLAGES
that Jay points are most closely related to
" Lake Mohave " points , known from sites in The potential of the study area for clari
California and Arizona . There are two fying these problems is quite high . In the
aspects of this interpreta tion which are early 1940's , Renaud ( 1942 ; 1946 ) published
worthy of note . description of what he termed " Upper
Rio Grande Culture . In fact, the term
First , Irwin -Williams is using character encompassed a diversity of lithic assem
istics of the lithic assemblage ( particulary blages , probably representing both a
projectile point morphology ) as an indi variety of activities and considerable
cation of cultural affiliation . Second , she temporal depth . " Upper Rio Grande
views the northern Southwest as having Culture " arti facts are distributed along the
been abandoned by PaleoIndian peoples , northern portions of the Rio Grande in
who presumably moved further east onto New Mexico , with particular concentrations
the Plains ; after a brief hiatus in occu in the Taos area and along the bluffs
pation , the area was reinhabited by above the Chama . Arti facts which would
Archaic peoples whose closest cultural fall within this broad category are known
affiliations lie to the west . As she notes from the Chiflo site ( Ansalone 1971 ) , and
( 1973 : 4-5 ) " no generic connection " is seen Garrapata Ridge ( Hume 1974b ) both north
of Taos . Similar arti facts are known from
between Cody and Jay phase assemblages .
It is worth mentioning here that some of the Cimarron area ( Thoms 1976 , Kirkpatrick
Irwin - Williams statements on Oshara origins 1976a , 1976b ) . While agreeing that " Upper
reflect her position with respect to a Rio Grande Culture " was too broadly
typological argument . " Jay " points are , in defined to be meaningful, Honea ( 1969 : 60 )
outline, quite similar to Hell Gap points , argues that one of Renaud's point types ,
and some writers ( cf. Honea 1969 ) view Jay ( " Rio Grande subtype 1 " ) would be classi
material as a development out of a fied as a Jay point . Honea himself refers
PaleoIndian base , specifically Angostura to the form as a Rio Grande Point . One
assemblages from the Plains . component of the excavated La Bolsa site
Irwin -Williams, on the other hand , regards (LA 356 ) , in the Galisteo Basin ( Honea
this resembalance as fortuitous and sees a 1969 ) , yielded a diversity of artifacts and
much closer relationship between Jay should be compared with Jay assemblages
assemblages and Archaic material of the from the Arroyo Cuervo Area . Hume's
western Southwest . Without having exam ( 1974 ) artifacts from Garrapata Ridge also
should be compared with the full range of
ined Jay assemblages , I cannot offer an
opinion on either position . I suggest , as I Jay arti fact types . Finally , excavations at
for the PaleoIndian complexes , that Pigeon Cliffs , in the Cimarron area , ( Steen
until we know what variation in projectile 1955 ) yielded an Archaic assemblage and a
point morphology means in terms of be radiocarbon date of 8,282 + 1,000 years
havior , all interpretive statements are ago . The Archaic material was termed the
based on as yet unsupported assumptions . " Clayton Horizon . " Neither the minimal

25
artifact descriptions for the Clayton would date to from slightly be fore B.C.
from slightly
Horizon or the single radiocarbon date 3000 to about B.C. 1800 . Similar materials
have been recovered from western New
would permit more than speculation , but
the presence of what may be quite early Mexico , where they were termed the San
Archaic material on the eastern edge of the Jose Complex ( Bryan and Toulouse 1943 ) ,
study area indicates that a thorough from the Acoma area of New Mexico , where
examination of this locality might clarify the term San Mateo Complex was used , and
the notion of eastward and northern from south central Colorado , where the
" drift " of PaleoIndian populations and the name Apex complex was applied
( Irwin - Williams and Irwin 1966 ,
cultural affiliations of Rio Grande Archaic
groups . One of the most daunting diffi Irwin - Williams 1973 ) . Similarities are also
culties in approaching the problem is really seen with the Moab and Aneth complexes ,
a matter of diverse terminology , and it is previously mentioned . San Jose points
manifest continuity with the preceding
my hope that this discussion will provide a
Bajada Phase , but serration along the
guide to terms used in the literature so
that this particular con fusion may even blade is more frequent, decreasing length
tually be resolved . is an overall trend and the stem to blade
ratio becomes relatively shorter . The tool
In the Arroyo Cuervo area , Irwin - Williams kit is dominated by poorly made side
( 1973 ) terms the succeeding Archaic devel scrapers on thin flakes and large chopping
opment the Bajada Phase . It is known tools . Well made side scrapers and the
from three excavated localities and bi facial knives of the earlier Archaic
" numerous surface sites" ( Irwin -Williams complexes are rare or absent ( Irwin - Williams
1973 : 6 ) . She dates the Bajada Phase to 1973 : 8 ) . Ground stone implements include
ca. B.C. 4800 and B.C. 3200 , on the basis pounding stones , shallow basin grinding
of radiocarbon determinations . The Bajada slabs and manos made on simple , small
Phase tool assemblage shows general con cobbles . Large , cobble filled subsurface
tinuity with the preceeding Jay Phase . ovens are features that accompany San
Early Bajada Phase points are distinguish Jose Phase camps ( Irwin -Williams 1973 : 8 ) .
able from Jay points by the presence of One locality in the Arroyo Cuervo area
basal indentation and basal thinning . yielded an irregular post - hole pattern
Later Bajada Phase points have increasingly which suggests a temporary structure . In
well defined shoulders and show a decrease the study area , Schaafsma ( 1976 ) reported
in over - all length . In addition , the assem 4 associated with other
San Jose points associated
blage contains " increasing numbers of Archaic artifacts in the Abiquiu Reservoir
large chopping tools and poorly made side district . As discussed below , other sites
11
scrapers on thin irregular flakes " are often referred to as " Late Archaic , '
( Irwin - Williams 1973 : 7) . Small , cracked presumably because of the absence of
cobble filled hearths and earth ovens are projectile points ( e.g. , Snow 1973a ;
associated with base camps . Irwin - Williams Chapman and Biella 1977 ) .
( 1973 : 7 ) considers some of Renaud's Rio
Grande Complex , the Moab Complex and The succeeding phase of the Late Archaic
Aneth Complex of southeastern Utah similar ( dated from about B.C. 1800 to about B.C.
to the Bajada Phase . The Bajada Phase 800 ) is both critical to our understanding
represents the last Early Archaic manifes of the dynamics in the Rio Grande area
tation in the Arroyo Cuervo Area . In the and the focus of differences of opinion .
following section an assessment of the The major " event" during this time period
Early Archaic will be made ; however , as is the documented appearance of maize ,
Irwin - Williams views it , the Early Archaic derived ultimately from Mexico , within the
of the northern Southwest represents a context of a basically Archaic way of life .
cultural tradition distinctly different from In the Arroyo Cuervo area , Irwin - Williams
that of the preceding PaleoIndian period ( 1973 ) terms this period the Armijo Phase
and notes that " specific developments
and most closely ressembling older Archaic
mani festations of Arizona and Cali fornia . within the tool kit were mostly continua
She al so sees considerable continuity tions of trends from the preceeding phase . "
between the Jay and Bajada Phases with ( Irwin -Williams 1973 : 11 ) . Thus , late forms
change between and within these phases as of the San Jose projectile points " evolved , "
but subsequently there was increased
quite gradual (Irwin - Williams 1973 , n.d. ) .
internal variety in this class of artifacts ,
The San Jose Phase of the Later Archaic , including shallow corner notched or narrow
as defined in the Arroyo Cuervo area , stemmed forms . In the Arroyo Cuervo

26
 area therefore, maize appears to have been The latter question is examined briefly in
accepted by local populations , and no the following section where settlement
discontinuity in the Oshara Tradition is patterns and paleoclimatic reconstructions
seen . However , Irwin - Williams ( n.d .: 39 ) are examined .
notes that in portions of northeastern
Arizona the introduction of maize is asso In the Arroyo Cuervo area , Irwin -Williams
ciated with assemblages resembling contem ( 1973 ) refers to the succeeding phase as
porary versions of the " Cochise Culture " the En Medio Phase , which she suggests
( an Archaic mani festation documented dates to between B.C. 800 and A.D. 400 .
primarily from southern Arizona and This is followed by the Trujillo Phase ,
northern Mexico ) . In addition , Lang which is dated to between A.D. 400 and
( 1977b and personal communcation 1978 ) A.D. 600 . She notes that the En Medio
notes that at around 1500 to 1000 B.C. , in tool kit shows considerable continuity with
the Rio Grande area , the Late Archaic is that of preceding phases , although there
characterized by " physical and adaptive is an increased emphasis on ground stone
traits typical of the northern Mexico - based tools and further stylistic variability in the
Cochise Tradition with an apparent total assemblage . En Medio Phase projec
truncation of the Oshara pattern " ( Lang tile points :
1977b : 2 ) . Lang's interpretation is heavily
influenced by his observations of Late are variations of stemmed corner
Archaic material from the Galisteo Basin notched forms which trend through
( Lang , personal communication 1978 ) . time toward the use of increasingly
Although Irwin - Williams and Lang base long barbs . Bi facial knives and
their differing views on examination of drills occur in small numbers near
materials which are spatially separated the beginning of the period , and
( and each may be correct for the respec increase in importance through time .
tive areas ) , the underlying issue of the However , the great bulk of the tool
dynamics of cultural change is central to kit, comprising flake scrapers and
this problem and the interpretations of knives , crude choppers and
later prehistoric developments in the study pounders , continued little changed
area and the Southwest as a whole . The from the preceding phase .
basic issue is how much of Southwestern Materials from the short irujillo
prehistory can be explained as a result of Phase generally represent continua
internal cultural responses and how much tions of trends established in the En
attributed to rather direct in fluence from Medio . Two major innovations are the
northern Mexico . In this case , there is no introduction of the bow and arrow
question that maize was domesticated .. and limited quantities of plain
originally in Mexico and subsequently grey ceramics . ( Irwin -Williams 1973 :
adopted in the Southwest . The problem is 13 ) .
whether the mechanism for this introduc
tion of maize involved the actual movement The importance of the dating of the En
of " Cochise " peoples into the northern Medio and Trujillo Phases is that together
Southwest or whether local pressures they span the transition from late Archaic
necessitated the adoption of cultivation by Basketmaker II and early Basketmaker
III .
peoples who , although they probably were The emphasis placed on continuity in
well aware of maize , had not previously arti fact inventories indicates that
been able or " needed " to incorporate this Irwin -Williams views the Oshara Tradition
crop into their economic base . No attempt as an in situ development from early
can be made to solve this problem here . Archaic through to the Pueblo - Anasazi
An acceptable solution must involve two sequence in the Arroyo Cuervo area .
levels of approach . First , the distinctive
ness of the entire Chiricahua Cochise The basic continuity in arti fact assem
Phase and Armijo Phase assemblages must blages between Archaic and Anasazi
be clearly delineated , and this delination Basketmak er has been documente d on the
must involve a consideration of parallels basis of the excavation of several sites
which are to be expected on the basis of west of Albuquerque , in the study area
similarities in artifact function . Second , ( Reinhart 1968 ) . The area investigated
the context in which agriculture is adopted and reported by Reinhart encompasses land
by any population must be evaluated in the held by Rio Rancho Estates and Volcano
light of our current theoretical knowledge . Cliffs development corporations . Sites

27
were located on aeolian sand surfaces in an relies heavily on Boserup's ( 1965 ) argument
area which , today , lacks permanent water . that demographic pressure is the indepen
The cultural sequence developed by dent variable in causing technological
Reinhart ( 1969 ) is : Atrisco ( which change . In the archeological literature ,
Irwin -Williams ( 1973 ) includes as Late the theoretical framework is elaborated in
Archaic ) , Rio Rancho Phase , which the seminal work of Bin ford ( 1968 ) .
Reinhart considers the local manifestation Briefly , two conditions are important to
of Basketmaker II , and the Alameda Phase , the theoretical base . First , ( as elaborated
the local Basketmaker III . Although
by Bin ford 1968 ) , current models depend
radiocarbon dates were not obtained for on documenting a condition of population
the Atrisco sites , the Rio Rancho Phase disequilibrium occurring in an area where
was dated to B.C. 962 + 162 and B.C. 108
potentially domesticable plants ( or animals )
+ 206 , by two samples and thus is approxi exist . Simply stated an area which sup
mately contemporary with the En Medio
ports low density hunting - gathering popu
Phase . Although Reinhart's work was lations is seen to receive increments of
done prior to Irwin - Williams investigations people " displaced " from sedentary commu
in the Arroyo Cuervo area , he ( 1967 ) notes nities outside the area . The increased
that his Rio Rancho Phase resembles both numbers of people are forced to develop
San Pedro Cochise and later Basketmaker the more intensive strategy involved in
II materials ( from Durango , Colorado ) . plant domestication . ( In theory , popula
Some of his published photographs of tion disequilibrium could also occur if
projectile points , would seem to fit those
depleted game forced hunters and gatherers
examples published for the En Medio Phase
to supplement their diets with cultigens . )
( Irwin - Williams 1973 ) . The second condition ( elaborated by
Flannery 1968 ) involves the notion of
scheduling and is not incompatible with
ASSESSMENT OF ARCHAIC Scheduling is
population di sequilibrium .
CULTURAL SYSTEMS based on the observation that edible foods
are not equally available at all times of the
As noted above , archeological interest in year , and hunters and gatherers must
the Archaic is quite recent . This seems to sched ule their activi ties to coinc ide with
be a reflection of the facts that Archaic local abundance of food ( essentially one
remains are not archeologically rich ( in In making
can't be two places at once ) .
ornamental items , for example ) as are later scheduling decisions , it is clear that some
Pueblo sites , and they are not important to resources will be neglected , but it is
the problem of establishing the time of assumed that time will be spent on those
man's entry into the Americas , which
resources which are most productive , and
stimulated much of the PaleoIndian research , these may in turn be potential cultigens ,
General archeological interest in the origins
of agriculture in both the Old World and It should be noted that although these
the Americas ( MacNeish 1971 , Bin ford 1968 ) , conditions relate to areas where domesti
and the theoretical issues involved in
cation first occurred , they are not inapplic
explaining both the beginnings of agricul able to the Southwest where already domes
ture and its spread provide the context ticated plants were adopted . Again , based
for the admittedly still limited study of the on the observation that agriculture requires
Archaic in the Southwest . Prior to the a higher labor investment than hunting
1950's and 1960's , the " invention " of agri and gathering , coupled with the notion
culture by man was seen as almost a that the principle of least effort is
natural outgrowth of an " evolutionary applicable to man , there would have to be
trend " toward more complete control over a reason for the acceptance of agriculture .
the natural environment . As such , it did Also , as noted , the Southwest is distin
not merit the development of an explana guished as a distinctive culture area
tory framework . The recognition that
( Irwin -Williams 1967 ) in part because of the
hunting and gathering require less relatively early acceptance of agriculture ,
intensive labor investments than agricul
ture as well as archeological evidence that With this background ,
this specific questions
the first crops domesticated were not about Archaic cultures involve : 1 ) monitor
highly productive ( Harlan 1967 , Flannery ing the climatic conditions under which the
1968 ) , indicated that agriculture had to be cultural adpatations took place ; 2 ) delimit
explained . The current explanatory model ing the demographic structure , particularly

28
changes in population density ; and 3) tively late appearance of the Farly Archaic
defining the economic base both prior to in the northern Southwest to the continued
and after the adoption of cultigens . These presence of the grasslands which would
specific issues are di scussed below , have supported large game and а
although admittedly the data critical to PaleoIndian way of life . Although this may
them are minimal. be true , the available data do not seem
sufficiently detailed to support this con
clusion , particularly with respect to а
ARCHAIC PALEOCLIMATIC continuation of grasslands on the eastern
RECONSTRUCTION margins of the Southwest . Irwin - Williams'
( 1973 : n.d. ) interpretations are , of
Few paleoclimatic studies on on the Archaic course , based on both archeological data
are available , and those that have been ( particularly dated assemblages and site
done are based on geological interpretations distribution ) as well as on paleoclimatic
and pollen profiles ( e.g. , Irwin - Williams reconstructions , but if changes in climate
and Haynes 1967 , Mehringer 1967 , are viewed as causal , then they must be
which monitored independently. Thus , the
Irwin -Williams and Tompkins 1968 ) ,
do not provide the fine detail that arche relatively later beginning of the Oshara
ologists would find most use ful. Neverthe tradition , compared to Archaic manifesta
less , an overview is given here . There is tions in the southern Southwest is neither
general agreement that increased climatic well - documented or explained . Clarification
desiccation characterized the post might come from two sorts of research .
Pleistocene climate of the Southwest , but First , in view of the relatively early dates
the precise dating of the onset of this for the " Clayton Horizon " noted above ,
desiccation trend , as well as internal intensive survey and excavation on the
fluctuations within it , are not well western plains margins ( including such
documented . Probably most significantly areas as the Galisteo Basin ) should be
for the present study , there have been no carried out . It is significant, in this
paleoclimatic reconstructions within the regard , that recent work in southeastern
study area which are of the appropriate New Mexico dealing with the Archaic
time depth . Geological studies of the San " Hueco Complex , " has yielded quite early
Augustin Basin ( Powers 1939 ) , Lake dates for Archaic assemblages and maize
Estancia ( Bachuber 1971 ) and the Llano (Wimberly 1972 , Irwin - Williams n.d .: 44 ) .
Estacado ( Haynes 1975 ) ( summarized in Second , systematic paleoclimatic studies ,
Cully 1977 ) indicate the following : a using several techniques , should be
decrease in moisture , indicated by a lower carried out in the study area . Because
ing of the shoreline , in the San Augustin most of the Archaic sites in the study area
Basin prior to 3000 B.C .; desiccation in consist of surficial deposits with no perish
the Estancia Basin , documented by the able material, detailed geological studies ,
disappearance of Lake Willard , at 4000 perhaps along the lines pursued by Hall
B.C. , and a cycle of erosion on the Llano ( 1977 ) , would be valuable . Recent studies
Estacado between B.C. 5000 and B.C. have indicated that it is possible to extract
3000 . Palynological data from southern pollen from sand dune locations ( David
Arizona and southwestern New Mexico Snow personal communication , 1978 ) , so this
( Martin 1963 ) , from western New Mexico technique of paleoenvironmental reconstruc
and eastern Arizona ( Schoenwetter 1962 ) tion should be considered . Cave and rock
and from southeastern Arizona ( Mehringer shelter locations which are located should
1967 ) are both scant and contradictory for be given particular attention , because they
the same time period . Briefly , although often do preserve otherwise perishable
s
remain . I sug ges t that obta inin g the
Martin ( 1963 ) thought the pollen data from
southern Arizona indicated a warmer and usual few pollen samples from rock shelter
possibly wetter interval between B.C. 6000 deposits is not sufficient. In order to
and B.C. 4500 , Mehringer's ( 1967 ) fully assess the climatic regime during the
recent work in the same area has not Early ( and later ) Archaic , geological
confirmed this . Mehringer's ( 1967 ) study studies of cave deposits ( specifically
suggests a dry interval instead . chemical analyses done with the assistance
Schoenwetter's ( 1962 ) work refers primarily of trained geologists ) need to be con
to seasonality in rainfall. ducted , microtine rodents identified , all
vegetal material analyzed , etc.
As noted in he previous section ,
Irwin -Williams ( n.d .: 22 ) relates the rela There is some agreement that in the widely

29
were located on aeolian sand surfaces in an relies heavily on Boserup's ( 1965 ) argument
area which , today , lacks permanent water . that demographic pressure is the indepen
The cultural sequence developed by dent variable in causing technological
Reinhart ( 1969 ) is : Atrisco ( which change . In the archeological literature ,
Irwin-Williams ( 1973 ) includes as Late the theoretical framework is elaborated in
Archaic ) , Rio Rancho
Phase , which the seminal work of Bin ford (1968 ) .
Reinhart considers the local manifestation Briefly , two conditions are important to
of Basketmaker II , and the Alameda Phase , the theoretical base . First , (as elaborated
the local Basketmaker III . Although by Bin ford 1968 ) , current models depend
radiocarbon dates were not obtained for
on documenting a condition of population
the Atrisco sites , the Rio Rancho Phase disequilibrium occurring in an area where
was dated to B.C. 962 + 162 and B.C. 108 potentially domesticable plants (or animals )
+ 206 , by two samples and thus is approxi exist . Simply stated an area which sup
mately contemporary with the En Medio ports low density hunting - gathering popu
Phase . Although Reinhart's work was
lations is seen to receive increments of
done prior to Irwin - Williams investigations people," displaced " from sedentary commu
in the Arroyo Cuervo area , he ( 1967 ) notes nities outside the area . The increased
that his Rio Rancho Phase resembles both
numbers of people are forced to develop
San Pedro Cochise and later Basketmaker
II materials ( from Durango, Colorado ) . the more intensive strategy involved in
plant domestication . ( In theory , popula
Some of his published photographs of tion disequilibrium could also occur if
projectile points , would seem to fit those depleted game forced hunters and gatherers
examples published for the En Medio Phase to supplement their diets with cultigens . )
( Irwin -Williams 1973 ) . The second condition ( elaborated by
Flannery 1968 ) involves the notion of
scheduling and is not incompatible with
ASSESSMENT OF ARCHAIC population disequilibrium . Scheduling is
CULTURAL SYSTEMS based on the observation that edible foods
are not equally available at all times of the
As noted above , archeological interest in year , and hunters and gatherers must
the Archaic is quite recent . This seems to schedule their activities to coincide with
be a reflection of the facts that Archaic local abundance of food ( essentially one
remains are not archeologically rich ( in can't be two places at once ) . In making
ornamental items, for example ) as are later scheduling decisions , it is clear that some
Pueblo sites , and they are not important to resources will be neglected , but it is
the problem of establishing the time of assumed that time will be spent on those
man's entry into the Americas , which resources which are most productive , and
stimulated much of the PaleoIndian research . these may in turn be potential cultigens ,
General archeological interest in the origins
of agriculture in both the Old World and It should be noted that although these
the Americas ( MacNeish 1971 , Bin ford 1968 ) , conditions relate to areas where domesti
and the theoretical issues involved in cation first occurred , they are not inapplic
explaining both the beginnings of agricul able to the Southwest where already domes
ture and its spread provide the context ticated plants were adopted . Again , based
for the admittedly still limited study of the on the observation that agriculture requires
Archaic in the Southwest . Prior to the a higher labor investment than hunting
1950's and 1960's , the " invention " of agri and gathering , coupled with the notion
culture by man was seen as almost a that the principle of least effort is
natural outgrowth of an " evolutionary applicable to man , there would have to be
trend " toward more complete control over a reason for the acceptance of agriculture.
the natural environment . As such , it did Also , as noted , the Southwest is distin
not merit the development of an explana guished as a distinctive culture area
tory framework . The recognition that ( Irwin -Williams 1967 ) in part because of the
hunting and gathering require less
relatively early acceptance of agriculture.
intensive labor investments than agricul
ture as well as archeological evidence that With this background , specific questions
the first crops domesticated were not about Archaic cultures involve : 1 ) monitor
highly productive ( Harlan 1967 , Flannery ing the climatic conditions under which the
1908 ) , indicated that agriculture had to be cultural adpatations took place ; 2 ) delimit
explained . The current explanatory model ing the demographic structure , particularly

28
changes in population density ;; and 3 ) tively late appearance of the Farly Archaic
defining the economic base both prior to in the northern Southwest to the continued
and after the adoption of cultigens . These grasslandss which would
presence of the grassland
specific issues are di scussed below , have supported large game and a
although admittedly the data critical to PaleoIndian way of life . Although this may
them are minimal. be true , the available data do not seem
sufficiently detailed to support this con
clusion , particularly with respect to a
ARCHAIC PALEOCLIMATIC continuation of grasslands on the eastern
RECONSTRUCTION margins of the Southwest . Irwin -Williams
( 1973 : n.d. ) interpretations are , of
Few paleoclimatic studies on the Archaic course , based on both archeological data
are available , and those that have been (particularly dated assemblages and site
done are based on geological interpretations distribution ) as well as on paleoclimatic
and pollen profiles ( e.g. , Irwin - Williams reconstructions , but if changes in climate
and Haynes 1967 , Mehringer 1967 , are viewed as causal , then they must be
Irwin -Williams and Tompkins 1968 )) ,, which monitored independently . Thus , the
do not provide the fine detail that arche relatively later beginning of the Oshara
ologists would find most useful. Neverthe tradition , compared to Archaic manifesta
less, an overview is given here . There is tions in the southern Southwest is neither
general agreement that increased climatic well- documented or explained . Clarification
desiccation characterized post the might come from two sorts of research .
Pleistocene climate of the Southwest , but First , in view of the relatively early dates
the precise dating of the onset of this for the "Clayton Horizon " noted above,
desiccation trend , as well as internal intensive survey and excavation on the
fluctuations within it , are not well western plains margins ( including such
documented . Probably most significantly areas as the Galisteo Basin ) should be
for the present study, there have been no carried out . It is significant , in this
paleoclimatic reconstructions within the regard , that recent work in southeastern
study area which are of the appropriate New Mexico dealing with the Archaic
time depth . Geological studies of the San " Hueco Complex , " has yielded quite early
Augustin Basin ( Powers 1939 ) , Lake dates for Archaic assemblages and maize
Estancia ( Bachuber 1971 ) and the Llano (Wimberly 1972 , Irwin -Williams n.d .: 44 ) .
Estacado ( Haynes 1975 ) ( summarized in Second , systematic paleoclimatic studies ,
Cully 1977 ) indicate the following : а using several techniques , should be
decrease in moisture , indicated by a lower carried out in the study area . Because
ing of the shoreline, in the San Augustin most of the Archaic sites in the study area
Basin prior to 3000 B.C .; desiccation in consist of surficial deposits with no perish
the Estancia Basin , documented by the able material , detailed geological studies,
disappearance of Lake Willard , at 4000 perhaps along the lines pursued by Hall
B.C. , and a cycle of erosion on the Llano (1977 ) , would be valuable . Recent studies
Estacado between B.C. and B.C.
5000 have indicated that it is possible to extract
3000 . Palynological data
from southern pollen from sand dune locations (David
Arizona and southwestern New Mexico Snow personal communication , 1978 ) , so this
(Martin 1963 ) , from western New Mexico technique of paleoenvironmental reconstruc
and eastern Arizona ( Schoenwetter 1962 ) tion should be considered . Cave and rock
and from southeastern Arizona ( Mehringer shelter locations which are located should
1967 ) are both scant and contradictory for be given particular attention , because they
the same time period . Briefly , although often do preserve otherwise perishable
Martin (1963 ) thought the pollen data from remains . I suggest that obtaining the
southern Arizona indicated a warmer and usual few pollen samples from rock shelter
possibly wetter interval between B.C. 6000 deposits is not sufficient . In order to
and B.C. 4500 , Mehringer's (1967 ) more fully assess the climatic regime during the
recent work in the same area has not Early ( and later ) Archaic , geological
confirmed this . Mehringer's (1967 ) study studies of cave deposits ( specifically
suggests a dry interval instead . chemical analyses done with the assistance
Schoenwetter's (1962 ) work refers primarily of trained geologists ) need to be con
to seasonality in rainfall. ducted , microtine rodents identified , all
vegetal material analyzed , etc.
As noted in the previous section ,
Irwin - Williams ( n.d .: 22 ) relates the rela There is some agreement that in the widely
29
distributed areas of the San Augustin 1,000 years may separate two Jay Phase
Basin ( Powers 1939 ) , the Llano Estacado sites . 3 ) The numbers of features present
( Haynes 1975 ) , Estancia Basin ( Bachuber at a site ( particularly open sites ) may
1971 ) , and southeastern Arizona ( Mehringer represent successive reoccupati ons by
1967 ) , there was an increase in available relatively small groups of people rather
moisture at about B.C. 2000 . Using the than а single occupation by a larger
methods suggested above , this should be group .
examined within the study area . The
period from about B.C. 2000 to A.D. 400 No studies of demographic changes in the
is certainly one of the most critical for Archaic have been attempted in the study
understanding cultural changes , since it area though Irwin - Williams ( 1973 ) does
was during this time that cultigens were indicate relative population changes for
adopted in the Southwest . Nevertheless , Arroyo Cuervo , and she is aware of the
well known .
the period is not well Powers problems mentioned above . The specifics
( 1939 ) study indicates that the San of her study will not be treated here , but ,
Augustin Basin contained its peak of about in general, she finds evidence of gradually
100 feet depth of water at about B.C. 1500 increasing population throughout the
and that there was a shrinkage of the lake Archaic . This may well be true . It may
thereafter with a particularly dry interval also be a reflection of the higher proba
at about B.C. 500 . In the Estancia Basin , bility associated with finding sites as time
Lake Meinzer ( which was smaller than Lake depth decreases . ( There has been less
Willard ) formed at about B.C. 2000 and time for geological processes to obscure
became desiccated shortly be fore B.C. remains . ) It should be noted that recently
1000 . Irwin - Williams ( n.d. ) suggests that some archeologists have developed models
the period between B.C. 2500 and B.C. for estimating relative population density
300 was characterized by greater effective ( e.g. , Zubrow 1971 , Plog 1974 ) . These
moisture than at present , with a minor models generally depend on estimating the
uncon formity indicating less effective carrying capacity of various microregions ,
moisture at about B.C. 500 ( Irwin - Williams but without the fine grained climatological
n.d .: 5-6 ) . data necessary to reconstruct past micro
environments , the approach is not reason
It is evident that our understanding of the able for the Archaic at present .
climatic conditions prevailing during a
period of major culture change is inade
quately understood , and that , at this time , ARCHAIC SUBSISTENCE
any arguments which relate the adoption of
agriculture to climatic change are insuffi Two approaches have been utilized to
ciently documented . elucidate the economy of Archaic popu
lations : 1 ) analysis of food remains where
these are preserved ( admittedly rare ) , and
ARCHAIC POPULATIONS 2 ) interpretations based on the locations of
sites with respect to potential resources .
Knowledge of changes in population size The latter procedure includes examination
and density during the Archaic is based of the artifact assemblage of the sites from
on 1) numbers of sites which can be a functional perspective , if this is possible .
assigned to a particular phase , 2) the The first approach , which generally
size of these sites , and 3 ) features present requires the protective environment of a
at sites , such as numbers of hearths , rock shelter , would provide the more
houses , etc. It should be obvious from unambiguous evidence . One note of
the summary of the chronology of the caution with respect to remains from rock
Archaic that we cannot have a high level shelters should be given , however . Rock
of confidence in interpretations based on shelters may represent the loci of seasonal
these sources of in formation . The basic activities or other special uses and there
reasons for this judgement are that 1 ) few fore may not contain the entire range of
of the numerous " possibly " Archaic sites foods utilized by Archaic groups . The
can be assigned to a particular phase second approach requires both sophisti
because they lack diagnostic artifacts . cated knowledge of which resources would
( This is the " lithic scatter " problem . ) 2) have been available at particular loci as
The phases themselves represent consider well as unambiguous interpretation of
able periods of time , so that , for example , artifact function . Given the available data

30
( both paleoenvironmental and archeological ) , selected on the basis of outcrops of
interpretations based on the second volcanic material. However , Hume ( 1973 )
approach must be considered highly reports the presence of both base camps
tentative . and limited activity areas on Garrapata
Ridge . If her continued work does demon
Data relevant to understanding the eco strate base camps of an Early Archaic
nomic base of early Archaic groups are date , it should
should be
be noted that the high
virtually non - existant within the study
ridge does not conform to the canyon head
area , and limited elsewhere in the location which Irwin - Williams suggests was
Southwest . The Pigeon Cliffs " Clayt on selected for base camps in the Arroyo
Horizon " ( which may possibly be early Cuervo area . The San Jose Phase sites at
Archaic )yielded disarticulated bison bones Arroyo Cuervo preserve the same distribu
along with an Archaic arti fact inventory tional pattern ; however , a few ephemeral
( Steen 1955 ) . Irwin - Williams ( 1973 : 5-6 , pond - edge hunting sites have been noted ,
and n.d .: 35 ) notes that in the Arroyo and an especially large hunting camp
Cuervo area , the limited faunal assemblage produced 15 hearths ( Irwin -Williams 1973 ;
consists largely of the remains of medium n.d .: 35 ) . One wonders if the determina
and small - sized game animals . Her inter tion of the function of this site as a
pretation of the Early Archaic economic hunting camp had to do with the arti fact
base is largely dependent on the second inventory or its relatively high elevation .
approach mentioned above ( viz . an exami In the Galisteo Basin Lang ( 1977a ) notes a
nation of site locations and the arti fact San Jose base camp on Galisteo Creek
assemblages associated with specific loci ) . proper and a San Jose site in the San
She notes that Jay Phase sites comprise Cristobal drainage which " appears to have
base camps and small limited activity sites . functioned as a temporary warm - season
The base camps are " uniformly located in base for microbands engaged in mixed
the very favorable environment repre foraging activities " ( Lang 1977a : 15 ) . The
sented by the canyon -head complex , while latter site is located near the grassland
the position of the latter depends upon woodland ecotone . Another site , within
their focus on hunting ( sites located near the woodland zone , was considered a
ephemeral ponds or in the higher warm - season hunting camp , while two sites
mountains ) , generalized foraging ( sites at lower elevations in pinyon -juniper
located on the low mesa ) , or quarrying suggest cool season hunting loci .
( mountain ob sidian quarries ) " Therefore, Lang ( 1977a : 16 ) proposes a
( Irwin -Williams n.d : 25 ) . Further , base seasonal upslope- downslope movement of
camps are relatively small and appear to San Jose Phase microbands focused on the
represent repeated returns to the same movement of deer populations . Seasonal
locality , but show no seasonal di fferentia movements within a prescribed range
tion . The Bajada Phase settlement system ( referred to as transhumance ) is also
is regarded as basically similar in the reflected by the faunal and botanical
Arroyo Cuervo area ( Irwin - Williams n.d .: assemblage recovered at Fresnel Rock
26 ) . Lang ( 1977 : 14 ) notes that Early Shelter , south of the study area in the
Archaic occupation in the Galisteo Basin is Tularosa Basin ( Hueco Complex ) (Robert
sparse , but suggests a pattern similar to K. Hitchcock , personal communication
that described for Arroyo Cuervo . ( It 1977 ) . Schaafsma's work in the Abiquiu
should be noted that Lang ( 1977a : 14 ) reservoir district indicates a long period of
considers the La Bolsa site to be Bajada late Archaic utilization of river terrace
Phase rather than Jay because it contains areas . Since the Abiquiu Reservoir sites
cobble tools which are more common during do not seem to di ffer functionally ,
the Bajada Phase , despite the fact that Schaafsma suggests that they represent
projectile point morphology would indicate one aspect of a seasonal round , the com
Jay Phase . It is also possible that the plementary seasonal activities perhaps
site continued to be used for a rather long occurring at higher elevations (Schaafsma
period of time , spanning both phases . ) 1976 ) . Wendorf and Miller ( 1959 ) remark
the occurrence of a number of late Archaic
It is not known whether the Taos area sites at high elevations in the southern
sites , Chiflo ( Ansalone 1971 ) and Garrapata Sangre de Cristos , but not enough in for
Ridge ( Rule 1973 , Hume 1974 ) date to the mation is provided to evaluate the type of
Early Archaic . Site 54 ( Rule 1973 ) activities these might represent . Although
apparently represents a workshop area ,
the limited data are suggestive of trans

31
 17-18 ) . The San Pedro Phase is repre
humance in the middle and Late Archaic ,
further attention should be given to delimit sented by an increase in the number of
ing the full range of occurrence of Archaic sites in the San Cristobal area , apparently
materials . The importance in documenting consisting of hunting stations located in
the grassland - woodland ecotone area . The
transhumance ( or other regular patterns of
following developments in the Galisteo
Archaic loci ) lies in being able to better
Basin are included within the Basketmaker
define the scheduling activities of Archaic
II Basketmaker III categories .
groups both before and after the introduc
tion of agriculture . Whatever pattern was Basketmaker II is indicated by a large cool
season foraging camp in a well - watered
practiced prior to the use of cultigens
would have had to have been interrupted , canyon tributary of San Cristobal Arroyo
at least briefly , twice during the year for and numerous but small " hunting stations . "
the activities in volved in planting and A relatively large base camp containing
hearths and earth ovens , located on
harvesting . If these activities were of
minimal economic importance , or if they Galisteo Creek , has been radiocarbon dated
might have been performed by only a few to A.D. 255 + 140 , suggesting Basketmaker
members of local groups , supplementary II occupation . The "terminal Archaic of
use of cultigens could easily have been Basketmaker III " in the Galisteo Basin is
integrated into the Archaic pattern . If. represented by warm - season cliff- top
on the other hand ,, the activities were camps over - looking potential agricultural
critical to the subsistence base and / or land along San Cristobal Canyon ( Lang
required large numbers of people , the 1977a : 20 ) .
planting of cultigens would have to be
demonstrably related to some other critical
group need ( such as minimizing economic DISCUSSION
insecurity due to the unpredictability of
some resources ) . In terms of culture history , a major
problem that seems to be developing for
Limited maize agriculture was incorporated the study area involves de finition of a
during the Armijo Phase in the Arroyo " Cochise intrusion , " and its relation to the
Cuervo region . Although there is conti spread of agriculture . From a broad
perspective , it must be remembered that
nuity in settlement pattern , Irwin -Williams
southern Arizona , New Mexico and
( 1973 ) notes a new settlement type camps
representing large seasonal northern Mexico are encompassed within
population
the same general culture area . North
aggregates . This site type was documented
at the Armijo rock shelter , a cliff base site American southwestern archeologists gener
near a canyon head spring ( Irwin - Williams ally view this area as " a southern
n.d .: 37 ) . According to paleobotanical periphery . " Archeologists with experience
and hydrological evidence , she considers in modern Mexico tend to regard the entire
the aggregation to have occured in the Southwest as " the northern periphery " ( or
fall - winter season , perhaps permitted by Gran Chichimeca ) . The domestication of
small amounts of agricultural produce corn took place far to the south in that
coinciding with the period of maximum part of Mexico properly viewed as part of
productivity of natural resources the Mesoamerican culture area , well docu
( Irwin - Williams n.d .: 38 ) . mented in the Tehuacan Valley , of Puebla
and Oaxaca (MacNeish 1971 ) , and possibly
The Oshara Tradition , according to Lang independently in the Valley of Mexico ,
( 1977 ) was " truncated " in the Galisteo near modern Mexico City ( Robert Santly ,
Basin ; the area was abandoned by Oshara personal communication 1978 ) . In
peoples and subsequently , used by peoples Mesoamerica , sed entary com mun ities , and
affiliated with the Chiricahua Phase and indeed large towns , predate the acceptance
San Pedro Phase Cochise . The Chiricahua of corn in the Cochise and Oshara Anasazi
Phase is represented by a single site , areas . In the latter areas , maize agricul
which is functionally like the mixed tural technology differs substantially from
foraging sites on the San Jose - Armijo that associated with maize in Mesoamerica .
Phases , but it is at a lower elevation , For example , in the Southwest , maize
contains a relatively great number of processing involved grinding dried corn on
chopping tools ( which Lang relates to a milling slab , or roasting fresh ears of
cactus processing ) , and shows a decline in corn and then grinding the roasted kernals .
use of Jemez Mountain obsidian and reliance This contrasts with the Mesoamerican
on locally available chert ( Lang 1977a : pattern of soaking corn kernels in a lime

32
solution prior to crushing . Thus , one reasonable to expect that the acceptance of
should not envision an invasion of peoples agriculture and dependence on agriculture
from Mexico bringing agriculture to the should be relatively later , as in fact it
Southwest . Nevertheless , the relationship appears to have been .
with Mesoamerica , as distant as it is , may
be important to the theoretical arguments The above argument , of course , is highly
of population di sequilibrium . Because speculative . We still have no reliable
sedentary communities and towns existed demographic estimates for the Archaic in
early in Mesoamerica , it seems likely that the study area or elsewhere , nor do we
eventually over flow population from this have detailed knowledge of the Archaic
source could have placed pressure on the economic base and the scheduling adjust
Cochise and Oshara peoples of the ments which might made to
have been made
Southwest . The fact that maize was not incorporate maize and other cultigens .

accepted earlier may have been the result These data must be seen as critical needs
of three factors : 1) the ability of within the study area .
Mesoamerican agriculture to expand within
Mesoamerica first and produce surpluses One exceptionally strong caveat with
which could ( and apparently did ) support respect to future studies of Archaic mate
large dense populations before impinging rials in the study area is important. As
on the northern frontier , 2 ) the possibility noted , Archaic artifacts often exist as
that early varieties of Mesoamerican maize surficial deposits , particularly in areas
could not be cultivated in the arid Cochise de flated through wind erosion . If we are
and Oshara areas , 3 ) continued low popu to pursue the detailed environmental and
lation densities and relative abundance of paleoenvironmental studies that I have
wild plant foods and game in the indicated are of primary importance in
Southwest . order to elucidate the Archaic subsistence
pattern , precise recording of the locations
If we accept the notion that demographic of these sites ( in terms of quality of soils ,
pressure is directly related to technological vegetative diversity , etc. ) is essential .
change , one would expect this pressure When surficial artifacts are picked up in
and the concomitant technological change to the course of survey , all context is lost .
be felt first in those areas which provide In effect the entire site has been collected ,
the least amount of reliable resources . and there is nothing left to study . I
The included maps of rainfall and vegeta there fore urge that , unless there are very
tion indicate that compared with other good research reasons for the collection of
areas of the North American Southwest , Archaic material, a non - pickup strategy
the northern sector ( the Oshara area ) is for all Archaic and " undi fferentiated lithic
relatively favorable . There fore it is scatters " be adopted .

33
 ANASAZI PREHISTORY

TAOS AND CIMARRON DISTRICTS The Vermejo Phase is characterized by

In the preceding section it was remarked
that Archaic materials occur in both the
Taos and Cimarron areas . Early Anasazi
communities , however , have been described
for the Cimarron area only . Glassow
( 1972 ) refers to the Basketmaker II mani
festations in the Cimarron as the Vermejo
Phase ( see Table 3 for phase correlations ) .
One radiocarbon date of A.D. 510 ( 1460 +
50 B.P. ) has been obtained from a Vermejo
Phase site in the Middle Ponil drainage .
circular stone houses built on the bluffs
above the canyon floors . Neither storage
facilities of ceramics are present at these
sites . The projectile points found are less
than 1.6 cm in length and grinding slabs
are more common than metates , but corn
has been recovered . It has been sug
gested that this phase in the Cimarron may
represent a seasonal occupation of the
area , possibly during the winter ( Glassow
1972 , Kirkpatrick 1976a , Kirkpatrick and
Ford 1977 ) .

Table 3 Correlation of Phase Designations Used in the Study Area

Date A.D. Pecos Rio Grande Taos Cimarron
Classification Sequence * A rea ** Area ***
1900
Pueblo
1800 V

1700 Historic Jicarilla

1600 Cojo
Pueblo ( Non - Pueblo )
1500 IV

1400 Classic
Talpa
1300
Pueblo
1200 III Coalition Cimarron
Pot Creek
1100 Ponil

Escutores
1000 Pueblo Valdez
II
900

800 Pueblo
I Develop
700 mental

600 Basketmaker
III Pedregoso
500

400 Basketmaker
II Pre - Ceramic Vermejo

* After Wendorf and Reed 1955

** After Wetherington 1968
*** A fter Glassow 1972

34
The succeeding Basketmaker III period in " significant amounts of Red Mesa B /W "
the Cimarron has been termed the occur ( Loose 1974 : Unfortunately ,
33 ) .
11
Pedrogosa Phase ( Glassow 1972 ) . Four " unidentified B / W sherds " are reported for
radiocarbon determinations date the phase the Arroyo Hondo sites as well ( Loose
to about A.D. 750 , and it is considered to 1974 : Table 4 ) . Wetherington ( 1964 : 100 )
have lasted until about A.D. 900 . The notes that the published distinctions
Pedrogosa Phase is best documented at one between Kwahele Black- on- white and Taos
component ( the east component ) of the Black-on- white both presumed to be deriva
North Ponill site, which is in a valley tive of
Mera's ( 1935 ) Chaco II wares
floor setting , against sandstone outcrops including Red Mesa Black-on - white and
of the Poison Canyon formation , This site Escavada Black - on - white are ambiguous
yielded several varieties of firepits, under but he retains Taos Black-on- white as a
ground bottle - shaped cists, roasting ovens type . Green ( 1976 : 63 ) characterizes the
of various sizes , a broad activity area , at Valdez Phase by the " exclusive occurrence
least two shallow pithouses and a large , of " Kwahele B / W : Taos Variety ( formerly
dense scatter of fire - cracked rock . The Taos B / W ) , Taos Neckbanded , Taos Incised
artifact inventory included about a dozen and Taos Plain Gray . " Further , she
plain thick pot sherds , and open end states that Kwahele B / W : Taos variety " is
trough metates and grinding slabs presumed to have been approximately
( Glassow 1972 : 80 , Kirkpatrick and Ford contemporary with the Tesuque variety . .

1977 ) .It is significant for the following . which is indigenous to the Santa Fe
discussion that ceramics present in the area , and has been dated by dendrochron
Pedrogosa Phase, are not painted wares ology to ca. A.D. 900 through 1200 "
either traded into the area or apparently ( Green 1976 : 63 ) .
made in imitation of specific ceramic wares
from outside the area . Botanical remains Mera ( 1935 ) and presumably Peckham and
from the Pedrogosa Phase component at Reed ( 1963 ) view Rio Grande Black - on
North Ponil 1 include both corn (a white ceramics as local copies of Chacoan
chapalote derivative) and beans , as well as types that date to Pueblo II ( ca. 900-1100 )
a variety of commensals and edible nuts in the San Juan . The general assumption ,
and berries . Both the corn and beans inherent in the interpretations , given
show considerable variability ; this has above , seems to be that derived types will
been interpreted as the result of climatic " crystallize" at about the same rate , as

conditions, variable genetic stock , and / or though there were a standard rate of
poor field maintenance ( Kirkpatrick and attribute dri ft among ceramics . The
Ford 1977 ) . interpretive framework is genetic . This is
not only logically absurd , but the earliest
The dating of the subsequent Escritores date thus far reported for the Taos Valdez
Phase in the Cimarron area , and the Phase pithouse is an archeomagnetic date
approximately contemporary Valedez Phase of 1190 + 20 for TA 34 , a pithouse reported
the Taos District (Wetherington 1964 , first by Herold and Luebben ( 1968 ) ( Eighmy
Green 1976 , Loose 1974 ) is not well docu 1978 ) . Of the Valdez Phase sites from the
because it depends on ceramic
mented , because Arroyo Hondo area, which might be earlier ,
cross- dating with a poorly defined and a single archaeomagnetic date of A.D. 1120
variable type of mineral painted black -on was obtained from a surface structure at
white ware . In part because ceramic LA 9205 (Loose 1974 ) . Although Loose
classification of locally produced black - on maintains that Red Mesa sherds do occur
white wares is an omnipresent difficulty in in the Arroyo Hondo sites , Brody
the Rio Grande area , the particular prob ( personal communciation 1978 ) has suga
lem mani fest in the Taos District is dis gested that the sherds are " generically "
cussed in detail here . Glassow assigns the Red Mesa rather than typical. Based on
Cimarron Escritores, Phase to between 900 the discussion above , it is clear that the
and 1100 , based on the presence of Valdez Phase of the Taos District and the
" Kiatuthlanna or Red -mesa - like Black - on Escritores Phase of the Cimarron are in no
white sherds " ( Glassow 1972 : 80
80 )) .. In sense adequately dated . I would suggest
describing the eight Valdez Phase pithouse that, as a minimum , all reputed Red Mesa
sites excavated near Arroyo Hondo , Loose and Red Mesa - like sherds in current
( 1974 ) concludes that all the sites date to collections be examined petrographically ,
the Valdez Phase on the basis of the and that tree-ring dates for pithouses in
culinary sherds present , but notes that the Taos area be obtained where possible .

35
It should be noted in this regard that a the point assemblage included three Jay
number of tree - ring specimens from the points and an Eden base .
Arroyo Hondo Valdez Phase sites were sent
to the Tree - Ring Lab at the University of In the Cimarron area the Escritores Phase
Arizona , but processing was not arranged is followed by the Ponil Phase , for which
for . ceramic cross - dating indicate a temporal
duration of from A.D. 1100 to A.D. 1250 ,
Although no complete , systematic , inven Most of the excavated sites in the
tory survey has ever been made in the Cimarron region are Ponil Phase mani fes
Taos area , Valdez Phase sites have been tations . These include Box Canyon Rock
located in the following situations : the Shelter , which was excavated in 1941 ( Bogan
mountainous areas above the Taos Valley , 1946 ) , the Slab House and Jacal Structure
on terraces and benches adjacent to perma excavated by Lutes ( 1959 ) , and Lizard
nent streams, on ridges or higher benches Cave rock shelter ( Skinner 1964 ,
near tributaries of permanent streams , and Kirkpatrick 1976b ) . Ceramic assemblages
on relatively flat alluvial terraces . Valdez from Ponil Phase sites include both Taos
Phase structures have been found above Incised and Taos Punctate ; Santa Fe
7 ., 750 feet ( Morenon , Henderson and
Black - on - white is absent. It is generally
Nielson 1976 ) . assumed that the Taos wares were traded
into the area rather than locally produced .
Excavated Valdez Phase sites generally The emphasis on rock shelter excavation
consist of small groups of relatively deep has provided a great number of perishable
pithouses ( usually over 8 feet in depth ) , arti facts such as willow shoot mats , wooden
some with associated surface work areas gaming pieces , and yucca objects ( Skinner
and some with surface rooms . Pithouse 1965 , Kirkpatrick 1976b ) . Lutes ( 1959 )
walls are of unplastered earth , plastered notes an abundance of projectile points and
earth or puddled or coursed adobe . Both a diversity of lithic raw material not avail
four post and two post roof supports are able locally . Masonry structures , where
reported . Pithouse shape varies from present , are dry wall and have slab floors .
round to rectangular . Interior firepits are There is reasonable doubt as to whether or
either round or rectangular and about half not the Ponil Phase is most closely affil
have raised adobe rims . An ashpit / damper / iated with the Rio Grande area or with the
firepit complex is frequently present , and Plains . Lutes ( 1959 ) suggests that Rio
ventilators , when observed , are oriented Grande affiliation is indicated by the
east . Escritores Phase sites from the masonry hou ses , san dal s , bas ketry ,
Cimarron consist of small groups of cir straight pipes and the ceramic trade wares .
cular pithouses with four post roof sup On the other hand , the Ponil Phase is
ports , collared firepits and east - oriented
collared distinguished from Anasazi mani festations
ventilators ( Loose 1974 , Wetherington 1964 , by the absence of cranial de formation ,
Blumenschein 1958 , Green 1976 , Kirkpatrick stone axes , and kivas . Although corn has
1976a , 1976b ) . been recovered from Ponil Phase sites , the
number and diversity of projectile points
No quantitative data are available for as well as numerous faunal remains seem to
either cultigens or wild plant or animal indicate a greater emphasis on hunting
food during the Valdez Phase . Green than supposedly characterizes Anasazi
( 1976 ) comments that numerous arti facts adaptation ( Lutes 1959 ) .
made on the bones of deer and rabbits
indicate that these anima ls were hunted .
animals In the Taos District , the Pot Creek Phase
Raw material for ground and flaked stone is dated between A.D. 1200 and A.D. 1250 .
arti facts include locally available sand The dating is based on the presence of
stones , schists , quartzite , cherts and Santa Fe Black - on - white and a limited
chalcedony . Both Green ( 1976 ) and Loose number of tree - ring dates . Santa Fe
( 1974 ) record the presence of some Black - on - white is clearly distinguishable
obsidian arti facts , and Green ( 1976 ) sug among the Rio Grande black - on - white
gests that the nearest source of obsidian wares . It is a carbon painted ware and
may have been the Jemez Mountains .
has been tree -ringdated at numerous sites
Loose ( 1974 : 37 ) notes that 214 complete , in the Santa Fe River area and on the
58 fragmentary and 18 projectile point Pajarito Plateau . Breternitz ( 1966 ) gives
bases were recovered from the Arroyo A.D. 1200 to A.D. 1350 as its best dates .
Hondo Valdez Phase sites . In addition , Within the Taos District , Wetherington

36
 in the Gallina Phase ( A.D. 1100 to A.D.
( 1964 ) characterizes the Pot Creek Phase
1250 ) in the Gallina District , west of the
as a period during which population aggre
Rio Grande .
gated into multi- family surface pueblos .
He views this development as the result of
The Llano site was excavated by Jeancon
increasing population in the area , primarily
coming from the Santa Fe District to the in 1920 ( Jeancon 1929 ) . Considering the
south ( Wetherington 1964 : 162 ) . The Phase apparent absence of central basins within
rooms , the details of adobe construction ,
is actually known from only three exca
etc. Wetherington ( 1964 ; 160 ) thinks that
vated sites ; portions of Pot Creek Pueblo ,
Llano probably belongs within the Pot
TA -26 , and probably the Llano Site ( L.A.
Creek Phase . It is , of course , difficult to
1892 ) . Pot Creek Pueblo is a large , multi
evaluate Jeancon's ceramic descriptions ,
component site at an elevation of 7,200 feet
in a valley setting among the Tres Ritos because they were written before much
Hills southeast of Taos . Most of the in formation on the ceramics of the area was
excavated structures at Pot Creek Pueblo available .
relate to the later , Talpa Phase . However ,
four rooms , a kiva and two occupation Surveys in the Taos District ( Blumenschein

" areas " found beneath Talpa Phase rooms 1956 , 1958 , Herold 1968 ) report numerous
" unit pueblos " in the Arroyo Hondo ,
were assigned to the Pot Creek Phase .
Arroyo Miranda , Rio Grande de Ranchos
The rooms lacked the central post - basin
area which may relate to the Pot Creek
complex characteristic of the later Talpa
Phase . The Pot Creek Phase kiva con Phase , but which have not been tested or
excavated .
tained an ashpit- deflector - firepit complex ,
characteristic of Valdez Phase pithouses ,
but contained five roof support posts and In the Cimarron area , Santa Fe Black - on
a tri - level floor drum typical of later , white ceramics are associated with the
Talpa Phase kivas (Wetherington 1964 : Cimarron Phase , which is considered the
79-81 ) . final phase related to Puebloan occupation
of the area . A date of A.D. 1100 through

TA - 26 ( Vickery 1969 ) is a small , 8 - room A.D. 1300 is proposed for this phase on
pueblo with an associated plaza and kiva , the basis of ceramic - cross dating , in this
located at an elevation of 7,420 feet in the case with the presence of Santa Fe Black
on - white . Cimarron Plain , neckbanded ,
same general area as Pot Creek Pueblo .
Rooms were constructed of coursed adobe , incised and punctate types are also asso
and lacked central basins , firepits and ciated with Cimarron Phase sites ( Glassow
hearths . Interior room features comprised 1972 , Kirkpatrick 1976b ) . Based on the
dates for Santa Fe Black -on- white
unburned basins and a central post roof
support . The kiva contained sub - floor ( Breternitz 1966 ) , A.D. 1100 would seem too
channels , like those described for the Pot early a beginning date for the Cimarron
Creek Phase kiva at Pot Creek Pueblo , and Phase , and independent methods of dating
a central firepit / ashpit / de flector complex . should be applied . The final date of A.D.
A single tree - ring date of A.D. 1207 was 1300 for the phase does not seem unreason
obtained . Vickery dates the occupation of able , in light of the abandonment of many
the site to from A.D. 1190 to A.D. 1250 on small sites in the Taos District and the
the basis of the tree - ring date , ceramics , concomitant aggregation at about that time .
and architectural details . Although most Cimarron Phase sites generally consist of
of the decorated ceramics were Santa Fe small , multi - room surface pueblos with
Black - on - white , a few Talpa Black - on coursed adobe or rock masonry walls .
white sherds were recovered . Vickery They are generally located on the lower
suggests that TA - 26 may have been aban portion of Ponil Creek and along the
doned at about the time that Pot Creek Cimarron River ( Glassow 1972 : 81 ;
Pueblo was undergoing architectural expan Kirkpatrick 1976a , 1976b ) . Sites in the
sion during the Talpa Phase . A diversity Watrous area ( Lister 1948 ) may also relate
of bird and mammal bones recovered from to the Cimarron Phase . In addition to the
TA - 26 were identified by the investigator puebloan house types and ceramics ,
( Vickery 1969 : 68 ) . She also notes that Cimarron Phase sites have yielded а
both trough and flat metates were re variety of lithics , including Plains style
covered . TA - 26 also yielded a trinotched snub - nosed end - scrapers . Gunnerson

axe which is reported for the Valdez Phase ( 1959 ) suggested that these items may have
known to occur been traded in from the Plains . In any
by Green ( 1976 ) and also

37
It should be noted in this regard that a the point assemblage included three Jay
number of tree - ring specimens from the points and an Eden base .
Arroyo Hondo Valdez Phase sites were sent
to the Tree- Ring Lab at the University of In the Cimarron area the Escritores Phase
Arizona, but processing was not arranged is followed by the Ponil Phase , for which
for . ceramic cross- dating indicate a
a temporal
duration of from A.D. 1100 to A.D. 1250 .
Although no complete , systematic , inven Most of the excavated sites in the
tory survey has ever been made in the Cimarron region are Ponil Phase manifes
Taos area , Valdez Phase sites have been tations . These include Box Canyon Rock
located in the following situations : the Shelter, which was excavated in 1941 ( Bogan
mountainous areas above the Taos Valley , 1946 ) , the Slab House and Jacal Structure
on terraces and benches adjacent to perma excavated by Lutes (1959 ) , and Lizard
nent streams, on ridges or higher benches Cave rock shelter ( Skinner 1964 ,
near tributaries of permanent streams , and Kirkpatrick 1976b ) . Ceramic assemblages
on relatively flat alluvial terraces . Val dez from Ponil Phase sites include both Taos
Phase structures have been found above Incised and Taos Punctate ; Santa Fe
7 , 750 feet (Morenon , Henderson and Black-on-white is absent . It is generally
Nielson 1976 ) . assumed that the Taos wares were traded
into the area rather than locally produced .
Excavated Valdez Phase sites generally The emphasis on rock shelter excavation
consist of small groups of relatively deep has provided a great number of perishable
pithouses (usually over 8 feet in depth ) , artifacts such as willow shoot mats , wooden
some with associated surface work areas gaming pieces, and yucca objects ( Skinner
and some with surface rooms . Pithouse 1965 , Kirkpatrick 1976b ) . Lutes (1959 )
walls are of unplastered earth , plastered notes an abundance of projectile points and
earth or puddled or coursed adobe. Both a diversity of lithic raw material not avail
four post and two post roof supports are able locally . Masonry structures , where
reported . Pithouse shape varies from present , are dry wall and have slab floors .
round to rectangular . Interior firepits are There is reasonable doubt as to whether or
either round or rectangular and about half not the Ponil Phase is most closely affil
have raised adobe rims . An ashpit / damper / iated with the Rio Grande area or with the
firepit complex is frequently present , and Plains . Lutes (1959 ) suggests that
ventilators , when observed , are oriented Grande affiliation is indicated by the
east . Escritores Phase sites from the masonry houses , sandals , basketry ,
Cimarron consist of small groups of cir straight pipes and the ceramic trade wares.
cular pithouses with four post roof sup On the other hand , the Ponil Phase is
ports , collared firepits and east-oriented distinguished from Anasazi manifestations
ventilators (Loose 1974 , Wetherington 1964 , by the absence of cranial de formation ,
Blumenschein 1958 , Green 1976 , Kirkpatrick stone axes, and kivas . Although corn has
1976a , 1976b ) . been recovered from Ponil Phase sites , the
number and diversity of projectile points
No quantitative data are available for as well as numerous faunal remains seem to
either cultigens or wild plant or animal indicate a greater emphasis on hunting
food during the Valdez Phase . Green than supposedly characterizes Anasazi
(1976 ) comments that numerous arti facts adaptation ( Lutes 1959 ) .
made on the bones of deer and rabbits
indicate that these animals were hunted . In the Taos District , the Pot Creek Phase
Raw material for ground and flaked stone is dated between A.D. 1200 and A.D. 1250 ,
arti facts include locally available sand The dating is based on the presence of
stones , schists, quartzite , cherts and Santa Fe Black - on - white and a limited
chalcedony . Both Green (1976 ) and Loose number of tree-ring dates . Santa Fe
( 1974 ) record the presence of some Black- on- white is clearly distinguishable
obsidian artifacts , and Green (1976 ) sug among the Rio Grande black-on - white
gests that the nearest source of obsidian wares . It is a carbon painted ware and
may have been the Jemez Mountains . has been tree -ring
dated at numerous sites
Loose ( 1974 :
37 ) notes that 214 complete , in the Santa Fe River area and on the
58 fragmentary and 18 projectile point Pajarito Plateau . Breternitz (1966 ) gives
bases were recovered from the Arroyo A.D. 1200 to A.D. 1350 as its best dates ,
Hondo Valdez Phase sites . In addition , Within the Taos District , Wetherington

36
( 1964 ) characterizes the Pot Creek Phase in the Gallina Phase ( A.D. 1100 to A.D.
as a period during which population aggre 1250 ) in the Gallina District, west of the
Rio Grande .
gated into multi- family surface pueblos .
He views this development as the result of
increasing population in the area, primarily The Llano site was excavated by Jeancon
coming from the Santa Fe District to the in 1920 ( Jeancon 1929 ) . Considering the
south (Wetherington 1964 : 162 ) . The Phase.
apparent absence of central basins within
is actually known from only three exca rooms , the details of adobe construction ,
vated sites ; portions of Pot Creek Pueblo , etc. Wetherington ( 1964 : 160 ) thinks that
Llano probably belongs within the Pot
TA -26 , and probably the Llano Site (L.A.
1892 ) . Pot Creek Pueblo is a large, multi Creek Phase . It is , of course , difficult to
component site at an elevation of 7,200 feet evaluate Jeancon's ceramic descriptions ,
in a valley setting among the Tres Ritos because they were written before much
Hills southeast of Taos . Most of the in formation on the ceramics of the area was
excavated structures at Pot Creek Pueblo available .
relate to the later , Talpa Phase . However ,
four rooms , a kiva and two occupation Surveys in the Taos District ( Blumenschein
" areas " found beneath Talpa Phase rooms 1956 ,, 1958 , Herold 1968 )
report numerous
were assigned to the Pot Creek Phase . " unit pueblos " in the
Arroyo Hondo,
The rooms lacked the central post-basin Arroyo Miranda , Rio Grande de Ranchos
complex characteristic of the later Talpa area which may relate to the Pot Creek
Phase . The Pot Creek Phase kiva con Phase , but which have not been tested or
tained an ashpit- deflector - firepit complex , excavated .
characteristic of Valdez Phase pithouses ,
but contained five roof support posts and In the Cimarron area , Santa Fe Black - on
a tri- level floor drum typical of later, white ceramics are associated with the
Talpa Phase kivas (Wetherington 1964 : Cimarron Phase, which is considered the
79-81 ) . final phase related to Puebloan occupation
of the area . A date of A.D. 1100 through
TA -26 ( Vickery 1969 ) is a small, 8 - room A.D. 1300 is proposed for this phase on
pueblo with an associated plaza and kiva , the basis of ceramic - cross dating, in this
located at an elevation of 7,420 feet in the case with the presence of Santa Fe Black
same general area as Pot Creek Pueblo , on -white . Cimarron Plain , neckbanded ,
Rooms were constructed of coursed adobe , incised and punctate types are also asso
and lacked central basins , firepits and ciated with Cimarron Phase sites ( Glassow
hearths . Interior room features comprised 1972 , Kirkpatrick 1976b ) . Based on the
unburned basins and a central post roof dates for Santa Fe Black -on - white
support . The kiva contained sub - floor ( Breternitz 1966 ) , A.D. 1100 would seem too
channels , like those described for the Pot early a beginning dat e for the Cimarron
date
Creek Phase kiva at Pot Creek Pueblo , and Phase , and independent methods of dating
a central firepit /ashpit / de flector complex . should be applied . The final date of A.D.
A single tree - ring date of A.D. 1207 was 1300 for the phase does not seem unreason
obtained . Vickery dates the occupation of able , in light of the abandonment of many
the site to from A.D. 1190 to A.D. 1250 on small sites in the Taos District and the
the basis of the tree-ring date , ceramics , concomitant aggregation at about that time.
and architectural details . Although most Cimarron Phase sites generally consist of
of the decorated ceramics were Santa Fe small , multi - room surface
pueblos
puebl os with
Black -on-white , few Talpa Black - on coursed adobe or masonry walls .
rock
white sherds were recovered . Vickery They are generally located on the lower
suggests that TA -26 may have been aban portion of Ponil Creek and along the
doned at about the time that Pot Creek Cimarron River ( Glassow 1972 : 81 ;
Pueblo was undergoing architectural expan Kirkpatrick 1976a , 1976b ) . Sites in the
sion during the Talpa Phase . A diversity Watrous area (Lister 1948 ) may also relate
of bird and mammal bones recovered from to the Cimarron Phase . In addition to the
TA -26 were identified by the investigator puebloan house types and ceramics ,
( Vickery 1969 : 68 ) . She also notes that
O Cimarron Phase sites have yielded a
both trough and flat metates were re variety of lithics , including Plains style
covered . TA - 26 also yielded a trinotched snub - nosed end- scrapers . Gunnerson
axe which is reported for the Valdez Phase ( 1959 ) suggested that these items may have
by Green ( 1976 ) and also known to occur been traded in from the Plains . In any

37
case , the two succeeding phases identified Ellis ( 1974a ) considers the abandonment of
in the Cimarron area ( the Cojo Phase and Valdez Phase sites as a movement out of
the Jicarilla Phase ) seem to reflect the the area , whereas Wetherington ( 1964 )
general Plains traditions and are not relates the phenomenon to the differential
related to Anasazi developments distribution of the population through
( Kirkpatrick 1976a , Gunnerson 1959 : 45-6 ; aggregation of people at large sites such
Wendorf 1960 ) . as Pot Creek Pueblo and historic Old
Picuris .
Pot Creek Pueblo continued to be inhab
ited , and even increased in size during The Talpa Phase , which Wetherington dates
the Talpa Phase , which Wetherington ( 1964 ) to from A.D. 1250 to A.D. 1350 shows
dates to from A.D. 1250 to A.D. 1350 . retention of some Santa Fe Black - on - white
This continuity is obscurred in Ellis ' and Taos Plack - on - white and the introduc
categorization of Taos prehistory ( Ellis tion of a number of new ceramic types at
1974a ) . Ellis considers Taos District Pot Creek Pueblo . The new types include
chronology in terms of three " complexes. Talpa Black - on - white ( this type is referred
Her Complex I dates between A.D. 900 and to as Taos - Poge Black - on - white by Ellis
A.D. 1300 and is characterized by influ and Brody 1964 ) which although it was
ence from the Chaco area ( in terms of present in minor amounts during the
ceramics ) and numerous archeological sites . preceding phase , becomes dominant . As
Complex II dates between A.D. 1300 and noted above , most of the excavated struc
A.D. 1600 and is marked by a shift away tures at Pot Creek Pueblo relate to the
from Chaco in fluences and closer relation Talpa Phase . Multi - story construction was
ships with the Santa Fe area . Her common , although coursed adobe continued
Complex III dates from A.D. 1600 to the to be used . Most rooms had central roof
present , as represented by Taos and support posts set within a central basin
Picuris pueblos . Ellis' view is most con ( Wetherington 1964 : 26 ) . The same rather
cisely expressed in the following : unusual architectural feature has been
documented at both Old Picuris Pueblo
Complex I represents the northeast ( Dick 1965 ; Polschlag 1975 ) and at
extension of the widespread Chacoan Corn field Taos ( cf. Ellis and Brody 1964 ,
culture , other mani festations of Wetherington 1966 , 1968 ) . At both Cld
which cover Pueblo 2 in the Santa Fe Picuris and Pot Creek Pueblo , kivas were
area , in the Chaco- Red Mesa area , large ( ca. 12m diameter ) , subterranean ,
and in the Cebolleta region near circular structures with coursed adobe
A coma . The carriers of this culture walls . Interior floor features included
disappeared out of the Taos district square to rectangular stone lined hearths
about the time the carriers of without ashpits , foot drums and 6 to 8
Complex II came in . As Complex II , roof support posts ( Holschlag 1975 ) . The
tied by ceramic relationships to the differences between the Picuris kiva and
Galisteo and Santa Fe areas , is that the Pot Creel Pueblo kiva are primarily in
found to procede and be directly the presence at Picuris of a subsidiary
ancestral to Complex III in the west ventilator , a north oriented slab lined
Cornfield site ( ancestral Taos ) and and slab covered sub- floor channel and
Taos Pueblo trash mound . The numerous prayer plume holes all of which
newcomers would appear to have
are absent at Pot Creek (Holschalg 1975 :
been Taos ancestors ( Ellis 1974a :
58 ) . Sipapus are absent at modern Taos ,
34 ) . Picuris and Pot Creek Pueblo kivas
( Parsons 1936 , Dick 1965 , Holschlag 1975 ) .
Wetherington ( 1964 ) emphasizes continuity
rather than migrations . As discussed Pot Creek Pueblo was abandoned at the
above , his Pot Creek Phase is related to end of the Talpa Phase . Wetherington
the introduction of Santa Fe Black - on ( 1964 : 82-84 ) believes the abandonment
white , but there is al so architectural occurred at about A.D. 1350 , because
retention of Valdez Phase traits and gen neither Biscuit A or Glaze ceramics were
eral continuity in the entire ceramic inven found at Pot Creek Pueblo . Wetherington
tory , especially in the utility wares . ( 1964 : 82 ) suggests that the inhabitants
Further , Pot Creek Pueblo evidences lack moved to Picuris . Evidence cited in recent
of interruption between the Pot Creek and Taos' land claims cases ( Fllis 1974a ) in di
Talpa Phases in both ceramic and architec cates that some of the people from Pot
tural features . It should be remarked that Creek Pueblo may also have settled at

38
Taos . In any case , the designation Vadito founding date for Taos Cornfield are
Phase has been applied to the period from precisely established , it makes little differ
A.D. 1375 to A.D. 1490 and is known from ence which phase designation is used . In
excavations at Old Picuris ( Dick 1975 ) and addition to the occupations at Cornfield
Cornfield Taos ( Ellis and Brody 1964 , Ellis Taos and Old Picuris during the Vadito
1974 ) . At Old Picuris the Talpa Phase Phase , Ellis ( 1974a : 62-76 ) reports 11 sites
pueblo was apparently levelled and the in the Taos District that , on the basis of
Vadito Phase pueblo constructed over the surface ceramics , would be contemporary
debris in the same architectural tradition . with the Vadito Phase . These are distri
The major differences between the Talpa buted from Arroyo Hondo to Ranchos de
Phase and Vadito Phase constructions at Taos and Talpa . Two seem worthy of
Old Picuris are : first, that the central note . Ellis' ( 1974a : 69 ) site 27 is a very
basins in ground floor rooms are deeper large site , first described by Jeancon
and wider in the Vadito Phase , and are ( 1929 ) . The site is opposite the town of
more appropriately termed cists , because Talpa , overlooking the west bank of the
according to Picuris ' in formants they were Rio Grande de Ranchos . Site , 45 ( Ellis
used for storing corn ( Dick 1965 , 1974a : 73 ) situated at Ponce de Leon
Wetherington 1966 : 20 ) ;second , only small, Springs , is said to be the ancestral village
circular subterranean kivas ( 5-6 m in of the Feather Clan at Taos . Because of
diameter ) were constructed . The kivas its size and ceramic assemblage , site 27
contained all the floor features noted for may represent a village ancestral to
the Talpa Phase , however and they lack modern Taos as well .
sipapus . There is some con fusion sur
rounding the terminology applied to the Although the later prehistory at Picuris
ceramic inventory of the Vadito Phase . As has been divided into a number of Phases
noted , Ellis and Brody ( 1964 ) re ferred to ( Dick 1965 , Holschlag 1975 ) , it is more
the carbon painted Black - on - white as convenient to group these and discuss
Taos - Poge B / w , and Brody later identified them in terms of historically recorded
it as Talpa Black - on - white ( Wetherington events . Between A.D. 1490 and A.D.
1968 : 57 ) . On the basis of rim form , Dick 1600 , there was a general deteriorat ion in
( 1965 : 133 ) distinguishes Talpa B / w from houses at Old Picuris . The Pueblo was
Taos - Poge B / w and considers the latter first visited by the Spaniard Castano de
within the range of his Vadito B / w as Sosa in 1581 . The first Picuris Mission ,
de fined at Old Picuris . The available San Lorenzo , was established by Fray
descriptions indicate , the three " types " Martin de Arvide in 1621 , and four suc
would seem to be exceptionally difficult to cessive churches were built between 1706
distinguish ; especially since they are and 1776 . Between 1696 and 1706 , the
roughly contemporary , there seems to be Pueblo was largely abandoned , the inhabi
no particular reason not to view them as tants having moved to the Plains with the
variants of the same type . In addition to Apache . In 1706 , the Picuris returned and
this local Black -on- white ware , the ceramic the modern Picuris Pueblo was constructed ,
inventory of the Vadito Phase includes although rooms in Old Picuris continued to
Tewa Polychromes , polished black ( at be used occasionally as stables .
Occupation of the site has been continuous
Taos ) , and both plain and smeared in
dented corrugated culinary wares . Glaze since then .
wares occur as trade ceramics . It should
be noted that Holschlag ( 1975 ) regards the As part of the land claims action of Taos
earlier levels of the Taos Cornfield site as Pueblo , Ellis and Brody ( 1964 ) were per
related to the Vadito Phase rather than the mitted to trench one location at Cornfield
Talpa Phase . Her reasons are two fold . Taos and one location in " Mound III , "
First , she accepts Dick's ( 1965 : 133 ) inclu supposedly the oldest trash mound in
sion of Taos - Poge Black - on - white in the modern Taos . Although the data provided
Vadito type . More importantly , she notes by these excavations are limited , they are
that the dimensions of the single basin the only in formation available for a chron
structure encountered by Ellis and Brody ology of the founding of Taos . Corn field
( 1964 ) in their tests at Taos Cornfield are Taos , the site of the old pueblo , is located
closer in dimensions to the Vadito Phase about & mile northeast of Taos church .
" cists " than to Talpa Phase basins . But , Ellis and Brod
Brodyy ( 1964 ) and Ellis ( 1974 )
since neither the terminal date of the place the beginning of occupation at about
occupation of Pot Creek Pueblo or the A.D. 1300 to 1350 and its abandonment at

39
about A.D. 1400 or 1450 , when modern Pueblos have had considerable interaction
Taos Pueblo seems to have been founded . with Plains groups ( the most well - known
Although Cornfield Taos reputedly was situation being the annual trade fairs held
burned during the Pueblo Revolt , Ellis and at Taos ) . It would appear from the docu
Brody ( 1964 ) found no evidence of burning mented intensity of this interaction that
in their excavation , and no discontinuity neither group might have been entirely
self- sufficent economically without the
was discovered in the ceramic assemblage
between the upper levels of the Corn field other .
Taos trench and the lower levels of the
trench in Mound III . Taos Pueblo was As discussed in the preceeding chapter ,
first mentioned by the Spaniard Hernando attempts at correlating various ceramic and
de Alvarado in 1540 , although there is architectural manifestations with particular
doubt as to whether or not he actually saw modern linguistic groups has been a major
the village. Fray Francisco de Zamora was preoccupation of Rio Grande prehistory .
assigned to Taos in 1598 , and the first Those that include in formation which relate
Church constructed early in the 1600's . In specifically to the northern Tiwa of the
1639 , the Taos people revolted and fled to Taos District are those of Mera ( 1935 ) ,
Cuartelejo with the Plains Apaches . They Reed ( 1940 ) , Wendorf and Reed ( 1955 ) ,
returned in 1662 , and a new church was Ellis ( 1967 ) and Ford , Schroeder and
built . The pueblo appears to have been Peckham ( 1972 ) . Although not as intensive ,
abandoned during the Pueblo Revolt ; De similar literature related to Plains and
Vargas found it deserted in 1694 , and his Athapaskan speakers in the area area include
men sacked the village . Taos was even Gunnerson ( 1960 , 1969 ) , Hammack ( 1964 ) ,
tually re -inhabited and has been occupied Hill and Metcalf ( 1941 ) , Lange ( 1953 ) ,
continuously since . Montgomery ( 1963 ) , Schaafsma ( 1978 ) ,
Schroeder ( 1960 ) and Wendorf ( 1960 ) . By
Recent surveys by Nemaric ( 1975 ) and and large , these attempts operate on the
Gauthier et al . ( 1978 ) on the Picuris assumption that particular traits , especially
Reservation have recorded 14 rather com ceramic types , may be identified with
plex agricultural sites consisting of grid specific language groups . Not only is
systems and linear boarders and terrace such an assumption untested , but certain
systems on benches surrounding major ethnographic examples indicate that it is
drainages . Evidence of diversion ditches unwarrented in any case . Rather than
and other devices specifically related to pursue this seemingly non - productive line
water control is lacking at these sites . of inquiry , I would suggest that the Taos
Gauthier et al. note that ceramic evidence District provides suitable archeological data
indicates that these features were utilized for monitoring the degree of variability in
" during Taos B / W and Santa Fe B / W times arti factual and architectural remains known
( ca. A.D. 1100 to 1325 ) and early historic to be of protohistoric and historic northern
times ( ca. A.D. 1650 ) " ( Gautheir et al . Tiwa origin . Preliminary work along the
1978 : 18 ) . These observations indicate that lines advocated here has been done by
considerable energy expenditure may have Holschlag ( 1975 ) , who documents a change
been necessary for intensive horticulture from predominance of extended family
in the Picuris area , and that this may households to nuclear family households
have had more to do with problems of during the last 600 years in the northern
erosion than lack of moisture . The rela Tiwa area despite continuity in specific
tively dense tree cover in the Taos architectural features and ceramic
district , combined with this evidence , inventory . Although the reason or
might indicate that as soon as land was reasons for the shift in household size are
cleared for crops , erosion would have been not known , testing of explanatory hypothe
a considerable problem . Given the labor sis depend , in part , on the precise dating
requirements of constructing up to 1.1 of the change . For example , as Holschlag
square miles of grid gardens and linear ( 1975 : 134 ) suggests , if the " cultural
border gardens ( Nemaric 1975 ) , it would reorganization took place shortly after the
seem that if hunting and gathering were at abandonment of Pot Creek Pueblo , then
all a viable strategy , horticulture would be causal factors like environmental change ,
a last resort . Certainly , further investi internal con flict , and disease must be
considered . 11
gations of the diversity of agricultural Otherwise , Spanish induce
technology in the area should be pursued . ments and population decline as the result
In historic times , both Taos and Picuris of introduced European diseases might

40
have been critical . If the change was affiliated with the Cochise tradition , an
even more recent , a response to the evaluation of the Archaic point types from
Anglo - American wel fare system must be the Albuquerque District would be particu
considered (cf. Bodine 1972 ) . larly valuable . Unfortunately , the litera
ture does not provide the necessary de
scriptive detail to do this . Points which
Finally , in order to interpret, in a mean
ingful way , any of the adaptive changes resemble San Jose types of the Oshara
made by the Northern Tiwa and the Plains Tradition are reported ( Campbell and Ellis
and Apachean groups in the Taos and 1952 , Agogino and Hester 1953 ) as are
Cimarron Districts , much more specific Cochise types ( Reinhart 1968 , Agogino and
in formation than is now available with Hester 1953 ) . Since both point types are
respect to the subsistence technologies of generally considered Late Archaic , there
these groups is essential, and most of our seems to be little justification for viewing
" assumptions" must be seriously questioned . them as chronologically sequential.
For example , although corn is present in Rather , I suggest that the Albuquerque
Valdez Phase pithouses and in the Vermejo District offers an opportunity to define the
Phase ruins of the Cimarron District , the range of variablity in Archaic assemblages
diversity of edible , wild plant foods re as a whole through consideration of point
covered at Pot Creek Pueblo , in addition types , other stone tools and debitage .
to the abundance of one hand grinding
stones reported (Holschlag 1975 ) provide Reinhart ( 1968 , 1969 ) refers to Basketmaker
some indication of the continuing impor II in the Albuquerque District as the Rio
tance of wild foods even when aggregated Rancho Phase ; and relying on two radio
sedentary groups are established . It carbon dates , would date the phase to
would seem that only with a realistic about B.C. 1000
1000 to B.C. l. BR - 16 is
assessment of the subsistence requirements considered the type site for this phase ,
of groups in the Taos and Cimarron areas , and related materials have been recovered
can the effects of prehistoric or historic from Boca Negra cave and several surface
incursions into the area be understood . sites west of Bernalillo . BR -16 was identi
fied as a dwelling structure ,. Although a
floor could not be recognized , 7 post
THE ALBUQUERQUE DISTIRCT holes, heating and cooking pits , and
storage cists comprised an occupational
Although PaleoIndian and Archaic mani fes surface . Faunal remains included
tations in the Albuquerque District were antelope , cottontail , jackrabbits and
rodents . Ceramics are not present at
mentioned in the preceding chapter a brief
discussion of some of the reported Archaic these sites , but points resembling San
sites is given here , because the Pedro Cochise types are reported , as are
Albuquerque District seems to provide a slab metates . Maize was not recovered at
fairly well - documented cultural continuum BR -16 , but was found in Boca Negra Cave
from Late Archaic through Basketmaker II along with Rio Rancho Phase artifacts .
and Pueblo I periods. Archaic sites have Reinh art ( 1968 : 53-55 ) believes that Rio
been reported from the area north and Rancho phase utilization of the area west
west of Albuquerque between the West of Albuquerque may have been on a
Mesa and the San Ysidro area ( Reinhart seasonal basis with faunal remains
1968 , Snow 1974 , Schaafsma 1968 , 1973 , indicating , perhaps , late fall and early
Agogino and Hester 1953 , Wiseman 1974 , spring occupation .
Beal 1976 ) . The sites are generally located
well above the Rio Grande flood plain on Basketmaker III of the Albuquerque
eroded surfaces cut by arroyos . Sand District is designated the Alameda Phase
dune formations are a marked feature of by Reinhart ( 1968 ) , who proposed dates of
the terrain . Although most sites occur as between A.D. 1 and A.D. 500 for the
exposed surface deposits or in arroyo cuts manifestation . His interpretation is based
( Agogino and Hester 1953 ) , there are rock on a single , admittedly unreliable , radio
shelters which appear to have been used carbon date of A.D. 32 + 138 from BR - 45 ,
west of Bernalillo . He includes the Saint
sporadically from Archaic through Anasai
and Historic times ( Beal 1976 , Reinhart Joseph Site ( Schorsch 1962 ) , the Denison
1968 ) . In view of Lang's ( 1977 ) contention Site ( Vivian and Clendenen 1965 ) and the
that the Oshara tradition was truncated in Sedillo Site ( Skinner 1965 ) within the Phase .
the Galsiteo Basin , and Late Archaic On the basis of the ceramic inventories
materials in that area seemed more closely and architectural variability at these sites

41
and more recently excavated Basketmaker consist of both jackrabbits and cottontails;
III sites in the District , I do not believe however , fauna from Artificial Leg sites I ,
retention of the Phase designation is II and III included turtle , quail , turkey,
warranted . Rather , I will use the term ground squirrel, pocket gopher , kangaroo
Late Basketmaker-PI in recognition of the and wood rats, beaver, canis, badger,
fact that there is an apparently gradual elk , antelope and mountain sheep
deer ,
transition between Basketmaker III and ( Frisbie 1967 : 17–18 ) ; unidentified " large
Pueblo I. All of the sites included within mammal " remains are reported for the Big
this category were characterized by the Boulder Site ( Oaks 1978 ) .
presence of Lino Gray ceramics . Hawley
( 1936 : 21 ) considers Lino Gray a diagnostic From a cultural historical perspective , the
of Basketmaker III when it is not accom two major problems identified for Late
panied by Kana'a Black -on -white . Dates Basketmaker-Pueblo I in the Albuquerque
of A.D. 450 A.D. 700 are generally District are : first , the lack of well - dated
accepted for Lino Gray . However , Kanala sites : second , the question of " cultural
Gray is associated ith all of the sites affiliation " of peoples in the area ( whether
mentioned above , and may date as late as Anasazi or Mogollon or some combination ) .
A.D. 875 or 900 ( Colton 1955 ) . Dates for The problem of adequate dating is likely to
these types have been established in the continue until more sites are excavated and
Four Corners area , primarily . They are radiocarbon dated . It should be noted
not securely dated in the Rio Grande , that most wood recovered from the sites is
particularly in view of the fact that the cottonwood , which cannot be dated through
examples for the Rio Grande appear to be dendrochronology . The second problem
locally manufactured ( Oaks 1978 ) . a As involves an evaluation of ideas concerning
final caveat, Lino Gray and Kana'a Gray the origins of pit structures in the central
are distinguished solely on the basis of and northern Rio Grande .
neck treatment , so that vessel body sherds
are non -diagnostic . Pithouses , of course , are common to both
the early Anasazi and the Mogollon . In
At least some components of all of the sites both areas there was also a shift from
mentioned above , as well as one of the pithouses to surface dwellings , although
two pithouses reported by Vytlacil and the shift is not contemporary when the
Brody ( 1958 ) , Sites I , II , and four pit Four Corners area is considered . Bullard
houses from Site III of the Artificial Leg ( 1962 : 187 ) comments that the only " truly
sites in Corrales ( Frisbie 1967 ) , the Big significant" features of pithouse architec
Boulder Site ( LA 14258 ) in Tijeras Canyon ture in the Mogollon area are central - post
( Oaks 1978 ) , and possibly , the as yet roof supports and gabled roofs . He lists
unreported LA 4955 near Bernalillo (exca the presence of antechambers , ventilators ,
vated by David Keyser and discussed de flectors, ash pits
benches , partitions ,
briefly by Wiseman 1976 ) , lack Red Mesa and rounded clay fireplace coping as
B /w , are considered Late Basketmaker distinctive features of Anasazi pithouses
Pueblo I here and probably date to be fore Bullard 1962 : 174 ) .
prior to A.D. 900 ( Bullard
A.D. 900 . A single archaeomagnetic date
. None of the excavated pithouses in the
of A.D. 580 + 40 from one of the struc Albuquerque District have central - post
tures atArtifical Leg Site I has been roof supports or gabled roofs . On the
reported ( Frisbie 1967 : 174 ) . All of the other hand , benches , partitions , and , in
sites mentioned , except for LA 4955 , most cases , adobe or stone deflectors are
contain Lino Gray or both Lino Gray and absent as well . Oaks (1978 ) indicates that
Kanala Gray and either Mogollon trade long lateral entries are characteristic of
wares ( such as Alma Plain , and Alma Mogollon pithouses , and except for the
Neck -banded ) or gray wares with fugitive unusual LA 4955 ( Wiseman 1976 ) are absent
red paint . LA 4955 seemingly is anomalous in the Albuquerque District . In general,
in that the ceramic inventory consisted Albuquerque District pithouses tend to be
only of brownwares (Wiseman 1976 ) . In round or round with a slight concavity on
addition to ceramics ; basketry , matting , the eastern side . Both interior , and ,
sandals , olivella shell beads , turquoise where noted , exterior storage cists occur .
pendants , basin and slab metates , one Floors , where present , are either hard
hand manos and maize have been recovered packed clay or plastered , hearths are
from Late Basketmaker - Pueblo I contexts . generally central and may be collared with
At most sites , the only fauna identified adobe . Ventilator sha fts , where noted ,

42
are east oriented . Roof support posts are ceramics , they may be misidentified as

variable ( some sites have none , two or Archaic . On the basis of these admittedly
four seem more common ) ( Frisbie 1967 : limited observations , I would suggest that
148-49 , Oaks 1978 ) . In general , pithouse pithouses are far more numerous in the
architecture in the Albuquerque District Albuquerque District than excavations
does seem closely allied to the
more indicate . Finally , although Bullard (1962 :
northern Anasazi area than to the Mogollon 102 ) , argues that pithouse sites which date
region , although " elaborations " noted for prior to A.D. 900 are strategically placed
the San Juan , such as benches , partitions , with respe ctto both water and arable
and slab lining are absent . land , water seems to be the consistent
association . A further critical topographic
The Albuquerque District pithouses contain feature appears to be elevated terrain in
both Anasazi Gray wares and various uplands which could provide access to
brown wares , either directly imported from hunting and gathering loci and an over
the Mogollon area or local imitiations of view where game might be observed .
Mogollon ceramics , viz . Corrales Red
( Frisbie 1967 ) . A recent literature search In the Northern Rio Grande , the beginning
by Oaks ( 1978 ) indicates that brown wares of Pueblo II ( dated at about A.D. 900 ) is
have been found to extend not only into generally marked by the appearance of Red
the Santa Fe area but as far north as Taos Mesa Black-on -white (Lang 1977b ) . Red
and are among the earliest ceramics re Mesa also
occurs at sites in the
covered in the Navajo Reservoir District Albuquerque District and is associated
( Eddy 1968 ) . Although McNutt considers frequently with San Marcial Black - on
pithouses to have been " introduced " into white . A Local variety of Kwahere that
the Rio Grande area by groups arriving dates from about A.D. 950 to about A.D.
from the Chaco- San Juan area ( McNutt 1250 may be present as well ( Wiseman 1976 ,
1969 : 101 ) , Peckham (1957 ) , Schorsch ( 1962 ) , Oaks 1978 ) . Although the date of A.D.
Wetherington ( 1968 : 88 ) , Allen and McNutt 900 iscertainly not " sacred " in the
(1955 ) and Vivian and Clendenen (1965 : 19 ) Albuquerque District , it is convenient , in
suggest that the Albuquerque District may terms of correlations with the rest of the
represent a frontier area between the study area , to use it as a marker for
Anasazi and Mogollon . This issue is Pueblo II . The termination of Pueblo II
addressed at greater length in the section will, again for convenience , be considered
dealing with an assessment of Anasazi to coincide with the shift from mineral to
cultural systems . organic paint , mani fest by the introduction
of Santa Fe Black -on -white , dated to about
Pithouses reported for the Albuquerque A.D. 1200 ( Breternitz 1966 ) .
District have been located on gravel bluffs
near Sandia ( Peckham 1957 ) , on low ter Some of the sites mentioned in the previous
races and sandy hills west of the Rio section have components wh ich
which may
ma be
Grande between Bernalillo and Jemez dated to Pueblo II by the presence of Red
( Reinhart 1968 , Skinner 1965 , Vivian and Mesa B / w , usually in association with
Clendenen 1965 , Vytlacil and Brody 1958 , Kana'a Gray or Kanala Neck Banded .
Frisbie 1967 ) and on a hill top in Tijeras Pithouses 1 and 2 at the Dension site
Canyon ( Oaks 1978 ) . In all cases , the ( Vivian and Clendenen 1965 ) , pithouses 4 ,
sites are in close proximity to water in the 7 , 8 , and 10 at the Sedillo Site ( Skinner
form of intermittent tributaries of the Rio 1965 ) , the second pithouse near Zia
Grande . The visibility and recognition of described by Vytlacil and Brody (1967 ) and
these sites are extreme problems . In the pithouse 1 at Site III at the Artificial Leg
area north and west of Albuquerque , the sites (Frisbie 1967 : 175 ) fit the Pueblo II
pithouses were located because they had category . In addition , Tonque Arroyo
been exposed by recent erosion or road pithouse (Peckham 1954 ) , the earlier com
cutting or because ground stripping was ponent of LA 586 (Vulture Gulch ) (Wendorf
undertaken ( Reinhart 1968 , Frisbie 1967 ) . n.d. ) , LA 10793 and LA 12843 in Tijeras
In Tijeras Canyon , only extensive strip Canyon may be included also ( Snow 1972 ,
ping and testing exposed the Basketmaker Farwell 1977 , Oaks 1978 ) . . Sites IV and XX
III - Pueblo I habitation area ( Oaks 1978 ) . west of Corrales, although unexcavated are
Sites are not indicated by surficial indicated in Frisbie's (1967 ) map as con
depressions . Firecracked rock and burn taining Pueblo II components . Finally ,
areas are common and in the absence of 22 sites located by the University of

43
New Mexico's survey of the lower Tijeras B / w , Socorro B / w , and , usually a small
Canyon / South Sandia area but unexcavated percentage of St. Johns Polychrome .
would be included in this time period
Galisteo B / w is often present and is con
(Blevins and Joiner 1977 , Cordell 1977b ) . sidered especially important by Wendorf
and Reed ( 1955 ) , who believe it's occur
No abrupt architectural changes accompany rence represents an intrusion of migrants
the introduction of Red Mesa B /w. from Mesa Verde toward the end of the
Pithouses which have been excavated may period . Other " diagnostic " characteristics
show more standardized floor features ; of the period are an increase in the
four post roof supports , ladder holes , ash number of habitation
sites ( suggesting an
pits and sipapus are more frequent. LA increase in population , ) and diversity in
586 reportedly has post reinforced walls architecture . Pithouses do continue , but
( Wetherington 1964 : 175 ) . Arti fact inven above ground roomblocks occur and these
tories for excavated sites show consider in size . In the Albuquerque
vary
able continuity , although full - grooved axes District ,rectangular kivas may be incor
and two - hand manos are " innovations" porated into roomblocks.
( Vytlacil and Brody 1958 ) . Quantitative
floral and faunal data are lacking ; In the Corrales area , Frisbie ( 1967 ) in di
however , identi fied animal bones include cates five Pueblo III sites . Of these , only
those of jack rabbits , cottontails and deer the pithouses at Bandelier's Puaray have
( Vytlacil and Brody 1958 ) . The locations been excavated and , un fortunately , not
of sites which have Late Basketmaker - PI completely reported ( Tichey 1978 ) . In
and P II components were described above . Tiejeras Canyon , Mera ( 1940 ) recorded
The 22 Tijeras Canyon sites mentioned are components at LA 580 , LA 583 , and LA 581
concentrated at relatively low elevations ( Tijeras Pueblo ) . Additional Coalition
( below 6400 feet ) and are either on or Period sites , and sites with Coalition
adjacent to aluvial land ( Cordell 1977b ) . components , in Tijeras Canyon include LA
Blevins and Joiner ( 1977 ) believe that most 846 , LA 586 ( Vulture Gulch ) , LA 1279 , LA
of these Tijeras Canyon sites do not repre 5227 ( Tijeras Plaza ) , LA 6906 , LA 6907 ,
sent year - round occupations , and suggest LA 10796L ( Santo Nino Cemetery ) , LA 11612 ,
that the canyon was used seasonally . LA 11613 , LA 12845 , and LA 13812 . Recently
excavated Coalition Period sites in Tijeras
A " convenience date" of A.D. 1200 has Can yon include LA 10794 ( Coconito ) and LA
been used to lemarcate Pueblo II from 14857 (Dinosaur Rock ) ( Snow 1972 ; Oaks
Pueblo III in this section . This corre 1978 ) .
sponds to the shift to organic paint ,
represented by the appearance of Santa Fe The Dinasaur Rock site ( Oaks 1978 ) pro
B / w , and to the beginning of the Coalition vides a fairly good indication of the nature
Period as defined by Wendorf and Reed of Coalition Period sites . The site con
( 1955 ) . Lang ( 1977b ) defined Pueblo III in sisted of six rectangular rooms which had
the northern Rio Grande as beginning at well - laid ( often double - laid ) floors , but
about A.D. 1050 , with the appearance of which lacked interior features such as
Kwahe'e B / w . Either date may be justi hearths . Three jacal structures south of
fied , and this is discussed in the section the roomblock contained the greatest
assessing cultural systems ,. Wendorf and amount of cultural debris : food remains ,
Reed ( 1955 ) use A.D. 1325 as the end date circular adobe rimmed hearths and ashpits .
of their Coalition Period , and Lang ( 1977 )
Oaks ( 1978 ) suggests that the rectangular
used a date of A.D. 1300 . The difference rooms were used for storage and the jacals
in 25 years would seem to be completely as activity and living rooms . Artifact
arbitrary , but for reasons having to do densities indicate outside work areas .
with changes in settlement pattern I favor
Lang's date . Although Pueblo III is
In Corrales and Tijeras Canyon , Coalition
defined here on the basis of the appear Period sites are away from upland settings
ance of Santa Fe B / w , the great diversity in settings immediately adjacent to major
in painted ceramic types that marks the drainages and arable land ( Frisbie 1967 ,
period is of greater importance . In the Oaks 1978 ) . Blevins and Joiner ( 1977 )
Albuquerque District , Coalition Period sites suggest that Tijeras Canyon was first
contain some " pure " Santa Fe B /w , a utilized on a year round basis during
locally manufactured Santa Fe / Wiyo B/w Coalition times . Frisbie ( 1967 ) believes the
( Oaks 1978 ) , local Kwahele B / w , Chupadero shift in location of sites reflects population

44
expansion in the central Rio Grande Valley associated with low elevation settings , as
and decreased agricultural land due to a Lang ( 1977b ) has suggested . Classic
postulated change in the seasonality of Period sites between Corrales and Puaray
rain fall and subsequent arroyo cutting . recorded by Frisbie ( 1967 ) show a shift to
The increase in population is not viewed as river valley locations . Tijeras Canyon
the result of immigration from Chaco
settlements are associated with seeps and
Canyon by Frisbie or Wendorf and Reed springs that occur at various elevations .
( 1955 ) , but as internal population growth Lang ( 1977b ) thinks that ditch irrigation
within the Rio Grande Valley . along the major river courses may have
begun early in the Classic . More impor
Pueblo IV ( Rio Grande Classic in Wendorf tant , a diversity of farming techniques
and Reed's 1955 terminology ) is dated from seem to have been practiced ( see Lang
A.D. 1300 to A.D. 1600 . Wendorf and 1977b , Cordell 1977a ) . In addition to
Reed ( 1955 ) use a beginning date of A.D. clustering of population , there was also
1325 to coincide with the introduction of frequent abandonment of these communities .
glaze decorated , red slipped ceramics . Tijeras Pueblo was abandoned early in the
Recent excavation of Tijeras Pueblo Classic ( ca. 1425 ) , as were sites on the
( Cordell 1977b ) place the initial occurrence Pajarito Plateau and in the Santa Fe District
of glazewares somewhat earlier at that site . ( Wendorf and Ree
Reedd 1955 , Schwartz and
The terminal date is arbitrary . Lang Lang 1972 ) . Wendorf and Reed ( 1955 : 153 )
( 1977b ) uses A.D. 1540 , because this date cite warfare and a drought between A.D.
marks the first contact with Europeans . I 1560 and 1585 as possible motives for aban
pre fer A.D. 1600 since it was not until doments , but the drought does not explain
then that Europeans had much direct effect many sites which were abandoned earlier in
on the Rio Grande populations . Glaze
the period . In Tijeras Canyon the number
wares were presumably made in imitation of of sites attributed to the Classic Period is
the Zuni and Little Colorado ceramics .
about the same as in the previous Coalition
Shepard ( 1942 : 197-199 ) believed the intro period ; however , except for the few aggre
duction of glazes represented a migration gated communities , the greater part of the
into the Rio Grande from the west , remains consist of small, limited activity
whereas Mera ( 1935 ) and Wendorf and Reed areas , such as chipping stations , and
( 1955 : 150 , 161 ) suggest diffusion , perhaps hunting or gathering loci ( Cordell 1977a ) .
accompanied by movement of a small
number of people . Although small amounts Studies of rock art (Schaafsma and
of western glazewares ( such as Schaafsma 1975 ) and wall murals indicate an
Heshotauthla Red -on -orange ) occur at emphasis on the depiction of masks .
Classic Period sites , the predominant Schaafsma and Schaa fsma ( 1975 ) in fer that
amount of early Glaze was produced locally this " Rio Grande " style derived from the
( Cordell 1977b , Warren 1977c , Oaks 1978 ) . Jornada Mogollon area and was related to
the introduction of the Katchina cult .
Wendorf and Reed ( 1955 ) characterize the
Rio Grande Classic as a period of " cultural Sites in the Albuquerque District with
florescence " when the population of the historic components include Kuaua , Paa - ko
northern Rio Grande reached its maximum ( Lambert 1951 ) and San Antonio ( Snow
prehistoric extent , large aggregated com 1975 , Cordell 1977b ) . Francisco Vasquez
munities were built and there was
de Coronado's 1540 expedition reached the
Melaboration " of material culture , mani Albuquerque and Coronado's men
area ,
fested by mural paintings , decorated may have spent the winters of 1540-41 and
pipes , elaborate axes , carved bone tools , 1541-42 at Kuaua ( Parsons 1975 ) . Missions
stone effigies and variety in vessel forms . were established in the 17th Century at
In the Albuquerque District , aggregated Kuaua , and San Felipe de Neri ( in
communities existed at Kuaua ( Tichy 1938 ) , Albuquerque , where it still stands ) . The
Alameda Pueblo , Bandelier's Puaray ( Tichy mission of San Pedro del Cuchillo is
1938 , Schaafsma 1968 ) , Tijeras Pueblo recorded as having been established at
( Judge 1974 , Cor
Cordell
dell 1975 , 1977a , 1977b ) Paa - ko in 1661 , but although historic por
and San Antonio ( Snow 1976 , Oaks 1978 , R. tions of the site were excavated , no actual
Morrison , personal communication 1976 ) , mission structure was discovered ( Lambert
and possibly the Tunnard site ( Hammack 1954 ) . Prior to the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 a
1966 ) . Aggregated communities in the
number of Hispanic colonists settled in
Albuquerque District are not consistently ranches along the Rio Grande between

45
Kuaua and Isleta . The area was referred The Gallina District has been characterized
to as the Rio Abajo , but it was not an as one of relative isolation and the Gallina
Phase as " conservative . " These inter
administrative unit .In 1706 , following the
re - conquest , Don Francisco Cuervo у pretations are based on the lack of evi
Valdez , 28th colonial governor , founded a dence of much trade and / or interaction
" Villa " ( administrative unit ) at with the San Juan Basin centers of Mesa
Albuquerque , where the river could be Verde and Chaco Canyon and considerable
forded by oxcarts and pasturage and uniformity in the ceramics and other items
timber were adequate . The original set of material culture . Hibben ( 1949 )
tlement , in what is now Old Town , con described five types of Gallina Phase
sisted of twelve families who had moved ceramics , two of Gray ware and three of
from Bernalillo . In order to protect utility ware . Seaman ( 1976 : 42-43 ) has
Albuquerque from raiders , Genizaro com proposed the Gray wares be grouped into
munities were established at Carnue , Tome a single type , with the utility wares as a
and Belen , (Parsons 1975 , Lambert 1954 , separate unitary category . The Gray
Dozier 1970 , Archibald 1976 ) . wares defined by Hibben ( 1949 ) , Gallina
Black - on - grey and Gallina Plain are un
slipped , with dense homogeneous gray
GALLINA DISTRICT paste . The difference between the types
is that Gallina Blg has carbon painted
Archeological sites Gallina District
in the designs on bowl interiors and jar
comprise a diversity of architectural forms exteriors . Seaman ( 1976 : 43 ) contended
which date within a relatively narrowly because " many Gallina Black - on - gray
defined temporal span . The terms Largo vessels present a large surface area with
Phase (Mera 1935 ) , Gallina Phase ( Hibben no design " the type distinctions were not
1938 : 131 ) and Largo - Gallina Phase (Hall warrented . Hibben's ( 1949 ) utility types
1944 : 4 ) have been used to refer to these are Gallina Plain Utility , Gallina Coarse
remains . The diversity in terminology Utility and Gallina Plain Unfired , distin
does not re fer temporally separable guished on the basis of temper size and
assemblages . The earliest dates reported paste coarseness . A variety of surface
for sites in the district are A.D. 1059 and treatment occurs , including scraping or
A.D. 1106 , after which there are no dates wiping , banding , smearing , punching and
until the early A.D. 1200's . Numerous incising . Seaman's ( 1976 : 43 ) justification
tree - ring dates cluster from A.D. 1200 to for grouping the utility wares into a single
A.D. 1300 ( Robinson et al. 1974 , Seaman category is that the paste and temper
criteria exhibit continuous distribution
1976 : 16 ) . It is generally agreed that the
Rosa Phase of the Gobernador (Hall 1942 ) among the types . The lack of temporal or
and the Navajo Reservoir District ( Eddy spatial variability in Gallina ceramics ,
1968 ) is ancestral to the archeological noted by all workers , is supported by an
manifestations of the Gallina District ( Ellis x - ray florescence analysis per formed on a
1976 , Dick 1976 , Ford , Schroeder and sample of sherds from five Gallina Phase
Peckham 1972 ) . The Rosa Phase has been sites which indicated little variability in
dated to ca. A.D. 700 to ca. 850 or 950 clays , suggesting either a single clay
( Eddy 1968 , Hall 1942 : 61 ) . Recognizing source or a number of geologically homo
the chronological gap which separates the geneous clay sources from throughout the
Rosa Phase from the beginning of the area ( Seaman 1976 : 42 and Appendix A ) .
dated Gallina occupation , Dick ( 1976 :
proposes that the term Largo Phase be The literature on Gallina site types reflects
used for remains which date to between an overriding concern with architectural
A.D. 950 1100 , and Gallina Phase for features which , like the ceramics , are not
sites which date between A.D. 1100 and temporally significant in large part . The
1275 . Whether or not Dick's suggested traditional distinctions include pithouses ,
terminology will be adopted depends on the small surface structures , " unit houses , "
researchers working in the area . In this cliff houses , pueblo - like structures , and
report the term Gallina Phase is applied , towers ( Hibben 1948 , Pattison 1968 , Mera
because a temporal hiatus remains between 1938 , Green 1964 , Dick 1976 ) . Dick ( 1976 )
the Rosa Phase of the Gobernador and provides a composite description of pit
sites of the Gallina District , and therefore houses for the Llaves area which is gener
Dick's proposed Largo Phase is largely an ally applicable to the Gallina District as a
empty category . whole . Pithouses predominantly are round ;

46
interior features consist of a hearth , the Chupadero Camp settlement and two on
ventilator and deflecter Mesa Golondrina ( Dick 1976 : 16-18 ) . The
de flecter aligned north
( aligned
four post roof supports , storage
towers are circular structures near the
south ) ,
bins on the east and west side of the centers of communities . They are not
ventilator opening , and an encircling located in topographic positions which
bench along the wall between the bins . provide a view of the surrounding terrain
Pithouse communities contain from two to ( Dick 1976 : 17-18 ) . Those excavated
eight pithouses in geographical proximity towers lack interior domicile features ,
and are associated with surface structures . evidence two successive components and
The latter consist of from one to four seem to have served as storage units
rooms and seem to have been used for before abandonment ( cf. Dick 1976 : 17-18 ,
diverse , purposes including corn drying , Whiteaker 1976 ) . Although other specific
storage , mealing and turkey pens ( Dick structures have been identified as towers
1976 : 26-27 ) . in the literature ( cf. Douglass 1917 , Green
1964 , Ellis 1976 ) , without excavation the
Gallina Phase " unit houses " are surface certainty of the designation is doubtful
structures built of massive , often heter ( Ellis 1976 : 30 ) .
ogeneous , rock masonry with varying
amounts of mud mortar . A north - south Pueblo -like structures were reported by
orientation of interior features ; U - shaped Hibben ( 1948 : 33 ) for the Gallina District ,
de flector , slab -lined hearth , and ventilator although at that time none had been exca
is standard within the rectangular room . vated . L / 120 ( Mohr and Sample 1972 ) ,
A banquette , sometimes containing storage eight miles east of Lindreth on a low
bins , lines the north , east and west walls . bench , on the north side of the Canada
The southern part of the room is set off Larga , consisted of two structures which
by storage bins extending out from the would seem to fall within this category .
walls . Ventilator holes occur near the Structure C comprised a 12 room rectan
floor of bins . House floors are generally gular building divided into four sections
slab -lined , and a four post roof support by three east- west walls , further divided
arrangement is most frequent ( Dick 1976 : by short north - south walls . Two periods
21-25 ) . Sub floor cists with narrow of occupation were noted . During the
openings and expanded bases provide first , one room had a lateral entrance from
additional storage space . Dick ( 1976-25 ) the exterior , and interior doorways con
reports one instance of additional storage nected four rooms . Only two rooms had
bins on a house roof. Unit houses gener firepits ; one of these had a U - shaped
ally occur as isolated structures , but de flector . The structure had burned .
double and triple house units have been After reoccupation , all but one room had
noted ( Dick 1976 : 21 ) . There is consider been replastered . Structure B , at the
able similarity in pit and unit house same site , was partially excavated and had
features and layout . Tree - ring dates from been severly vandalized . Mohr and Sample
the two types of structures overlap ( 1972 ) suggest that it was composed of six
(Robinson et al. 1974 ) . rooms , possibly with а second story .
Unfortunately , tree - ring dates for either
The " cliff houses " and towers , most com of these structures could not be obtained .
monly linked with the Gallina area in Mohr and Sample ( 1972 ) compared L / 102
popular literature , actually are the rarest with Green's ( 1968 : 56 ) description of Pg
types of sites ( Dick 1976 : 21 ) . Most of the 80 in the Leeson area , which was a rectan
cliff houses are identical to regular surface gular structure enclosing 12 rooms .
unit houses but are located in rock over Although construction methods appear to
hangs ( Pattison 1968 , Dick 1976 ) . The have been similar , Bg 80 did not contain
towers , first remarked by Douglass ( 1917 ) , interior floor features, and Green ( 1968 :
were identified by thick walls and abun 56 ) considered it a granery . Bg 80 has
dant wall - fall, indicating considerable been dated to post A.D. 1232 ( 1199vv
height . Dick ( 1976 : 17 ) considers Bg 20 1232vv ) by one tree - ring date . Another
and Bg 19 at the Hormigas site , both on tree - ring date of A.D. 1656 , from the same
Rattlesnake Ridge ( reported by
by Hibben site , may represent Navajo occupation or
1948 , Green 1956 ) and Bg
Bg 21 at the Navajo use of the site ( Robinson et al .
Carricito Community ( Green 1964 ) as cer 1974 , Snow 1976 ) .
tain towers . In addition , he noted three
similar structures in his surveys , one at Finally , mention should be made of three

47
other types of archeological manifestations ( Seaman 1976 ) . Stockaded Rosa Phase
the Gallina District : agricultural fea settlements are also reported for the
tures ; reservoirs , and seasonal camps . As Navajo Reservoir District of the San Juan
early as 1917 , Douglass recorded terraced ( Eddy 1968 ) . A link between the Gallina
gardens and a possible dam on Mesa Culture and protohistoric and historic sites
Golondrina ( Dick 1976 : 10 ) . There are of the Jemez Pueblo , first suggested by
frequent references in the literature to low Reiter ( 1938 ) on the basis of floor features
rock terraces and rock bordered gardens , and room con figuration at Unshagi , also is
but their specific locations generally are generally agreed upon ( Ford , Schroeder
not given ( cf. Pattison 1968 , Hibben 1940 , and Peckham 1972 ) .
1948 , Dick 1976
1976 :: 20 ) . Douglass ( 1917 : 5 )
and Dick ( 1976 : 1 ) indicate that Golondrina Questions relating to the culture history of
Tank was once the location of an ancient the Gallina District require a critical
reservoir , and Dick ( n.d .: 19 ) suggests evaluation of the degree to which our
that a dam tapped a portion of ancient in formation about this area is biased as a
Capulin Creek below Huer fano Mesa . Bahti consequence of the kinds of sites that
( 1949 : 52 ) reported a reservoir on have been excavated and the diversity of
Rattlesnake Point at Bg 2012 and recent sites recorded in surveys . A definitive
contour mapping and test excavation of critique entails additional systematic sur
this feature ( Perret 1976 : 5 in Ellis 1976 ) vey and excavation ; at best current knowl
have confirmed the identification . Perret edge offers sketchy guidelines for further
( 1976 : 5 ) estimates that the Bg 20/2 reser research . First , the later prehistory of
voir had a capacity of about 6600 gallons. the Gallina District exhibits several par
LA 10643 and LA 10644 reported by Ellis allels with the Taos District , including the
( 1974 ) have been interpreted as seasonally relatively late appearance of pithouses ,
utilized Gallina Phase sites ; they are continued use of pithouses and the location
located on high elevations at Turkey of pithouse communities ( and , in the
Springs . LA 10643 includes several Gallina District , associated unit house
" nest - like " houses and crevice caves at an communities ) in areas of topographic relief.
elevation of about 8600 feet . LA 10644 , Importantly ; however , Archaic manifesta
situated at about 10,000 feet , consists of 5 tions occur in the Taos and Chama areas
circular pithouses ; three of these were but have not been recorded in the Gallina
excav ated and found to lack both ceramics District . There would , again , seem to be
and fireplaces ( Ellis 1974b : 4 ) . two possible reasons for this : surveys
have concentrated on habitation sites ; and
Particular items of material culture consid dense vegetation cover makes visibility and
ered diagnostic of the Gallina Phase , in recognition of Archaic remains difficult. If
addition to the rather standard architec systematic surveys are conducted and
tural features and the ceramic types men either of these possibilities becomes
tioned are pointed bottom pots , small elbow untenable , alternative explanations should
pipes with supporting knobs , an emphasis be pursued .
on worked antler , comb arrow - polishers
and tri - notched axes ( Mera 1938 : 9 , Hall While the relationship between Rosa Phase
1944 : 60 ) . As noted above , the tri - notched and Gallina Phase mani festations is gener
axe is reported from Valdez and Pot Creek ally accepted , sites of a "transitional "
Phase sites in the Taos District ( Vickery nature have not been documented for the
1969 : 193 ) . In terms of culture history , Gallina . In this case survey and excava
Hall ( 1944 ) proposed that the Rosa Phase tion bias indeed may be responsible .
sites of the Gobernador area should be There is general agreement that during the
considered ancestral to the Gallina Phase , earlier portion of the Gallina Phase , pit
and this is generally accepted ( Ellis 1976 , houses were the predominant dwelling form
Ford , Schroeder and Peckham 1972 ) . and that both pithouses and unit houses
Importantly , one of the Rosa Phase " traits " occur in the later Gallina Phase ( Dick 1976 ,
previously not known in the Gallina Ellis 1976 ) . Pithouses are characteristic of
District , stockaded settlements , has been the Rosa Phase (Hall 1944 ) . Dick ( 1976 )
reported recently . LA 11843 consists of a and Smith and Dick ( 1976 ) note that in the
pithouse , two sur face structures and 11 Llaves area pithouse sites outnumber unit
exterior hearths and work areas sur house sites by five or six to one , yet most
rounded by a stockade . The site has been excavations have dealt with unit houses .
tree - ring dated to the early A.D. 1100's The single excavated site which most

48
closely con forms to the expected character with emphasis on larger game such as deer
of a transitional Rosa Phase /Gallina Phase and elk , a lower ratio of jars to bowls and
site is the stockaded pithouse LA 11843 a lower average volume of utility jars . LA
( Seaman 1976 ) . Unlike other excavated 11850 ( Fiero 1976 ) had a larger ground
pithouses LA 11843 consisted of an isolated
stone tool assemblage , indicating greater
structure , and Seaman ( 1976 : 116 ) states reliance on plant processing , increased
that isolated pithouses or loosely aggre storage features and a predominance of jar
gated pithouse clusters form a distinctive , and pointed bottom ceramics , also con
but ignored , Gallina settlement type . He
sistent with greater storage and processing
remarks that " there are literally hundreds of plant food . The results of a comparison
of single pithouse depressions throughout between only two sites are certainly not
the Gallina area , especially in the foot hills conclusive , but further studies along these
north of the San Pedro Mountains " ( Seaman lines are worth pursuing .
1976 : 116 ) . In view of the acknowledged
bias in the excavation of unit houses and The de fensive nature of Gallina Phase site
fairly densely aggregated communities of emplacement ( on ridge tops with difficult
pithouses and unit houses , it would
woul seem access ) and the large number of burned
reasonable that if transitional Rosa - Gallina sites have been commented on frequently
Phase structures are to be excavated , ( Hibben 1938 , 1944 , Ellis 1976 ) . Seaman
more attention should be paid to the iso ( 1976 ) suggests that this again may reflect
lated pithouse type site . It should be excavational bias toward later Gallina Phase
kept in mind that excavation is not likely settlements .
to provide evidence of stockades if only
the house structure is excavated . The The notion that the Gallina peoples were
hearths , work areas , surface structures warlike derives , in part , from two obser
and stockade found at LA 11843 covered an vations . The first is that sites are located
of about 550 m2 ( Seaman 1976 : 38 ) . on the tops of steep ridges . The second
is that a relatively large number of houses
Bias in excavation and in the selection of were burned . The first observation may
attributes which identify Gallina Phase be the result of excavational bias as
arti facts appear to have contributed to the discussed . The available literature does
notion that the Gallina Phase represents a not provide enough information to deter
static cultural mani festation of " aberrant mine precisely the frequency of burned
and war- like provincials " ( Seaman houses or whether pithouses or unit houses
1976 : 122 ) . As noted above , traditional are more likely to show evidence of con
ceramic typologies do indicate relatively flagration . However , it is valuable for
little change through time . On the other perspective to note that of the 13 pithouses
hand , Seaman ( 1976 : 48 ) demonstrated an excavated on Turkey Foot Ridge , in the
increasing proportion of Gray ware jars to Mogollon area west of Reserve , New Mexico ,
bowls among seven Gallina Phase sites 11 were burned ( Martin and Rinaldo 1950 ) .
dating from A.D. 1100+ to A.D. 1240-1270 ,
and interprets this evidence as indicating Recently reported paleoenvironmental data
increasing dependence on storage through for the Gallina District ( Mackey and
time . Comparable data for utility forms Holbrook 1978 , Holbrook 1975 , Holbrook and
were not available , but after A.D. 1200 the Mackey 1976 ) need careful evaluation
relatively large pointed bottom forms because the results of this research have
predominate and are associated with been treated as the key to Gallina arche
increased site size . While not conclusive , ology ( Ellis 1976 , Seaman 1976 ) . The most
Seaman's approach indicates that some of recent study ( Mackey and Holbrook 1978 )
the static quality attributed to the Gallina provides data from 23 sites in the Llaves
results , in part , from a failure to monitor area and analyses of microtine rodents ,
relevant , temporally sensitive variables . corn , pollen , and arroyo cutting that
Seaman ( 1976 : 120-121 ) compared LA 11843 attempt to document increasingly xeric
and LA 11850 , which tree - ring dates indi conditions in the Gallina District from
cate were occupied about 100 years apart . about A.D. 1250 until a fter the area had
He found that LA 11843 , the earlier site , been abandoned sometime after A.D. 1300 .
contained a lithic assemblage suggesting The investigators maintain that two species
high energy expenditure in curating and of mice (Microtus mexicanus and
manu facturing tools that could be related Peromyscus leucopus ) that are presently
to hunting activities , a faunal assemblage restricted to areas of New Mexico which

49
are more mesic than the Llaves area occur CHAMA DISTRICT
in the earlier Llaves dated sites , that the
mean number of rows per cob of carbonized The relatively well - known chert quarries of
maize , the mean basal, mid-cob and shank the Cerro Pedernal may have been used as
diameters and cupule widths of maize early as the Clovis period . Warren
decrease through time , and that there was ( 1974 : 90-91 ) discusses and illustrates two
progressive river entrenchment . While I bi facial knives or point pre forms which are
agree that the diverse evidence presented probably Clovis . Discovered in a cache on
indicates changed climatic conditions in the a tributary east of the Rio Tesuque , they
Llaves area between the 13th century A.D. are made of the distinctive Pedernal chert .
and today , there are several problems in The work by Schaa fsma
recent ( 1975 ,
interpretation . First , the published site 1976 ) , as part of the Abiquiu reservoir
chronology ( Holbrook and Mackey 1978 ) project documented Archaic utilization of
the Chama District from ca. 1800 B.C.
shows so much overlap of dates that it is
difficult to
determine when more mesic ( Armijo Phase ) ; he considers the Archaic
conditions existed . Second , although most occupation to be relatively intensive ,
impressive, the data which concern the perhaps representing one aspect of a
microtine fauna assume that mice were not seasonal round .
intrusive on occupation floors . Third ,
only about ( 50.4 % ) of the mean
half Until recently no indication of late

number of rows per carbonized corn cob is Basketmaker- Early Pueblo utilization of the
Chama District had been documented .
accounted for by the date of the site from
which the corn was obtained . Fourth , of Evidence for this period is still scant , but
the 20 sites for which elevations and dates Schaa fsma ( 1976 : 49 , 50 ) located nine
are given , site type ( pithouse , unit house, Basketmaker III - Pueblo I points within
tower , etc. ) is indicated in only four the Abiquiu Reservoir survey area . Two
cases . This makes determination of of the points were associated with
with the
possible functional distinctions among sites pedregal quarries in Canones Creek and
impossible . Site function is critical to indicate only that the chert deposits were
interpretating the pollen recovered .
Fifth , used during Basketmaker III Pueblo I
sites LA 11843 and LA 1150 which do seem times . Two sites , one on the second
to be temporally separated by the greatest terrace above the Chama river near Arroyo
time gap (but only about 100 years ) are del Chamiso and the other at the lower end
not included in the analysis . of Chama Canyon , consisted of lithic
scatters including Basketmaker III points ,
It is my feeling that the detailed paleo but Schaafsma ( 1976 : 65 ) does not think
climatic reconstructions attempted by that the scatters indicate single component
Holbrook and Mackey should be pursued , Basketmaker III sites . These localities are
however , such approaches must be com AR -129 , on a terrace in the Windmill area
bined with adequate monitoring of temporal of the survey , and AR -150 on a bench
and functional variability in sites and with northwest of Ghost Ranch . An isolated
deductive models that specify locational Basketmaker III point was located on the
and functional expectations about sites second terrace above the river near Iron
which are already known .
not For Springs . West of the Chama River on
example , given the data available on the Ghost Ranch Property two partial Late
archeology of the Gallina District , it is not Archaic or Early Basketmaker points were
sufficient to relate an apparent ( but as yet collected from an area where hundreds of
insufficiently documented ) increase in non -utilized flakes and several cores were
storage and the abandonment of the region found ( Roye 1976 ) . While all of these sites
lack ceramics , structures , hearths , or
to a decrease in effective moisture in about
A.D. 1250 . There must be an under other artifacts which might indicate more
standing of the range
rang of variability in than temporary use of the Chama district
adaptive strategies through time and the in Basketmaker - Pueblo I times , they are
constraints this variability that are
on nonetheless significant, because they
imposed by density dependent ( population ) comprise the sole evidence of even minimal
and density independent ( environmental) occupation of the area during this period,
change . Schaafsma ( 1976 : 50 ) suggests that use was

50
restricted to temporary hunting activities ; 1974 ) have been excavated . Except for LA
however , 11830 , the ruins exhibit similar plans .
the possibility that the lithic
scatters and associated points represent They are roughly quadrangular , with room
historic Ute re- utilization of scavenged blocks on three sides of a plaza ; the
points should be considered . fourth side is enclosed by a palisade of
jacal or a line of stones . A circular kiva
Undifferentiated lithic scatters are common was located near the center of the plaza
in the district ( Schaafsma 1976 , Roye 1976 , area at Riana and at Palisade while the two
Klaenhammer 1975 , Whiteaker 1976 ) . kivas identified at Leaf Water were placed
Recently three of these locations were next to the room tiers ( Leubben 1953 : 21 ) .
excavated (Klaenhammer 1975 , Whiteaker Rooms are rectangular , with the long axes
generally paralleling the plaza . Construc
1976 , Speth 1973 ) , and provide information
which makes apriori assignment of lithic tion at the Palisade site and Leaf Water
scatters to Archaic and early Anasazi was primarily adobe , with some masonry
groups unsound . LA 11836 ( Klaenhammer rooms . The Riana structures were built
almost entirely of basalt " boulder "
1975 ) and LA 10998 ( Speth 1973 ) contained
masonry , a difference Peckham ( 1974 )
no diagnostic artifact types ; the former
apparently is a quarry . LA 11828 attributes to the availability of building
material .
( Whiteaker 1976 ) , which yielded consider
able quantities of fire - cracked rock and
The single plaza kivas at Riana and
hearth areas was found , on excavation , to
include corrugated utility ceramics , Palisade were round , with a central fire
pit and an east- oriented ventilator . No
Abiquiu Black-on - gray ( Biscuit A ) , and
as well as pro posts were
roof support posts were found in either
Tewa polychrome sherds as
structure . Of the two structures referred
jectile points comparable to those reported
to as kivas at Leaf Water one was oval and
the large Pueblo III - IV sites in the
area . the other rectangular ; both had firepits
located on the side of the room . Because
Anasazi occupation of the Chama District is two structures referred to as pithouses ,
well documented from about A.D. 1200 also were discovered at Leaf Water and ,
( Pueblo III ) to the Spanish period , since the plaza surface was not cleared but
explored by means of two rather short
although the very large sites date to the
14th and 15th centuries. In his 1937 sur trenches , the " kiva " / pithouse distinction
appears arbitrary ; a plaza kiva was either
vey report , Hibben distinguished between
" Wiyo or biscuitoid ruins " and " Biscuit not present or not found . Ceramic inven
11 tories for all these sites consist of small
ware ruins . The two classes of ruins
also differ in size and settlement plan amounts of Santa Fe B / w , Wiyo B / w of
( Hibben 1937 ) . Hibben's distinction both the Valley and Pajarito varieties
( Hibben 1937 ) and an unnamed corrugated
between the two categories is related to
the notion that the " Wiyo " sites were ware , common in the area . Small amounts

abandoned prior to the construction of the of St. Johns Polychrome occur as a trade
ware , Both the ceramic inventories and
last phases of building at the " Biscuit "
the tree - ring dates indicate that the sites
sites , although the " Biscuit sites " might
contain components which pre - dated the were built and abandoned between A.D.
appearance of Biscuit A ceramics at about 1200 and A.D. 1375. Of the three pueblos ,
A.D. 1375 ( Hibben 1937 Bannister 1963 : 328 ) . Riana Ruin , with 26 rooms , is the smallest,
the Palisade site with about 50 rooms
The distinction seems to be useful and is
retained here . Hibben ( 1937 ) lists the second in size and Leaf Water the largest ,
with an estimated 100 + rooms . Arti fact
Leaf Water ruin , another ruin " above the
of the Chama , about ten miles inventories were similar , but Leaf Water
canyon
Pueblo had a greater variety of trade
above Abiquiu , and on the left side of the
river , " and the Riana Ruin , which he ceramics and artifacts , and more numerous
grooved axes , pipes , bone awls , bone
excavated , in the Wiyo group . In
addition , the Palisade Ruin ( LA 3505 ) , whistles and bone beads . Peckham ( 1974 )
excavated by Peckham ( 1974 ) , Homayo attributes the variability to the greater
( Hungpobi ) and the small " farming village, size of the pueblo . LA 11830 comprises a
grid of aligned river cobbles ; it is
LA 11830 ( Enloe et al. 1974 ) belong in this
category on chronological grounds . Of suggested that the arrangement repre
these sites , Riana Ruin ( Hibben 1937 ) , sented a combination of garden plot and
Leaf Water ( Luebben 1953 ) , Palisade field house perhaps seasonally occupied .
( Peckham 1974 ) and LA Stone grids are numerous in the Chama
3505 ( Enloe et al .

51
area and the association of grids and field west ventilators or entrances . Wendorf
houses may be unique to the region . ( 1953 : 49 ) describes and illustrates a " north
Although not precisely dated , LA 11830 is oriented sub floor pit " and numerous " loom
estimated to have been used between A.D. holes " which resemble the floor features
1200 and A.D. 1450. Botanical identifica described for Old Picuris ( Holschlag
tions and chemical analysis of soils from 1975 : 58 ) . The Te'ewi large kiva ( as well
the site have been undertaken but are not as the kivas at Old Picuris , Pot Creek
yet reported ( David Snow , personal Pueblo and modern Taos ) lack a sipapu .
communication 1978 ) . The " little kivas " described for Telewi
( Wendorf 1953 : 50 ) are circular , slightly
The large Biscuit ware sites were first over 6 meters in diameter , with an east
described by Bandelier ( 1892 ) ; the majority ventilator tunnel , central firepit, ashpit ,
were sketched and mapped by Hewett " landing slab " ( de flector slab ? ) interior
( 1906 ) and Mera , ( 1934 ) and further roof support posts and multiple sipapus .
described by Hibben ( 1937 ) . Excavations The sub - floor pits illustrated ( Wendorf
were conducted by Jeancon ( 1919 ) at 1953 : 48 ) resemble the foot drum grooves
Po - shu - ouinge , and for portions of Telewi present at Pot Creek and Picuris
( Te'ewo'on wikeji) by Wendorf ( 1953 ) . Much ( Holschlag 1975 : 58 ) . Wendorf ( 1953 : 50-51 )
of Sapawe was excavated by Ellis but compares the Telewi little kivas with kivas
remains unreported . Tree - ring samples at Tijeras Canyon ( Vulture Gulch ? ) ,
were taken from T siping ( Chipiinuine ) Arroyo Hondo , Pueblo Pindi , and at
Howiri (Houiri ) , and Homayo (Hungpobi) Arroyo Negro in the Santa Fe District .
( Hewett 1938 ) . Other large Biscuit ware
sites listed by Hibben ( 1937 ) are Tsama , The ceramics from Telewi included small
Po - nyi Pakuen , Psere , and Ku . Biscuit amounts of Santa Fe and Wiyo B / w , Biscuit
settlements apparently underlie both the A ( Abiquiu B / g ) and Biscuit B ( Bandelier
modern communities of Abiquiu and B/g), Potsuwili Incised , corrugated
Barranca , and in the Ojo Caliente Creek culinary , " mica culinary " and an apparently
drainage include Posi , Nute and transitional variety of Biscuit B and
Ponsipa'akwaye in addition to Howiri and Sankawi Blc . Trade wares comprise small
Hubpobi , mentioned above ( Hibben 1937 ) . amounts of Galisteo B / w , St. Johns poly
Although these sites have been explored chrome and Rio Grande Glazes ( Wendorf
by archeologists and collectors , there is 1953 : 55-57 ) . Ceramics from Sapawe include
little published in formation to synthesize . small amounts of Wiyo , both Biscuit wares
Most of the attention in the few arche and " Tesuque Smeared Indented
ological reports available is devoted to Corrugated " among other types . It should
ceramics . Hewett's ( 1906 ) sketch maps are be noted that according to Vickery
recognizably accurate as is his locational ( 1969 : 254 ) " no single characteristic as
data and that of Hibben ( 1937 ) . Most listed by Hawley ( 1950 ) is sufficient to
characteri stic of these ruins is their size . separate Tesu que Smeared Indented
Wendorf ( 1953 : 37 ) estimates 600 rooms for Corrugated from the Taos Gray Smeared
Telewi , while Sapawe is considered the Indented Corrugated , other than range .
largest adobe ruin in New Mexico , with In addition , the similarity between the
multiple plazas and at least 19 kivas " unusual " Biscuit " doughnut" form vessel
( Hibben 1937 ) . At Telewi ( Wendorf 1953 ) found in Kiva II at Te'ewi to vessels of
rooms were constructed of adobe and this shape from Classic Mimbres should be
masonry ; some of the excavated adobe remarked . A vessel of the same form was
rooms had walls rein forced with interior reported from Poshouingue by Jeancon
poles , a characteristic discussed at some (Wendorf 1953 : 55 ) .
length by Wetherington ( 1968 ) , because of
its importance in the Taos - Picuris area . In Wendorf's ( 1953 : 94 ) view , the large
Chama Biscuit sites resulted from the
Both Sapawe and Telewi had a single very aggregation of population rather than
large kiva in addition to multiple small migration into the area . He notes that
kivas . The diameter of the large kiva at " there were numerous small sites which
Te'ewi is given as 10.4 meters ( Wendorf were contemporary with Leaf Water and the
1953 : 48 ) . Constructed of coursed adobe is early phase at Telewi in the high upland
was circular with an east ventilator and country bordering the Chama Valley . The
central firepit and de flector . Like the majority of these sites were abandoned at
kiva at Old Picuris there were subsidiary the same time the larger pueblos appeared

52
in the Pajarito Plateau and Chama areas " are described as " hand picked gravel of
(Wendorf 1953 : 94 ) . Peckham ( 1974 ) sug about egg size " ( Hibben 1937 : 17 ) which
gests that the inhabitants of the Palisade Ellis ( 1975 ) has referred to as " gravel
Ruin moved to Tsiping . Tsiping , in fact, mulch gardens . 11 Small circular or rectan
contains Wiyo and Biscuit components , and gluar outlines of cobbles that lack arti
has been tree-ring dated to from A.D. 1250 factual debris are generally considered
to A.D. 1400 , indicating continuity in shrines because of their similarity to
occupation between the Wiyo and Biscuit ethnographically known examples ( Snow
periods (Hewitt 1938 : 26 ) . 1975 ) .

Although Wendorf ( 1953 : 94 ) , following Mera Rock art sites in the Chama drainage
( 1934 : 19 ) , considers that the Chama Valley consist of petroglyphs which Polly
declined in importance as a population Schaa fsma ( 1972 ) considers representative
center shortly after A.D. 1500 , three
of the general " late Rio Grande style . "
sites , which Hibben (1937 ) refers to as Although this style varies from one district
Tewa polychrome and historic ruins, indi to another , fairly large representations of
cate that the Chama district was not com masks , anthropomorphs and shields are
pletely abandoned by the Anasazi . These common elements .
are ; the Anasazi site underlying the
historic chapel of Santa Rosa de Lima de " Lodge sites " and tepee ring sites , which
Abiquiu , some three miles south of modern may be the remnants of former lodges , are
Abiquiu ; Greenley ruin , five miles above
numerous in the Chama area and generally
the mouth of El Rito Wash ; and San
ascribed to the Ute or Navajo ( Hibben
Gabriel de Yunque , at the confl uence of 1937 , Swadesh 1974 ) . Hibben ( 1937 : 13 )
the Chama and the Rio Grande . Both
describes the lodges as built of posts and
Hibben and Herbert Dick did some test split beams set vertically on end and
excavation at the Santa Rosa de Lima de coming together at an apex in the center ,
Abiquiu site , but reports of their work with the bases of the posts being sup
have not been published . Ellis excavated
ported by boulders and sandstone slabs .
the original Spanish settlement at San
Gabriel de Yunque .
SANTA FE DISTRICT
In addition to the large Pueblo sites , the
Anasazi occupation of the Chama is asso The Santa Fe District is here broadly
ciated with numerous garden areas , garden defined to include the Galisteo Basin and
and field house associations , shrines and Pecos areas on the east , the area just
rock art sites . The " farming village" of south of the confluence of the Chama and
LA 11830 was discussed above . In
Rio Grande Rivers on the north , and the
addition , Skinner ( 1965 ) reports 24 " field White Rock Canyon - Cochiti areas on the
houses " and 2 boulder rectangles , which west , exclusive of the Pajarito Plateau .
may demarcate garden plots , within one The southern boundary is somewhat arbi
square mile of Sapawe . Hibben ( 1937 : 16-17 ) trary , running from the Jemez River south
detected " at least 2,000 " boulder rectan of Cochiti and east to the Galisteo . I
gles in his aerial photographs on the follow McNutt ( 1969 ) in excluding the
lava - topped mesa east of Abiquiu and notes Pajarito Plateau , but in doing so consider
that these features had been referred to
able artificiality is introduced .
as shrines by Jeancon ( 1923 ) . As an
alternative , Hibben stated that " a more Lang ( 1977a : 20 ) has documented both
obvious explanation would be that they are Basketmaker II and Basketmaker III compo
the remains of ancient maize terraces "
maize nents in the San Cristobal drainage of the
( 1937 : 17 ) . The results of the analysis of Galisteo Basin . He views the lithic assem
LA 11830 should be enlightening with blages evidence of continuity with the
respect to this interpretation . It would Cochise tradition but finds a shift in site
also be worthwhile to compare the physical location in late Basketmaker II which
characteristics and the topographic continues into Basketmaker III and
settings of the boulder alignments with the Pueblo 1 . Early Basketmaker II sites are
agricultural features known from the on mesa overviews in proximity to reliable
Picuris area ( discussed above ) . In sources of water . Lang ( 1977a : 18 ) sug
addition , some of the boulder rectangles gests that they indicate hunting activities ,
enclose areas which are filled with what probably during fall and / or winter . In

53
Late Basketmaker II and Basketmaker III , This is an open Basketmaker II site
there is a shift in site location , and type reported from the Rio Chiquito portion of
of site , possibly indicating use of the the James Webb Young Ranch ( Frisbie,
basin for warm season foraging and gather Moore and Speilbauer 1970 ) , but the dis
ing activities , perhaps including agricul tance of this site to water and the lithic
ture . The evidence comprises large base materials are not described .
camps with numerous hearths and earth
ovens . Basketmaker III and Pueblo I sites Red Mesa B / w is generally considered
are farther permanent water than
from characteristic of Pueblo II , and it does not
Basketmaker II sites , but are " adjacent to seem to date before A.D. 900 (cf. Lang
a major inner canyon area of high agricul 1977a : 380 , McNutt 1969 , Allen 1973 ) . The
tural potential" ( Lang 1977a : 373 ) . Lithic amount of Pueblo II material recorded in
raw materials recovered from the the Santa Fe District is meagre . Lang
Basketmaker III - Pueblo I sites reflect ( 1977a : 380-382 ) indicates a scarcity of
extensive use of similar intrabasin chert Pueblo II sites in the Galisteo Basin , and
resources and , at one site , a wide range suggests that excursions into the basin
of raw material sources . Lang ( 1977a : 375 ) were transitory and apparently related to
believes that this difference in the use of trade and summer hunting . He docu
stone may reflect chronological, geographic mented only two locations in the San
and / or social differences among sites .
Despite
Cristobal drainage ( SC 188 and SC 143 )
his observation that the lithics
represent some continuity with the Cochise which seem to have been utilized during
Pueblo II , SC 188 is a lithic scatter on a
tradition ,Lino Gray , an Anasazi type , narrow mesa with an overview of the
comprises the only ceramics associated with confluence of Piedra Lumbre Canyon and
the Basketmaker III- Pueblo I components . San Cristobal arroyo . Evidence for its use
during Pueblo II consisted of a single
Biella and Chapman (1977 : 120 ) list seven point resembling a style found at the
sites with Basketmaker III components Tesugue By- Pass site (McNutt 1969 ) ,
known from previous work in the Cochiti discussed below . SC 143 is a rock shelter
White Rock Canyon area, а number not which seems to have been utilized from
augmented by subsequent survey of the Archaic through Pueblo IV times . The
permanent pool of Cochiti Reservoir Pueblo II manifestation
comprised a Red
( Chapman and Biella 1977 : 9 ) . Five of Mesa jar ( Lang 1977a : 149 ) . No sites dated
these are in the Rio Grande drainage below to Pueblo II were located in the survey of
White Rock Canyon ; two in the Santa Fe the James Webb Young Ranch ( Frisbie ,
drainage . According to Biella and
Moor and Spielbauer 1970 ) . Although 36
Chapman (1977 : 117 ) , the sites are usually Pueblo II sites , or sites with Pueblo II
small, consisting of one to three pithouses components , have been documented in the
with associated storage areas .
surficial White Rock Canyon - Cochiti area ( Biella and
The transition between Basketmaker III Chapman 1977 : 120-121 ) most lack any
and Pueblo I is not marked , and descriptive beyond
in formation
their
documented sites comprise components that location , The available data indicate that
apparently span both periods. Ceramic
the sites are small and that overall site
types associated with the Pueblo I sites in density in the area is low for this time
the Cochiti area are those present in the period ( Biella and Chapman 1977 : 117 ) .
Albuquerque district ( Jan V. Biella , per Pueblo II sites were not found during the
sonal communication , 1978 ) . There is not a intensive survey of the permanent pool of
great deal of evidence , but Late Reservoir ( Chapman and Biella
Cochiti
Baskemaker-Pueblo I in the Albuquerque 1977 : 9 ) .
district, the Cochiti area and the Galisteo
Basin seems to mani fest general expansion One excavated site , the Dead Horse Site
in warm use , probably related to
season ( LA 272 , Honea 1971 ) , in the Santa Fe
agriculture and gathering , a pattern that River drainage , near White Rock Canyon,
may be general in the Anasazi Southwest contained about equal amounts of Piedra
( Glassow 1972 ) . It would appear that this Black --on - white and Red Mesa Black -- on
shift settlement from upland hunting to white , the only decorated ceramics
warm season camps could be documented recovered . The more abundant utility
for the Cochiti area between the earlier wares consisted predominantly of brown
and later Basketmaker- Pueblo I periods by wares ( La Bajada Brown , unidentified
examination of localities such as LA 9906 . brown and Alma Plain ) along with some

54
Lino Gray and Pena Blanca Gray . In view he considers the ceramic complex repre
of the presence of Red Mesa , I would sents migration into the Rio Grande from
consider the site Pueblo II , although Honea the west by way of the Rio Puerco and
( 1971 : 18 ) suggests tentative bracketing Jemez River Valleys ( McNutt 1969 ) . This
dates of A.D. 850 to 950 based on the view is shared by Allen ( 1973 ) in his
ceramic assemblage . Unfortunately , tree interpretation of the Tsogue Site that
ring dates could not be obtained and yielded abundant Red Mesa , but also Taos
Honea ( 1971 : 18 ) states that " L.A. 272 has B / w , Kwahele B / w and utility ware which
not been placed
placed within an established is described as " brownish and friable , "
phase designation . " The site consisted of ( Allen 1973 : 5 ) . The Red Mesa component
three simple unplastered pithouses and of the Tesuque By- Pass and Tsogue sites
sur face structures . The pithouses had consisted of pithouses , apparently with
four - post roof associated surface structures . LA 835
supports , south - east
oriented ventilators and were rather ( Stubbs and Stallings 1953 : 155 ) seems to
irregular in shape . The first " surface date between A.D. 950 and A.D 1100 . It
house " consisted of nine rooms , three of consisted of about 12 small house units ;
which had shallow fire pits . Wall bases each comprising from ten to 20 rooms , a
were basalt slabs and cobbles , and it is great kiva and " circular and rectangular
suggested that walls were of adobe . The kivas ( both surface and subterranean ) "
second " sur face house " was only tested , ( Stubbs and Stalli ng s 1953 : 155 ) .
but it appeared to consist of two rooms .
Fragments of three trough metates , pro From the perspective of culture history ,
jectile points , scrapers and knives were the problems in dealing with Pueblo II in
recovered ( Honea 1971 ) , as were corncobs the central Rio Grande area involve three
and hackberry pits ( Ford 1971 ) . major issues , First , archeologists working
with models of in situ cultural growth of
Low site density for the early Anasazi Rio Grande populations are troubled by the
period ( prior to A.D. 900 ) is also docu " hiatus " in occupation apparent in the
mented for the survey from the upper Cochiti area and the Galisteo Basin . ( cf.
canyon of the Arroyo Hondo to the Rio Flynn and Judge 1973 , Biella and Chapman
Grande reported by Dickson ( 1975 , also see 1977 , Chapman and Biella 1977 ) . Second ,
Schwartz and Lang 1972 ) . The few sites scholars who prefer migration models in
reported were located on the floodplains of order to explain data have difficulty
the Rio Grande and Santa Fe Rivers . accepting the presence of Red Mesa B /w
from the west with pithouse complexes that
North of Santa Fe , Pueblo II is repre lack typical San Juan features, such as
sented at the Tesuque By - Pass Site " winged firepits" ( McNutt 1969 ) , or later
( McNutt 1969 ) , the Tsogue Site ( LA 746 ) San Juan kiva features such as pilasters
( Allen 1973 ) , and LA 835 ( Stubbs and and benches . Third , the dating of the
Stallings 1953 : 155 , Stubbs 1954 , McNutt various Rio Grande B / w w wares , and the
1969 ) . McNutt ( 1969 ) compares the ceramic belief that they were either introduced
assemblage at the Tesuque By- Pass Site from the San Juan or developed in the Rio
with excavated sites in the Albuqueruqe Grande as copies of San Juan types ,
District , particularly the Zia , Santa Ana provides endless sources of dispute when
and Sandia Sites ( Vytlacil and Brody 1958 , it is assumed that the appearance of types
Allen and McNutt 1955 , Peckham 1957 ) , such as Red Mesa , Kwahele , Taos B / w ,
discussed above . However , he notes that and Santa Fe B / w must be sequential. At
in the Albuquerque District , Red Mesa is the risk of more controversy , I suggest an
accompanied by pottery of the Lino series alternative approach in the Assessment
and San Marcial, Alma Plain and Mogollon Section below .
R /b, whereas the ceramics from the
Tesuque By- Pass site consist of Red Mesa Again I use a convenience date of A.D.
B / w, Taos B /w, neck - banded utility 1200 for the beginning of Pueblo III . I do
vessels , and unidentified B w
/ , which so here , because it does mark the intro
appears transitional between Red Mesa B / w duction of Santa Fe B /w, which most
and Kwahele B / w . McNutt ( 1969 : 83 ) states researchers recognize as an unambiguous
that this ceramic inventory " is to be found type , and because the date coincides with
primarily on the east side of the river Rio the beginning of the Coalition Period as
Grande between Santa Fe in the south de fined by Wendorf and Reed ( 1955 ) . The
and the Rio Chiquito in the north . " Further problem of an end date for Pueblo III is

55
 even more critical for the Santa Fe area which was estimated to contain about 150
than it is in the Albuquerque District . rooms ( Lang 1977a : 392 ) , is rectangular
Wendorf and Reed ( 1955 ) and Lang ( 1977b , with a small L -shaped wing extending
see also Schwartz and Lang 1972 ) use A.D. west . Several small roomblocks occur in
1325 as the end of the Coalition and the the immediate area . A complex of boulder
beginning of the Classic Period in the Rio and cobble alignments measuring ca. 0.3 to
Grande . Although I noted that aa more 0.6 kilometers northwest - southwest and 0.6
kilometers northeast-southwest is inter
appropriate date seemed to be A.D. 1300 in
the Albuquerque District , I do accept 1325 preted as grid borders for soil retention
for the Santa Fe area , the latter date ( Lang 1977a : 390-391 ) .
accords with the classification being used
in the Cochiti area as well ( Biella and South of Santa Fe , tree - ring dates indicate
Chapman 1977 ) . ( In his brief overview the pre - Pindi phase jacal structure
paper, Lang 1977b , equates the beginning and pithouse were built at Pindi Pueblo
of Pueblo III with the production of ( LA 1 ) at about A.D. 1200 ( Stubbs and
Kwahele B / w , and there fore assigns a Stallings 1953 : 14 , 25 ) . The major construc
starting date of A.D. 1050 or 1100 . tion at Pindi ; however, was carried out
Although his classification has merit when from the mid thirteenth century , with a
ceramics are emphasized , it creates the date of 1349 for final construction . Local
problem of developing sub-periods to decorated ceramic types from Pindi include
reflect architectural trends . ) Santa Fe B / w , Wiyo ,
Galisteo B / w, Poge
Western trade wares
B / w , and Pindi B / w .
Lang (1977a : 22 ) found that by about A.D. include St. Johns , and later , Heshotauthla
1200 , agricultural communities were again polychrome. Small amounts of Los Padillas
established in the Galisteo Basin . Sites polychrome ( Glaze A ) occurred in the
are generally near springs or permanent upper levels of the site . Culinary wares
streams . Both pithouses and pueblo-style included Indented , Tesu que Smeared
houses are described . A fter about A.D. indented , Cordova Micaceous ribbed and
1250 , population in the Galisteo Basin Cundiyo Micaceous -indented . Trends
increased considerably and larger popu noted in the culinary wares range from
lation aggregates occured as well. sharply defined indentations to smeared
Aggregated villages consist of rectangular and obliterated treatment and greater
roomblocks that are either contiguous or quantities of mica temper ( Stubbs and
separate structures grouped around plazas . Stallings 1953 : 48-56 ) . At Pindi building
Masonry and adobe were used in house periods are divided into two major episodes ,
construction . Kivas are di fferentiated primarily on the basis of ceramics . The
from pithouses. Corresponding with the ruin first of irregular pueblo
consisted
increase in population and aggregation of buildings with circular subterranean kivas
peoples, there is evidence of agricultural in front of structures . The kivas lack
features consisting of
grid extensive specialized San Juan features ( pilasters ,
borders on floodplains . Among the repre benches , etc ) , were predominantly circular
sentative sites in the Galisteo Basin are and subterranean , with an ashpit , firepit
Piedra Lumbre Pueblo ( LA 309 ) , that has Rectangular sub floor cists
and de flector .
been tree - ring dated to 1251+ to 1333+ were frequent. Ladder holes and upright
( Robinson et al. 1973 , Lang 1977a :: 389 ) , posts inside kiva walls are reported ( Stubbs
and Pueblo Largo which has produced and Stallings 1953 ) . Habitation rooms were
tree-ring dates ranging from A.D. 1230 to rectangular and of coursed adobe construc
the 1290's , ( Robinson et al 1973 ) . Santa tion . Firepits in rooms were relatively
Fe Blw , was the most abundant type scarce . Those found , however, were
observed on the surface during Lang's basin shaped , adobe lined and with adobe
survey of Pedra Lumbre . Other ceramics rims . Firepits were placed near the center
present included " Poge " variety of Galisteo of rooms , or , in six cases , had been built
B / w as well as classic Galisteo B / w , and along one wall. During the second con
Chupadero B / w . Rio Grande Corrugated struction period , the pueblo assumed the
appeared to be the most common utility form of a large " communal building " with
ware . Western trade wares include multiple plazas . There was a shift to
( Banister 1953 ) Wingate or Puerco B /r, surface kivas and these roughly D - shaped
Springerville Polychrome , and St. Johns kivas were less numerous . They were
Polychrome. Stone and adobe were used apparently in pueblo was
use when the
in construction . The main roomblock , abandoned (Stubbs and Stallings 1953 ) .

56
Similar sites dating to Pueblo III , in the western roomblock contained 12 tiered
vicinity of Santa Fe , include Pueblo Alamo contiguous rooms and the eastern three
( LA 8) ( Allen 1973 ) , Agua Fria , contiguous linearly arranged rooms. Each
Schoolhouse ruin ( LA 2, Kidder 1932 ) , roomblock is reported to have had an
Chamisa Locita (LA 4 ) , Lamy ( LA 10 ) , associated but not contiguous kiva . A
Arroyo Hondo ( LA 12 ) ( Schwartz and Lang third , smaller , circular subterranean
1972) Cieneguilla (LA 16 ) , Las Madres (LA structure , connected to the western room
25 ) , Upper Arroyo Hondo ( LA 76 ) , San block is described as either a kiva or
Cristobal ( LA 80 ) , Rowe or Guthe's Ruin pithouse . Rooms were rectangular with
(LA 108 ) , Pena Negra ( LA 235 ) , Arrowhead basalt clasts used as the base for coursed
Ruin (LA 251 ) , the oldest part of Pecos adobe walls . Interior hearths varied in
Pueblo ( LA 625 ) , Manzanares ( LA 1104 ) , location within rooms and in form . Ceram
and in the Galisteo Basin the ics from the site were predominantly Santa
proper ,
Waldo Site ( LA 9147 ) ( Allen 1973 ; Keyser Fe B /w, with small amounts of Galisteo
and Ewing 1971 ; Breternitz 1966 ) . B / w and Wiyo B / w . Although the excava
tors believe Pueblo Medio was occupied on
Dickson's (1975 ) survey in the Arroyo a year round basis, they question the
Hondo indicated that during the period ca. degree to which agriculture was practiced .
A.D. 1200-1250 , sites increase in number Doubt stems from the observation that the
and size as compared with the preceding soils in the immediate vicinity are con
period ; however , there is no major expan sidered of low agricultural potential today .
sion outside of primary resource areas . Further no corncobs or kernels were
During Pueblo III , population aggregates recovered during the excavation , and no
were formed both at Arroyo Hondo ( LA 12 ) mealing bins were discovered although
and at Pueblo Alamo ( LA 8 ) and the smaller there were slab metates ( Lumbach , Sudar
sites were abandoned . Murphy , Naylor and Rorex 1977 ) .
In the Cochiti- White Rock Canyon area The majority of reports dealing with Pueblo
trends in Pueblo III settlement parallel III in the Santa Fe District have been
those discussed . Biella and Chapman concerned with tracing the origins and
(1977 : 117 ) note that research prior to their development of the various ceramic types
intensive survey documented 363 Pueblo III found in ( and on ) sites . Pueblo III is
sites . They remark that the range in size given slightly different temporal boun
of Pueblo III sites is considerable , and daries by different scholars , depending
although small sites of ( ca. 6 to 10 rooms ) upon whether sites show a predominance of
predominate , medium size sites ( ca. 11-30 Kwahele or Santa Fe B /w, or whether
rooms ) constitute a class rare at other there are sherds of Wiyo, Galisteo , western
times in the Anasazi sequence in White polychromes or early glazewares as well .
Rock Canyon . They mention that popula Summaries ( such as those provided in
tion aggregation , which is generally charac Wendorf and Reed 1955 , Stubbs and
teristic of the latter portions of Pueblo III Stallings 1953 , McNutt 1969 and Lang 1977b )
in the Santa Fe and Albuquerque Districts , generally indicate a considerable diversity
occurs primarily in the northern portion of in the size , ceramic content , and location
their study area . Within the permanent of Pueblo III sites, but the major efforts
pool of Cochiti Reservoir only three single seem to concentrate on an attempt to order
component Pueblo III sites were recorded ; this diversity along temporal lines . The
a one-room site , a 2-3 room site , and a fact that no ordering is acceptable to all
medium size pueblo of an estimated 17-21 researchers is probably the most instruc
rooms ( Chapman and Biella 1977 : 9 ) . А tive feature of the summaries . General
multi- component Pueblo III site (LA 6462 ) , agreement is limited the propositions
comprising eight small village units , was that , after the sparse indications of habi
excavated by the Museum of New Mexico as tation during Pueblo II , population seems
part of their work in the Cochiti Reservoir to have increased and toward the end of
( Allen 1973 , Lumbach , Sudar -Murphy, Pueblo III population aggregation also
Naylor and Rorex 1977 ) . increased . The current favored explana
tion for aggregation is that it is a response
Pueblo Medio (LA 5014 ) , the medium size to subsistence stress , possibly initiated by
Pueblo III site in White Rock Canyon decreased amounts of rain fall ( cf. Wendorf
within the permanent pool of the reservoir , and Reed 1955 , Biella and Chapman 1977 ,
consisted of two roomblocks . The larger Chapman and Biella 1977 , Snow 1971 ) .

57
Pueblo IV in the Santa Fe District may be Cieneguilla G /p, Largo G / y, G /p and
dated to between A.D. 1325 and 1600 , a Espinosa G / p from A.D. 1350 to 1475 , with
time period that coincides with the dates San Cristobal Pueblo a possibly major trade
proposed for the Rio Grande Classic by center for glazes C to F from A.D. 1450 to
Wendorf and Reed ( 1955 ) . A terminal date 1680 .
of 1540 , used by Lang ( 1977a , 1977b ) is not
accepted here for reasons already dis Within the Galisteo Basin early Pueblo IV
cussed . The Rio Grande Classic has been has been referred to as the Galisteo phase ,
characterized as a period of "cultural dated from about A.D. 1300 to 1350 ( Lang
expansion and florescence " with large 1977a : 24 ) . At first, there seems to have
aggregated communities and elaborate been continued growth in several of the
material cultural items ( Wendorf and Reed late Pueblo III villages distributed from the
1955 : 153 ) . Among diagnostic artifacts, eastern Basin toward the mouth of San
Wendorf and Reed ( 1955 : 153 ) list decorated Marcos Arroyo . San Marcos Pueblo was
pipes , elaborate axes , carved bone tools , founded , and , as noted above , was appar
stone effigies , mural paintings and variety ently an exchange center . In the later
in vessel forms. Lang ( 1977b ) adds the part of the Galisteo Phase ( ca. 1330-1350 ) ,
appearance of a " Rio Grande " art style , there were population discontinuitites and
depicting masks and masked figures. He disorganization , evidenced by the observa
follows Schaafsma and Schaafsma ( 1975 ) in tions that many of the early Galisteo Phase
regarding this style as an introduction by sites were abandoned , villages were estab
populations of Jornada Mogollon derivation lished in areas which may have offered
and possibly representing the introduction more reliable water resources , and the
of the katchina cult . The period may also export of ceramics from the Basin to
be characterized by considerable locational pueblos both north and east seems to have
shifts in population . been disrupted ( Kidder and Shepard 1936 ,
Lang 1977a : 24 ) . Between about A.D. 1350
Shortly after A.D. 1300 , red - slipped , glaze and 1475 large pueblos were founded on
decorated ceramics began to replace black Galisteo Creek and its tributaries . Such
on - white wares over much of the Santa Fe well - known sites as San Cristobal , Piedra
District . Presumably , the Rio Grande Lumbre Pueblo , Pueblo Largo , Las Madres
glazes were initially made in imitation of and San Marcos were occupied throughout
earlier western trade wares , such as St. the period ; however , Lang ( 1977a : 399-401 )
Johns Polychrome and Heshotauthla . The suggests that Pueblo Largo and San
Rio Grande glazes form a distinctive set of Cristobal may have experienced a period of
ceramic types which were produced as late population decline at about A.D. 1350 and ,
as ca. A.D. 1700 and widely traded both later , a population increase . His interpre
within the Rio Grande Valley and to groups tation is based on evaluation of Nelson's
on the Plains . Some of the major contri ( 1916 ) stratigraphic tests at San Cristobal
butions to the study of the glazes appear and paleoclimatic data derived from tree
in the following : Nelson ( 1916 ) , Kidder ring reconstruction for the northern Rio
and Shepard ( 1936 ) , Mera ( 1933 ) and Grande .
Shepard ( 1942 ) . Shepard's work , which
utilizes petrographic analysis of temper is Lang ( 1977a : 26 ) remarks that a pattern of
particularly important in the establishment dispersed field houses and farmsteads
suggested manufacturing and trade centers . seems not to have existed in the Basin ,
Warren ( 1969 , 1970 , 1977b , 1977c ) is con after about A.D. 1370 and correlates the
tinuing this analytic technique and inter aggregated village pattern with the con
pretation . In the Jemez , Pajarito , and struction of large retaining dams and
Chama areas , carbon painted black on reservoirs . In any case , there is a marked
white wares , such as Wiyo B / w , and later decrease in relatively small settlements ,
Biscuit A and Biscuit B , continued to be accompanied by population aggregation ,
manu factured . but correlations with specific drought
episodes are not well - documented . The
Warren ( 1970 : 4 ) suggests that the Cochiti Wheeler Site ( LA 8669 , Alexander 1971 ) is a
area was a major trade center for the fairly small ( about 30 rooms ) pueblo on a
earlier glazes ( Agua Fria and San Clemente ) ridge above the Galisteo River . It was
from about A.D. 1325 to 1400 , that San built in A.D. 1386 , occupied for a short
Marcos and other Galisteo Pueblos became period of time , abandoned and burned .
centers for trade in Cieneguilla G / y, Whether or not its abandonment can be

58
attributed to an in ferred drought in ca. ( field houses ) occur between the large
A.D. 1425 is conjectural. It is worth sites on the mesa . Within the canyon , one
noting that Lang ( 1977a : 403 ) believes that and 2 room structures predominate .
many of the walled rock shelters which he
located in the San Cristobal survey may Recently reported excavations of Pueblo IV
date to mid to late Pueblo IV and may have sites include LA 6455 , LA 70 , LA 5137 and
been used for storage . A possible in fer the east component of LA 12579 ( Lange
ence is that aggregation of population and 1968 , Chapman and Biella 1977 , Snow 1973 ,
labor investment in water control and Stein 1976 ) . The Alfred Herrera Site ( LA
storage features was , in part , precipitated 6455 , Lange 1968 ) was on a bench above
by unreliable crop yields brought about by the right bank of the Rio Grande , and
moisture deficiencies . comprised two architecturally distinct
sectors , both of which date to Pueblo IV .
Nelson's ( 1914 ) descriptions of the ruins of Architectural features consisted of surface
the Galisteo Basin are classic and highly rooms , pit rooms and kivas . Pit rooms
accurate . In addition to discussing the were the house
prevailing hou se type in the
large villages or towns , Nelson recorded eastern , somewhat earlier , sector of the
rock art sites , shrines , small pueblos , site . These averaged over a meter in
field houses , reservoirs and dams . Many depth and were rectangular habitation
of the large Galisteo sites were multi rooms with ventilator openings oriented
storied pueblos built of either stone and between east and south . Walls were of
adobe or masonry . Roomblocks are massed coursed adobe or irregular stone blocks .
about plazas , some of which are completely Nelson described pit rooms at Los Aguajes
enclosed ; others are open . Circular kiva ( LA 5 , Lange 1968 : 73-78 ) . Kiva form was
depressions are noted in plaza areas roughly circular with firepit , ashpit ,
( Nelson 1914 ) . Schroeder and Matson de flector and ventilator . The kiva in the
( 1965 ) provide descriptions of the Galisteo eastern sector of the Alfred Herrera site
villages reported and chronicle by the had a high bench along the southeastern
Spaniards. portion of the wall ( Lange 1968 : 76-90 ) .

Within the White Rock Canyon Cochiti Although analysis of recently excavated
area the majority of the Pueblo IV sites one and two room structures within White
are characterized by early glazes ( A and Rock Canyon are not yet completely
B ) , indicating that occupation of the area reported , these sites seem to contain little
continued until only about A.D. 1450 ; fauna , few or no milling stones and little
documented Pueblo IV sites number 322 . botanical debris . Utility ware is generally
Biella and Chapman ( 1977 : 305-306 ) remark sparse , but hearths are present. Walls
a number of di fferences between the
commonly are represented by a single row
Pueblo III and Pueblo IV sites in their of stone ( Chapman and Biella 1977 , Jan V.
study area . These are : a reduction in Biella 1978 , personal communication ) .
total population suggested by a decrease in Agricultural terraces composed of rocks
both Pueblo IV components and number of one or two layers high indicate little labor
rooms ; a change to a bimodal distribution investment . An apparent water diversion
in site size ; increased variability in the device , consisting of slabs set upright into
specific types of topographic locations of a terraced area , also seems to have
Pueblo IV components ; an increase in the involved minor labor expenditure ( Stein
number of sites with non - structural compo 1976 , Chapman and Biella 1977 ) .
nents ( lithic and / or ceramic scatters ) , and
an increase in agricultural facilities , In the Santa Fe River Basin in the imme
including dams and terraces . diate vicinity of Santa Fe , two Pueblo IV
sites have been excavated . LA 16 ,
Bandelier ( 1892 ) described many of the ( Cieneguilla Pueblo ) was excavated by
large Pueblo IV sites near Cochiti . Most Nelson in 1915 , although no final report
large villages are on the broad mesa top was written . Pindi Pueblo , discussed
above the right bank of the Rio Grande . above , continued to be occupied into
Stein ( 1976 ) notes that these are spaced Pueblo IV times and is reported by Stubbs
several kilometers apart , apparently in and Stallings ( 1953 ) . Surveys in the Santa
order to maintain access to water sources Fe area in general, have been sporadic
while providing enough land for farming and poorly reported . Two recent surveys
the mesa tops . Small structural sites ( Klausner 1977 , Dart 1977 ) recorded nine

59
sites , which on the basis of surface
joined the Navaho and Apache in refugee
ceramics , appear to have Pueblo IV communities on the Poterero Viejo . Old
components . Cochiti (Kotyiti, LA 295 ) was built as a
re fugee community . Other Pueblos moved
Dickson's ( 1975 ) transect survey in conjunc further west to join the Hopis and Navajos .
tion with the excavation of Arroyo Hondo During the 12 years of independence from
( Schwartz and Lang 1973 ) indicates an Spain , the Pueblos resumed subsistence
increase in the number of sites during farming activity but retained European
Pueblo IV to levels previously indicated for crops , horses , sheep and cattle ( Abbink
the phases prior to A.D. 1300 . Although and Stein 1977 : 156 , Forbes 1960 : 265 , 267 ,
many of the sites are probably small field
Judge and Flynn 1973 : 6 ) .
houses rather than habitations , there is an
overall increase in site size implying
During the reconquest , Old Cochiti (Kotyiti)
expanded population density . Sometime
was burned in April 1693 by de Vargas , in
during the middle Classic the Arroyo order to force the Indians to return to
Hondo area was again depopulated , but
their more easily administered homes along
population seems to have shifted to Tetilla the Rio Grande . In the abortive Pueblo
Canyon and the western face of La Bajada Revolt of 1696 , refugees from Cochiti again
Mesa ( Schwartz and Lang 1972 ) . Dickson
occupied Old Cochiti . When threatened by
( 1975 ) indicates that resource zones were the arrival of Spanish troops, these
abandoned sequentially , with the poorest refugees fled further west and joined the
zones depopulated first. A general dis The Keresan Pueblo of
Navajo and Acoma .
cussion of approaches to abandonment is Laguna was probably founded in 1697 by
de ferred to the following section . the group which had fled to Acoma ( Forbis
1960 : 265 , Abbink and Stein 1977 : 156 ) .
The early Spanish exploratory expeditions
( see Map 7 p . ) found the middle Rio
Grande between Taos and Belen densel y PAJARITO PLATEAU
settled with Pueblo villages . Most of the
settlements were described as large , com This district encompasses the relatively
pact towns , although small seasonally
high mesa country that slopes from the
occupied settlements were located near Jemez Mountains eastward to the Rio
fields at some distance from the towns . Grande . The northern boundary is
Apparently , Apache groups in the neigh roughly at Santa Clara Creek and the
boring mountains frequently wintered southern at the Jemez River . The major
among the Pueblos ( Abbink and Stein late Anasazi ruins were documented in
1977 : 150 , Lange and Riley 1966 : 263 ) . Onate early surveys and excavations of Bandelier
founded the first administrative capital at ( 1892 ) , Hewett ( 1905 , 1906 , 1908 , 1909a ,
San Gabriel de Yunque , near San Juan 1909b , 1938 ) , Hendron ( 1940 , 1945 ) , Morley
Pueblo in 1598 ; but the capital was ( 1910 ) , and Wilson ( 1916 , 1918 ) . The work
relocated at Santa Fe in 1610 . The early of Holmes ( 1903 ) and Reiter ( 1938 ) in the
Spanish settlers were representatives of adjacent Jemez Mountains is also relevant .
either the military government or the Until recently , nearly all effort concen
church , and the number of " colonists " was trated on the ruins of the Coalition and
actually quite small. Seventeenth century Classic Periods , and the literature , un for
land grants were made to a number of tunately , reflects this bias . Bousman ,
Spanish families , and some haciendas were Larson and Levine ( 1974 ) provide an
established near Indian lands . Abbink and excellent annotated bibliography of avail
Stein ( 1977 : 155 ) believe that LA 34 and LA able reports .
591 in the White Rock Canyon Cochiti
area were two such early haciendas . They Although meagre , there is evidence that
were heavily fortified . The major impact the district was used prior to ca. A.D.
of Spanish rule at this time seems to have 900 . Surface finds , that are ambiguous
been the taxation of Indian labor and evidence at best , include an isolated
disruption of the normally peace ful trade Folsom point on the mesa north of Ancho
between the Pueblos and the Apaches Canyon ( Steen 1977 : 7 ) , and Archaic points .
( Abbink and Stein 1977 : 155-156 ) . During Of the latter , Steen ( 1977 : 6-7 ) reports that
the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 the Cochiti and those found within Los Alamos lands are
some of their allies from Santo Domingo , late Archaic and resemble San Jose points .
San Felipe , Taos , Picuris and San Marcos Walsh , Orcutt and Hill ( 1978 ) record lithic

60
scatters and a Jay point within the Santa there does not seem to be enough material
Fe National Forest . More reliable data to warrant much confidence in this identi fi
relating to early occupation have come from cation .
Ojala Cave ( LA 12566 ) in the lower Alamo
Canyon area ( Traylor et al . 1977 ) . This While no excavated sites on the Pajarito
site is a rock shelter 50 feet west of the Plateau can be attributed to the Late
present course of the Rio Grande and one Basketmaker - Early Pueblo Period , Steen's
mile north of the southeastern boundary of ( 1977 : 7 ) statement that it was not until the
Bandelier National Monument . Intermittant late 13th century that " the unpopulated
use from late Archaic to Pueblo IV times is Pajarito had an influx of puebloan settlers "
evidenced in the cave with grinding tools is in error . LA 12119 , LA 12121 ( Traylor et
present throughout the seven occupational al . 1977 : 495 ) and Salt Bush Pueblo ( Snow
levels identified . The first level was 1974) date to a slightly earlier period .
badly eroded , and the second produced no LA 12119 is located at an elevation of 5420
diagnostic artifact types ; however , the feet on the talus slope on the east side of
third occupation level yielded a projectile Alamo Canyon . The site comprises 23
point of Chiricahua Cochise type . Sherds roo ms arr ang ed in a rectangular block of
recovered from this level seem to be 17 roo , with a row of six rooms extending
ms
intrusive . A radiocarbon date of B.C. eastward from the center . Walls are of
1750 + 70 was obtained . Occupation 4 tuff masonry on " sandy plaster " foundations
yielded artifacts identified as
as Chiricahua ( Traylor et al . 1977 :15 ) . Three of the
Cochise and as San Jose / Armijo . One Wiyo rooms are identified as kivas , and these ,
and six San Clemente G / p sherds again in addition to nine other rooms, contained
seem to be intrusive , because radiocarbon floor features . Hearths
are circular and
dates of B.C. 650 + 145 and B.C. 590 + 75 plaster lined . Sub floor
bins and cists
were obtained ; corn also was associated were found in two rooms . Two of the
with Occupation 4 , Although Traylor et kivas are circular , Kiva 1 is circular with
al. (1977 ) consider that the Pajarito Plateau, a southern recess and ventilator excavated
because of its geographic position , is to 14 cm above the floor . A bench just
likely a mixing of Cochise and Oshara over a meter in height and composed of
traditions and states that more data are river cobbles was found along the north
necessary in order to establish their and northeast side of the kiva . Floor
temporal relationships, it is noteworthy features consisted of a hearth , rock and
that the Pajarito sequence as known from plaster de flector , and a probable rectan
Ojala Cave is the reverse of the sequence gular ashpit oriented approximately north
postulated for the Galisteo Basin (Lang south . Kiva 3 apparently was originally
1977a ) . The implications of the reversal circular , and later was modified into a
are interesting , because Lang ( 1977 ) D - shape . It is connected by a doorway to
suggests that corn , and perhaps reliance one of the rooms . Since the sipapu appa
on agriculture , were introduced from the rently is associated with the earlier round
south , presumbly by Cochise migrants . kiva and was located under the south wall
Irwin - Williams (1973 ) believes corn was of the later , modified structure , it would
accepted into a well- established , dis seem to be difficult to ascertain whether
tinctive , northern pre- Anasazi base . As I the D -shaped structure is more appro
remarked above , the interpretation of priately referred to as a kiva or a pit
projectile point variability in terms of room . ( Not having seen it , I rely on the
cultural identity is premature until the excavators ' judgments . )
relationships among functional, contextual
and morphological variation are better The designation Kiva 2 was given to a
understood . semi- subterranean rectangular room on the
southwest corner of the pueblo . A tunnel
Occupation level 6 of Ojala Cave yielded a shaft ventilator was located in the center
hearth encircled with stream cobbles , a of the south wall . Floor features consisted
dry-laid rubble wall with a possible post of a hearth , de flector , depression that
hole , a deep basin metate , two chert might have been an ashpit , and a sipapu .
blades and seven ( apparently intrusive ) The pueblo was not constructed as a single
sherds . Although the " cultural identity " unit at one time nor were all three kivas
ascribed to this occupation is given as in use at the same time ( Traylor et al.
" Basketmaker II , III , San Pedro Cochise , 1977 : 23-27 ) . Both tree-ring and archeo
En Medio, Oshara " ( Traylor et al. 1977 : 117 ) ; magnetic dates were obtained from the

61
site . The former range from A.D. 1191vv rooms with floor firepits against the walls
to 1419vv . The archaeomagnetic dates of two of these . Two contiguous rooms ,
A.D. 1250 + 45 which lacked firepits , formed a western
range from 1180 + 22 to
( Traylor et al. 1977 : 495-496 ) . Slightly " tier . " In the second building phase , the
more than 83 percent of the decorated kiva was modified by the addition of the
sherds at LA 12119 are Santa Fe B / w , while southern recess and a realignment of the
Wiyo B / w , Kwahele B / w and Galisteo B / w kiva features north - south . Rooms of the
occur in minor amounts . Los Lunas original structure were remodeled by
Agua Fria ( Glaze A ) , White constructing dividing walls across the
Smudged ,
Mountain Redware , Mancos B / w , Socorro short axes of three of the four long rooms
B /w, Cieneguilla G / y , and McElmo B / w are and adding two surface rooms . A single
each represented by a few sherds . The firepit was associated with the remodeled
culinary wares include 91 percent Tesuque pueblo . Tree - rings from non - structural
Smeared with Plain and Indented
wood yielded dates of 1194 vv , 1215 vv , and
corrugated wares making up the rest 1241 vv . Two archaeomagnetic dates from
( Traylor et al . 1977 : 328 ) . the kiva firepits are A.D 1190 + 10 for the
original ( east ) firepit and A.D. 1230 + 20
LA 12121 is an eight room pueblo , aligned for the second ( south ) firepit ( Snow
east- west on the talus slope across the 1974 : 33 ) .
bifurcated mesa separating Lummis and
Alamo Canyons . The site is opposite to Ceramics from Saltbush Pueblo essentially
LA 12119 . LA 12121 is similar in con mirror those of the sites described above ;
struction and features to LA 12119 , with Santa Fe B / w makes up about 82 percent
one " corner kiva " similar to that described of the decorated wares , Galisteo B / w 11
for Forked Lightning Ruin near Pecos percent , Wingate / Puerco B /r, Kwahele
( Kidder 1926a ) . Most sherds were again B / w, Wiyo B / w ,, Bandelier Blg ( Biscuit
Santa Fe B / w with Kwahe'e B / w next in B ) , and Rio Grande glazes are each repre
frequency , though only about 20 percent sented by a few sherds . Indented
as common . Galisteo B / w , White Mountain Corrugated and Clapboard Corrugated
Redware , Socorro B / w , Mancos B / w , Agua comprise most of the culinary sherds , with
Fria G / r and Penasco Micaceous are each some plain surfaced varieties and striated
represented by from 1 to 5 sherds . The sherds occurring ( Snow 1974 : 36-40 ) .
predominant culinary type again is Except for the few White Mountain Redware
Tesuque Smeared ( Traylor et al . 1977 : 28 , sherds , the ceramics are indigenous to the
337 ) . Two cutting dates of A.D. 1177 were area ; an analysis of temper types indicated
obtained from the site . The range of that those which could be identified were
twelve tree - ring dates is from A.D. 1149v available within the middle Rio Grande area
to 1177r , while an archaeomagnetic date ( Snow 1974 : 36 , 43 ) . Grinding tools and
from room seven is A.D. 1180 + 13 ( Traylor points occurred in fill of Saltbush
the fill
1977 : 496 ) . Pueblo , but the number and variety of
faunal remains is surprisingly low and
Saltbush Pueblo ( LA 4997 ) is in Frijoles limited . The most numerous animal repre
Canyon , fifty meters east of the admini sented ( on the basis of Minimum Numbers
strative headquarters of Bandelier National of Individuals ) is turkey . Deer ,
Monument ( Snow 1974 ) . The site contained pronghorn , jackrabbit and cottontail ( in
Il rooms ; 9 were alinged north - south , and addition to smaller animals ) are present in
a kiva was situated off the northwest very small numbers . As Snow ( 1974 : 63 ,
corner of the room block . Two contiguous 66-67 ) points out , this is in marked con
rooms were attached to the south wall of trast to Rainbow House ( Caywood 1966 )
the kiva's southern recess . The con
which is only about 400 meters east but
struction of Saltbush Pueblo is similar to was occupied between about A.D. 1400 and
that of LA 12121 described above and like it A.D. 1500 . Rainbow House contained not
was apparently modified once . Snow only a more diverse mammalian fauna but a
( 1974 : 32-33 ) discusses the site in terms of great variety of birds including migratory
two building components . The earlier water fowl, hawks , eagles , grouse and
component consisted of a unit- type surface quail .
structure adjacent to the west wall of a
simple circular Rio Grande kiva with east Snow ( 1974 : 68 ) comments that the kivas
west oriented floor features . The unit found in small Coalition Sites on the
type structure consisted of four long Pajarito Plateau are either circular and

62
incorporated into room blocks or absent within LASL land is given in Steen's
altogether , He refers specifically to LA ( 1977 : 32-33 ) publication and brief descrip
8681 , LA 4632 , LA 4631 , LA 4628 , LA 5100 tions of those which were excavated
and LA 3653 , the data for which appear in between 1950 and 1974
and 1974 are presented as
Maxon ( 1969 ) , Worman ( 1967 ) and field well .
notes on file at the Laboratory of
Anthropology , Museum of New Mexico . The Santa Fe Black- on -white sites though
Against this background , he examines the more numerous than the later larger Classic
sites , are not well - known . They are
Mesa Verde immigration to the Rio Grande
during the mid to late thirteenth century occasionally referred to as " farmsteads , "
suspected by archeologists on the basis of but data available do not permit confident
specific items such as Galisteo B / w : evaluation of how many of them were
occupied contemporaneously , how many
The addition of the southern recess were used year round , or the range of
to the kiva at Saltbush is the kind variability with respect to architectural
of evidence that has been sought to details , dates , arti fact inventories , faunal
support the suspected Mesa Verdean or botanical remains and locations . This
movement . The recess can be con situation is surely one which should be
sidered prima facie evidence for rectified before we can have much confi
Mesa Verde in fluence at the site , dence in cultural historical reconstructions
but the overall impact of the formal of the Pajarito specifically or the middle
content ( and the ceremonial conno Rio Grande in general.
tations , if any , of the formal
content ) of the keyhole kiva was Steen ( 1977 : 8 ) suggests that at some
short - lived and , apparently not unknown time the small Santa Fe sites
significant ( Snow 1974 : 69-70 ) . began to expand in size , double or triple
rows of rooms being formed . A further
In this context , it is worth reiterating that " development" was the building of room
the more recently excavated LA 12119 , blocks around a plaza which often con
discussed above , also has a southern tained a detached kiva . Although Steen
recess , north - south orientation of floor ( 1977 : 8 ) states that the most common
features and , additionally , a high bench in Black - on - white pottery at these sites is
kiva 1 . The hearth from this kiva yielded Santa Fe and Wiyo , and cited Rainbow
an archaeomagnetic date of A.D. 1180 + 40 House ( Caywood 1966 ) as an example ,
( Traylor et all 977 :495 ) . Although I dis Biscuit B was by far the most numerous
cuss both the evidence for migrations and excavated at
B / w type excavated at Rainbow House ,
the timing of these events in the with Biscuit A second , and only minor
Assessment section , it is important to amounts of Santa Fe present (Caywood
clarify at this point that Snow is not 1966 : 20 ) . Twenty tree- ring dates obtained
referring influence brought about by the from Rainbow House date between A.D.
final abandonment of Mesa Verde , which 1421 and A.D. 1453 , indicating that it was
occurred at about the end of the 14th contemporary , in part , with the very large
century . Rather , he refers to an appa sites of Tshirege ( LA 170 ) and Tyuonyi
rent depopulation of Mesa Verde which ( LA 82 ) .
Hayes ( 1964 ) suggests for the Mancos
phase or the McElmo / Mancos transition . Most of the Classic period sites on the
An evaluation of contemporary events in Pajarito are inadequately dated , and it is
Chaco Canyon are significant as well . likely that many have Coalition components.
Tree- ring dates given by Robinson ,
Although investigators from Hewett ( 1906 ) Hannah and Harrill ( 1972 ) for Bandelier
to Steen ( 1977 ) have employed different Group M, cavate and talus rooms in
criteria to categorize the sites on the Frijoles Canyon , suggested construction in
Pajaritio Plateau ( which , naturally , makes 1394 ; T younyi, Frijoles Canyon , late 1300's
comparison difficult ) , there seems to be to the early 1500's ; Rainbow House ,

general agreement that " the most numerous Frijoles Canyon , 1421 to ca. 1453 , Frijolito
sites are those with one or two rows of Ruin , on the mesa above and south of
rooms at which the predominant pottery Frijoles Canyon , about 1400 or 1450 :
type is Santa Fe Black -on - white " ( Steen Tsankawi , on the mesa top on side of
1977 : 31-32 ) . A list of these sites which lie Pueblo Canyon , mid to late 1400's . In

63
site . The former range from A.D. 119lvv rooms with floor firepits against the walls
to 1419vv .
The archaeomagnetic dates of two of these . Two contiguous rooms,
range from 1180 + 22 to A.D. 1250 + 45 which lacked firepits, formed a western
( Traylor et al . 1977 : 495-496 ) . Slightly " tier . " In the second building phase , the
0

more than 83 percent of the decorated kiva was modified by the addition of the
sherds at LA 12119 are Santa Fe Blw , while southern recess and a realignment of the
Wiyo Blw , Kwahe'e B / w and Galisteo B / w kiva features north- south . Rooms of the
occur in minor amounts . Los Lunas original structure were remodeled by
Smudged , Agua Fria ( Glaze A ) , White constructing dividing walls across the
Mountain Redware , Mancos B / w , Socorro short axes of three of the four long rooms
B / w , Cieneguilla G / y , and McElmo B / w are and adding two surface rooms. A single
each represented by a few sherds . The firepit was associated with the remodeled
culin ary wares inclu de 91 perce nt Tesu que pueblo . Tree- rings from non - structural
Smeared with Plain and Indented wood yielded dates of 1194 vv , 1215 vv , and
corrugated wares making up the rest 1241 vv . Two archaeomagnetic dates from
( Traylor et al . 1977 : 328 ) . the kiva firepits are A.D 1190 + 10 for the
original ( east ) firepit and A.D. 1230 + 20
LA 12121 is an eight room pueblo , aligned for the second ( south ) firepit ( Snow
east- west on the talus slope across the 1974 : 33 ) .
bifurcated mesa separating Lummis and
Alamo Canyons. The site is opposite to Ceramics from Saltbush Pueblo essentially
LA 12119 . LA 12121 is similar in con mirror those of the sites described above ;
struction and features to LA 12119 , with Santa Fe B / w makes up about 82 percent
one " corner kiva " similar to that described of the decorated wares , Galisteo B / w 11
for Forked Lightning Ruin near Pecos percent , Wingate / Puerco B /r, Kwahele
( Kidder 1926a) . Most sherds were again B / w , Wiyo B / w , Bandelier B / g ( Biscuit
Santa Fe B / w with Kwahe'e B / w next in B ) , and Rio Grande glazes are each repre
frequency , though only about 20 percent sented by a few sherds . Indented
as common . Galisteo B / w , White Mountain Corrugated and Clapboard Corrugated
Redware, Socorro B / w , Mancos B / w , Agua comprise most of the culinary sherds, with
Fria G [ r and Penasco Micaceous are each some plain surfaced varieties and striated
represented by from 1 to 5 sherds . The sherds occurring ( Snow 1974 : 36-40 ) .
predominant culinary type again is Except for the few White Mountain Redware
Tesuque Smeared ( Traylor et al. 1977 : 28 , .
sherds , the ceramics are indigenous to the
337 ) . Two cutting dates of A.D. 1177 were area ; an analysis of temper types indicated
obtained from the site . The range of that those which could be identified were
twelve tree-ring dates is from A.D. 1149v available within the middle Rio Grande area
to 1177r , while an archaeomagnetic date ( Snow 1974 : 36 , 43 ) . Grinding tools and
from room seven is A.D. 1180 + 13 ( Traylor points occurred in the fill of Saltbush
1977 : 496 ) . Pueblo , but the number and variety of
faunal remains
is surprisingly low and
Saltbush Pueblo ( LA 4997 ) is in Frijoles limited . The most numerous animal repre
Can yon , fifty meters east of the admini sented ( on the basis of Minimum Numbers
strative headquarters of Bandelier National of Individuals ) is turkey. Deer,
Monument ( Snow 1974 ) . The site contained pronghorn , jackrabbit and cottontail ( in
11 rooms; 9 were alin ged north-south , and addition to smaller animals ) are present in
a kiva was situated off the north west very small numbers . As Snow ( 1974 : 63 ,
corner of the room block . Two contiguous 66-67 ) points out , this is in marked con
rooms were attached to the south wall of trast to Rainbow House ( Caywood 1966 )
the kiva's southern recess . The con
which is only about 400 meters east but
struction of Saltbush Pueblo is similar to was occupied between about A.D. 1400 and
that of LA 12121 described above and like it A.D. 1500 . Rainbow House contained not
was apparently modi fied once . Snow only a more diverse mammalian fauna but a
( 1974 : 32-33) discusses the site in terms of great variety of birds including migratory
two building components . The earlier water fowl, hawks , eagles , grouse and
component consisted of a unit- type surface quail .
structure adjacent to the west wall of a
simple circular Rio Grande kiva with east Snow ( 1974 : 68 ) comments that the kivas
west oriented floor features . The unit found in small Coalition Sites on the
type structure cons ted of ur long Pajarito Plateau are either circular and

62
incorporated into roomblocks or absent within land is given in Steen's
LASL
altogether . He refers specifically to LA (1977 : 32-33 ) publication and brief descrip
8681 , LA 4632 , LA 4631 , LA 4628 , LA 5100 tions of those which were excavated
and LA 3653 , the data for which appear in between 1950 and 1974 are presented as
Maxon ( 1969 ) , Worman ( 1967 ) and field well .
notes on file at the Laboratory of
Anthropology, Museum of New Mexico . The Santa Fe Black- on -white sites though
Against this background , he examines the more numerous than the later larger Classic
Mesa Verde immigration to the Rio Grande sites , are not well - known . They are
during the mid to late thirteenth century occasionally referred to
to as
as " farmsteads , "
suspected by archeologists on the basis of but data available do not permit confident
specific items such as Galisteo B / w : evaluation of how many of them were
occupied contemporaneously , how many
The addition of the southern recess were used year round , or the range of
to the kiva at Saltbush is the kind variability with respect to architectural
of evidence that has been sought to details , dates , artifact inventories , faunal
support the suspected Mesa Verdean or botanical remains and locations . This
movement . The recess can be con situation is surely one which should be
sidered prima facie evidence for rectified can have much confi
before we
Mesa Verde in fluence at the site, dence in cultural historical reconstructions
but the overall impact of the formal of the Pajarito specifically or the middle
content ( and the ceremonial conno Rio Grande in general.
tations , if any , of the formal
content ) of the keyhole kiva was Steen ( 1977 : 8 ) suggests that at some

short-lived and , apparently not unknown time the small Santa Fe sites
significant ( Snow 1974 : 69-70 ) . began to expand in size , double or triple
rows of rooms being formed . A further
In this context , it is worth reiterating that " development " was the building of room
the more recently excavated LA 12119 , blocks around a plaza which often con
discussed above , also has a southern tained a detached kiva . Although Steen
recess , north- south orientation of floor (1977 : 8 ) states that the most common
features and , additionally , a high bench in Black-on- white pottery at these sites is
kiva 1 . The hearth from this kiva yielded Santa Fe and Wiyo , and cited Rainbow
an archaeomagnetic date of A.D. 1180 + 40 House ( Caywood 1966 ) as an example ,
( Traylor et all 977 :495 ) . Although I dis
. Biscuit B was by far the most numerous
cuss both the evidence for migrations and B / w type excavated at Rainbow House ,
the timing of these events in the with Biscuit A second , and only minor
Assessment section , it is important to amounts of Santa Fe present (Caywood
clarify at this point that Snow is not 1966 :20) . Twenty tree-ring dates obtained
.

referring influence brought about by the from Rainbow House date between A.D.
final abandonment of Mesa Verde , which 1421 and A.D. 1453 , indicating that it was
occurred at about the end of the 14th contemporary , in part , with the very large
century . Rather , he refers to an appa sites of Tshirege ( LA 170 ) and Tyuonyi
rent depopulation of Mesa Verde which ( LA 82 ) . .

Hayes (1964 ) suggests for the Mancos

phase or the McElmo / Mancos transition . Most of the Classic period sites on the
An evaluation of contemporary events in Pajarito are inadequately dated , and it is
Chaco Canyon are significant as well . likely that many have Coalition components.
Tree-ring dates given by Robinson ,
Although investigators from Hewett (1906 ) Hannah and Harrill ( 1972 ) for Bandelier
to Steen ((1977 ) have employed different Group M , cavate and talus rooms in
criteria to categorize the sites on the Frijoles Canyon , suggested construction in
Pajaritio Plateau ( which , naturally , makes 1394 ; T younyi, Frijoles Canyon , late 1300's
comparison difficult ) , there seems to be to the early 1500's : Rainbow House ,
general agreement that " the most numerous Frijoles Canyon , 1421 to ca. 1453 , Frijolito
sites are those with one or two rows of Ruin , the mesa above and south of
on
rooms at which the predominant pottery Frijoles Canyon , about 1400 or 1450 ;
type is Santa Fe Black-on- white " ( Steen T sankawi , on the mesa top on side of
1977 : 31-32 ) . . A list of these sites which lie Pueblo Canyon , mid to late 1400's . In

63
 The more or less standard version ( Reed
addition , Caywood ( 1966 : 15 ) proposes dates
of 1422-1581 for Tshirege , 1527-1562 for 1950 , 1951 , Wen dorf and Reed 1955 , Ellis
Wendorf
Puye , and 1431 to 1447 for Frijolito . 1964 ) is the view that the expansion of
population represents the immigration of
Hewett's ( 1906 , 1938 ) descriptions and substantial numbers of people from the San
drawings of the Classic ruins are an Juan Basin . Steen ( 1977 : 40 ) suggests
excellent reference . He listed 26 ruins indigenous population growth and sub
( which include those discussed above ) . sequent aggregation . In both cases ,
" Plaza investigators rely on selective set of
Steen ( 1977 : 13-14 ) distinguishes
Sites " from " The Big Sites , " suggesting traits , emphasizing either ceramics or
that the former were contemporary with architecture and site placement . A slightly
different approach is discussed in the
the earlier phases of construction at the
Big Sites . Although there are not enough Assessment section below .
tree - ring dates to fully substantiate the
claim of temporal priority , the division
does parallel that used by Hibben ( 1939 ) ASSESSMENT OF THE ANASAZI
for the Chama as well as the one used in CULTURAL SYSTEMS
this report . The Plaza Sites of the
Pajarito are of stone masonry and consist The foregoing accounts of the prehistory
of room blocks around a central plaza . of the middle Rio Grande Valley by cultural
Entry to the plaza generally is on the east district reflect several considerations .
and is a small opening . The plaza contains First , for those working with small land
a circular kiva ; a second kiva is fre holdings or / Forest Service Ranger
quently outside the pueblo structure on Districts , there is enough detail to provide
the east side south of the entry to the background for the evaluation of specific
plaza . One of the enclosing room blocks is projects and assess the potential signifi
generally dominant , probably being multi cance of individual archeological sites .
storied . Stein ( 1977 : 33 ) lists 21 " Plaza Second , provides a guide to
the detail provides
Sites " by LA number . Several were illus relevant existing literature . Third , the
trated by Hewett ( 1906 ) . The Big Sites
cultural district approach is a reflection of
are Tshirege , Otowi , Little Otowi , T younyi, existing literature and on - going research .
Tsankawi , and Navawi . Hewett , again ,
The emphasis on ceramics and architectural
( 1906 ) illustrated and gave dimensions for details indicates current investigative bias .
each of these . Tsankawi and
and Tyounyi Most archeologists today seem to work
maintain a plaza - type configuration . As within very narrow frameworks and do not
Steen ( 1977 : 14 ) states , the others consist see beyond the immediate area ( or time
of massive roomblocks arranged around period ) within which they work . The lack
three sides of a plaza area ope n to the of a synthetic view is apparent in nearly
south . He notes that they are at gener all recent field reports in that descriptions
ally lower ele vations within the Pajarito
elevations of ceramic types and architecture make up
Plateau . the bulk of the report ; critical data such
as reports of faunal and botanical remains ,
Cavate dwellings , carved out of the soft paleoenvironmental reconstructions and
Bandelier tuff formations, occur in numer reports of skeletal material are often
ous localities but on south or southeast relegated to appendices . In effect , the
facing cliffs only . Reservoirs are present district accounts indicate the scale at
at some of the large ruins , as indicated by which most research is conducted today .
Hewett ( 1906 ) . Steen ( 1977 ) does an In terms of providing an understanding of
admirable job of describing the rock art , the dynamics of Anasazi adaptations , this
which is abundant and in late Rio Grande scale is not necessarily meaning ful, because
style ; as well he records game traps , it is not comprehensive . I do not suggest
shrines , and trails . Finally , agricultural that futu re res ear ch be carried out at this
features known for the area consist of level
of integration ( or fragmentation ) .
check dams across drainage channels and Recently I was asked if the Middle Rio
irregular irrigation terraces ( Steen Grande " made sense " in Anasazi prehistory .
7
197 : 34 ) . My answer was that the region considered
as an independent entity did not but that
From the perspective of culture history , it did seem to make some sense in terms of
the Classic sites of the Pajarito are inter the prehistory of the Southwest . With this
preted from slightly different perspectives . in mind , I focus this section on a discussion

64
 Walls are of somewhat irregular masonry ,
of Anasazi demography , economy, settle
ment systems and social organization from and the arrangement of rooms is rather
reasonably broad amorphous . Great Kivas , discussed below ,
what I hope is a
not associated with Hosta Butte sites ,
persp ectiv e .
although a single Great Kiva , such as the
one at Casa Rinconada , may have served
It has been noted that archeological effort
several of the small Hosta Butte com
over the past hundred years has been
munities . Hosta Butte sites are distributed
directed , in part , toward tracing the
on both the north and south sides of
origins of particular features ( " traits" )
Chaco Canyon . Recent estimates suggest
found in the Rio Grande area . Research
that about 2890 people may have been
efforts and various syntheses of the Rio
living in Hosta Butte villages in an area of
Grande reflect a preoccupation with com 43 square miles of Chaco Canyon National
parison to the San Juan Basin , which for
Monument ( Hayes 1975 : 57 ) .
various reasons has been considered the
11
Anasazi " heartland . The most important
The Classic Bonito sites , sometimes referred
reasons for this are that , until recently ,
the earliest known Anasa zi sites to as towns , are distinctive in being large
multi- storied structures , with an average
( Basketmaker II ) were found in the
Durango area of Colorado ( Morris and of 288 rooms ( Hayes 1975 ) . Pueblo Bonito ,
the largest , had an estimated 800 room ;
Burgh 1954 ) and that cultural events in
parts of this structure were five stories
the San Juan basin during Pueblo III
high . Chetro Ketl had an estimated 500
produced remains which are more elaborate
rooms , and the estimate for Pueblo de
than anything known for the Rio Grande .
Arroyo is 284 rooms . Sites outside Chaco
These two features account for the Rio
Grande area having been consistently Canyon proper , but that are Classic Bonito
11 in style , include Salmon Ruin , with an
viewed as "marginal . As I have pointed
estimated 290 rooms , and Pueblo Pintado
out , recent research in the Albuquerque
with 185 rooms estimated ( Judge 1976 ) .
district and in the Cimarron negates the
Hayes ( 1975 ) considers that about 2760
interpretation of the San Juan as the
original Anasazi homeland . In order to people may have been living in the Bonito
towns during Pueblo III . In addition to
evaluate the " marginality" question , it is towns
larger size , the Bonito were
worthwhile at this point to sketch develop
" planned " structures with interior court
ments in the San Juan ( particularly the
Chaco Area ) during Pueblo III , Prior to yards and Great Kivas incorporated within
the towns . Bonito sites are characterized
Pueblo III , it should be noted , the Chaco
by large rooms , and elaborate cored
area is not particularly different from
masonry , often with decorative wall
anything else in the Anasazi southwest
veneers .
( Judge 1976 ) .

Great Kivas are distinctive in size and the

elaboration of floor features . For example ,
Pueblo III in the
the Great Civa at Casa Rinconada has a
Chaco Area
diameter of about 63 feet ; the same type of
structure at Chetro Ketl measured about 55
Within the Chaco Canyon region the com feet in diameter ( Vivian and Reiter 1965 ) .
plexity of Pueblo III may be appreciated
These structures are largely subterranean ,
by examining the types of villages present ,
details of the Great Kivas , fields and so that the amount of labor invested in
their construction was tremendous .
irrigation systems , roads and trails , and
small items of material culture . The Antechambers are commonly associated with
Great Kivas ; entry was either through
villages consist of two distinctive kinds of
recessed masonry stairways from the
sites , referred to as Hosta Butte Phase
antechamber or from the antechamber by
villages and Bonito Phase towns . This
ladder . Floor features include square
terminology is awkward , because " phase "
raised fireboxes located on the central axis
is a term which has temporal implications .
but slightly south of the center of the
It is used here to con form to the published
round room , de flectors that were either
literature , even though the two " phases " wooden wickerwork .
Hosta sites masonry or Roof
were contemporary . Butte
supports were four masonry columns or
differ little from Pueblo II sites in Chaco
four massive timbers . At Chetro Ketl ,
Canyon . They average about 10 rooms in
size , and are single story structures . each pit for seating the roof support

65
 1

addition , Caywood ( 1966 : 15 ) proposes dates The more or less standard version ( Reed
of 1422-1581 Tshirege , 1527-1562
for for 1950 , 1951 , Wendorf and Reed 1955 , Ellis 1

Puye , and 1431 to 1447 for Frijolito . 1964 ) is the view that the expansion of
population represents the immigration of
Hewett's ( 1906 , 1938 ) descriptions and substantial numbers of people from the San
drawings of the Classic ruins are an Juan Basin . Steen (1977 : 40 ) suggests
excellent reference . He listed 26 ruins indigenous population
population growth and sub
( which include those discussed above ) . sequent aggregation . In both cases ,
Steen ( 1977 : 13-14 ) distinguishes " Plaza investigators rely on a selective set of
Sites " from " The Big Sites, " suggesting traits , emphasizing either ceramics or
that the former were contemporary with architecture and site placement . A slightly
the earlier phases of construction at the different approach is discussed in the
Big Sites . Although there are not enough Assessment section below .
tree - ring dates to fully substantiate the
claim of temporal priority , the division
does parallel that used by Hibben ( 1939 ) ASSESSMENT OF THE ANASAZI
for the Chama as well as the one used in CULTURAL SYSTEMS
this report . The Plaza Sites of the
Pajarito are of stone masonry and consist The foregoing accounts of the prehistory
of room blocks around a central plaza . of the middle Rio Grande Valley by cultural
Entry to the plaza generally is on the east district reflect several considerations .
and is a small opening . The plaza contains First , for those working with small land
а circular kiva ; a second kiva is fre holdings or / Forest Service Ranger
quently outside the pueblo structure on Districts , there is enough detail to provide
the east side south of the entry to the background for the evaluation of specific
plaza . One of the enclosing room blocks is projects and assess the potential signifi
generally dominant , probably being multi cance of individual archeological sites .
storied . Stein ( 1977 : 33 ) lists 21 " Plaza
Sites " by LA number . Several were illus
Second , the detail provides a guide to
relevant existing literature . Third , the
trated by Hewett ( 1906 ) . The Big Sites cultural district approach is a reflection of
are Tshirege , Otowi, Little Otowi, T younyi, existing literature and on - going research .
Tsankawi, and Navawi . Hewett , again ,
The emphasis on ceramics and architectural
(1906 ) illustrated and gave dimensions for details indicates current investigative bias .
each of these . T sankawi and Tyounyi Most archeologists today seem to work
maintain plaza-type con figuration . As
within very narrow frameworks and do not
Steen ( 1977 : 14 ) states , the others consist see beyond the immediate area ( or time
of massive roomblocks arranged around period ) within which they work . The lack
three sides of a plaza area open to the of a synthetic view is apparent in nearly
south . He notes that they are at gener all recent field reports in that descriptions
ally lower elevations within the Pajarito of ceramic types and architecture make up
Plateau . the bulk of the report ; critical data such
as reports of faunal and botanical remains ,
Cavate dwellings , carved out of the soft paleoenvironmental reconstructions and
Bandelier tuff formations , occur in numer reports of skeletal material are often
ous localities but on south or southeast relegated to appendices . In effect , the
facing cliffs only . Reservoirs are present district accounts indicate the scale at
at some of the large ruins , as indicated by which most research is conducted today .
Hewett ( 1906 ) . Steen ( 1977 ) does an
In terms of providing an understanding of
admirable job of describing the rock art , the dynamics of Anasazi adaptations , this
which is abundant and in late Rio Grande scale is not necessarily meaningful, because
style ; as well he records game traps , it is not comprehensive . I do not suggest
shrines , and trails . Finally, agricultural that future research be carried out at this
features known for the area consist of level of integration ( or fragmentation ) .
check dams across drainage channels and Recently I was asked if the Middle Rio
irregular irrigation terraces ( Steen Grande " made sense " in Anasazi prehistory .
1977 : 34 ) . My answer was that the region considered
as
an independent entity did not but that
From the perspective of culture history , it did seem to make some sense in terms of
the Classic sites of the Pajarito are inter the prehistory of the Southwest . With this
preted from slightly different perspectives . in mind , I focus this section on discussion

64
 Walls are of somewhat irregular masonry ,
of Anasazi demography, economy, settle and the arrangement of rooms is rather
ment systems and social organization from
what I hope is a reasonably broad amorphous . Great Kivas , discussed below ,
perspective . are not associated with Hosta Butte sites ,
although a single Great Kiva , such as the
It has been noted that archeological effort one at Casa Rinconada , may have served
several of the small Hosta Butte com
over the past hundred years has been
directed ,in part , toward tracing the munities . Hosta Butte sites are distributed
on both the north and south sides of
origins of particular features ( " traits " )
found in the Rio Grande area . Research Chaco Canyon . Recent estimates suggest
efforts and various syntheses of the Rio that about 2890 people may have been
Grande reflect a preoccupation with com living in Hosta Butte villages in an area of
parison to the San Juan Basin , which for 43 square miles of Chaco Canyon National
various reasons has been considered the Monument ( Hayes 1975 : 57 ) .
Anasazi The most important
" heartland . "
reasons for this are that , until recently , The Classic Bonito sites , sometimes referred
the earliest known Anasazi sites to as towns , are distinctive in being large
( Basketmaker II were found in the
multi- storied structures , with an average
Durango area of Colorado (Morris and of 288 rooms ( Hayes 1975 ) . Pueblo Bonito,
Burgh 1954 ) and that cultural events in the largest, had an estimated 800 room ;
the San Juan basin during Pueblo III parts of this structure were five stories
produced remains which are more elaborate high . Chetro Ketl had an estimated 500
rooms , and the estimate for Pueblo de
than anything known for the Rio Grande ,
These two features account for the Rio Arroyo is 284 rooms . Sites outside Chaco
Grande area having been consistently Canyon proper , but that are Classic Bonito
viewed as " marginal . " As I have pointed in style , include Salmon Ruin , with an
estimated 290 rooms , and Pueblo Pintado
out , recent research in the Albuquerque with 185 rooms estimated ( Judge 1976 ) .
district and in the Cimarron negates the
interpretation of the San Juan as the Hayes (1975 ) considers that about 2760
original Anasazi homeland . In order to people may have been living in the Bonito
evaluate the "marginality " question , it is towns during Pueblo III . In addition to
larger size , the Bonito towns were
worthwhile at this point to sketch develop
ments in the San Juan (particularly the " planned " structures with interior court
Chaco Area ) during Pueblo III . Prior to yards and Great Kivas incorporated within
the towns . Bonito sites are characterized
Pueblo III , it should be noted , the Chaco
area is not particularly different from by large rooms, and elaborate cored
anything else in the Anasazi southwest
masonry , often with decorative wall
veneers .
( Judge 1976 ) .
Great Kivas are distinctive in size and the
Pueblo III in the elaboration of floor features . For example ,
Chaco Area the Great Kiva at Casa Rinconada has a
diameter of about 63 feet; the same type of
Within the Chaco Canyon region the com structure at Chetro Ketl measured about 55
plexity of Pueblo III may be appreciated feet in diameter ( Vivian and Reiter 1965 ) .
by examining the types of villages present , These structures are largely subterranean ,
so that the amount of labor invested in
details of the Great Kivas , fields and
their construction was tremendous .
irrigation systems, roads and trails , and
small items of material culture . The Antechambers are commonly associated with
Great Kivas ; entry was either through
villages consist of two distinctive kinds of masonry stairways from the
recessed
sites , referred to as Hosta Butte Phase
antechamber or from the antechamber by
villages and Bonito Phase towns . This
ladder . Floor features include square
terminology is awkward , because " phase " raised fireboxes located on the central axis
is a term which has temporal implications .
It is used here to con form to the published but slightly south of the center of the
round room , de flectors that were either
literature , even though the two " phases " or wooden wickerwork . Roof
were contemporary . Hosta Butte sites masonry
differ little from Pueblo II sites in Chaco supports were four masonry columns or
four massive timbers . At Chetro Ketl ,
Canyon . They average about 10 rooms in
size , and are single story structures . each pit for seating the roof
roof support

65
timbers contained four sandstone disks , others are visible today only as slight
probably to help support the great weight swales on the landscape . Although some
of the roof. Paired raised masonry of the roads are fairly narrow , others are
" vaults " are located on each side of the up to nine meters in width . It has been
floor paralleling the main north - south axis . suggested that shrines along these roads
Depth of the Great Kivas are sometimes have served as signaling stations
may
difficult to establish , because the original
( Hayes 1975 : 75 ; Hayes and Windes 1975 ) .
wall height is not known , but Judd
Certain roads lead from Chaco Canyon to
( 1922 : 15-16 ) estimated that the wall of a
outlying Chacoan Pueblos , such as Pueblo
Great Kiva at Pueblo Bonito was 11 feet Pintado , but others seem to lead to very
high . Wall niches or crypts are common
small Bonito style " outliers " of only a few
features of these structures , but only at rooms that were apparently in close prox
Chetro Ketl II were the crypts sealed with imity to good agricultural land .
masonry The ten wall niches at Chetro
Ketl II were found to contain strings of Items of material culture from Hosta Butte
beads and pendants
pendants ( Vivian and Reiter
and Bonito Phase sites are generally simi
1965 ) . lar , however , a variety of impressive
luxury items were found only at the Bonito
Details of the irrigation and field systems Phase sites . These include cylindrical
in Chaco Canyon have been described vases , copper bells , quantities of
recently by Vivian ( 1970 , 1974 ) .
turquoise , mosaics , inlay pieces and macaw
Importantly , these depended on water from skeletons . Finally , although burials have
runoff from the mesa top above Chaco
been recovered from trash deposits at the
Canyon and not from diverting water from Hosta Butte Phase sites , burials from the
Chaco wash ( that at least today , is deeply Bonito Phase sites are both extremely rare
entrenched ) . According to Vivian ( 1974 ) , and when found were in abandoned rooms
runoff was channeled from rincons by
or beneath floors ( Vivian 1970 ) .
diversion dams and canals to multiple
headgates , then byby canals and ditches Various reasons have been offered for the
through bordered gardens . After irri
rapid development of Pueblo III at Chaco ,
gating the bordered gardens , any excess as well as for the differences between
water was drained into Chaco wash . The Hosta Butte villages and Bonito towns .
amount of land irrigated by this method is The idea that the classic towns represent a
difficult to estimate . A bordered garden gradual development from the smaller Hosta
at Chetro Ketl comprised only about 4.8 Butte Phase sites is not supported by the
hectares . Thus , a great amount of effort data indicating that the two were con
was expended constructing water control temporary Vivian ( 1970 ) suggested that
devices which did not in fact provide a the two kinds of sites represent the same
great deal of irrigated land . More impor cultural group with two different forms of
tant , it is not likely that there is enough social organization . He relates the status
arable land in Chaco Canyon to support items and elaboration present in the Bonito
the prehistoric population during Pueblo
sites to their proximity to the irrigation
III . system , and argues that the control and
maintenance of the irrigation devices relate
Elaborate systems of roads and trails have to a restructuring of portions of the
been well - documented recently through society along more highly complex lines ,
aerial photography and ground checking Specifically , he suggests that the Bonito
( Lyons 1976 ) . These , like the irrigation towns may have had dual divisions
features , are difficult to date , but their ( moieties ) similar to those of modern Rio
physical proximity to Bonito Phase sites , Grande Pueblos . Dual divisions are held
indicates that they were constructed during to provide a more formal structure for
Pueblo III . The roads radiate out from labor organization than the clans of the
Chaco Canyon , and not all have been
Western Pueblos .
ground checked for their entire length .
They are distinctive features in being Ferdon ( 1955 ) presented the notion that
virtually straight lines , not contoured to the Bonito towns resulted from the
topographic relief. When they change presence of Mesoamerican merchant - traders ,
direction , this is accomplished by making a perhaps operating from a base in the
sharp turn , instead of curving . Some of Zacatecas or Durango areas . The idea is
the roads are lined with masonry curbs , elaborated by Di Peso ( 1974 ) based on his

66
work in the Casas Grandes area of readily understand why almost all Rio
Northern Mexico . Several Mesoamerican Grande artifacts have , in one way or the
states developed long distance trade other , been examined from the Chaco
networks . Among the Aztec a special class perspective . This is why , for example ,
of people , referred to as Pochteca acted as Santa Fe Black - on - white (a " Chacoan
long - distance traders , middlemen and cognate " ) importantly as а
figures SO

someti mes spies . Enjoying political temporal marker , and why excavators are
immunity , they traversed Mesoamerica , concerned with whether kivas are oriented
The Aztec , of course , ruled Mexico long north - south ( as at Chaco ) , or east- west ( a
after Casas Grandes and Chaco Canyon Rio Grande " characteristic " ) . . In order to
had been abandoned , but the idea of approach this general question in a more
Pochteca serves as an analogy . Thus , it productive fashion , I consider it advisable
is suggested that a state government in to examine San Juan and Rio Grande
Mesoamerica may have established bases for culture from an ecological perspective : in
trade operations among the Anasazi at this respect , the broad view of cultural
Chaco Canyon . Presumably , few actual ecology ( Steward 1955 ) , that the adapta
Mesoamerican emissaries would have been tions of societies must be seen in the
involved , but their presence , and the context both of the natural environment
opportunities for trade , would have encour and As a preliminary
of other societies .
aged the local Anasazi populations to adopt to a consideration of ecological problems , I
some the sophisticated technological
of the deal with Anasazi subsistence economy .
( and possibly ceremonial ) , features avail
able to the more highly developed
Mesoamerican states . Anasazi Economy

In any case , the Classic Pueblo III occu Most Southwestern archeologists do not
pation of Chaco Canyon appears to have doubt that the Anasazi were primarily
been relatively short lived . Although it is dependent on horticulture, specifically on
difficult to establish precisely when the corn , beans and squash . These were
population began to decline, or when the supplemented by gathered wild foods,
major ruins were abandoned , Hayes ( 1975 ) particularly plants and to a lesser extent
suggests a terminal date of about A.D. game . Although the notion of agricultural
1200 . Following this , he believes there dependence is reasonable when one views
was an incursion of people from the Mesa the economy and the ceremonial life of
Verde area , and in ferred this from archi modern Pueblo Indians , it must be ques
tectural features, such as compound walls tioned for their ancestors when three
of large shaped blocks of sandstone and issues are raised . First , the ethnograph
Mesa Verde keyhole shaped kivas. Site Bc ically known Pueblo Indians have been
236 ( Bradley 1971 ) constitutes a good disrupted and confined to reservations .
example of this style . The site consisted They have had to cope with massive incur
of ten rooms and a kiva , the latter with a sions of " outsiders " ( other Indians,
keyhole modification . Previously existing Spaniards and Anglos ) since about 1500 .
sites also show some architectural renova It has been about 400 years since options
tion during this period . Thus , there was they once might have persued have been
construction at New Alto , Kin Kletso , Casa closed to them by other groups of people,
Chiquita and Pueblo del Arroyo (Vivian as well as by domestic livestock . Second ,
1959 , Hayes 1975 : 59) . Outside of Chaco as discussed in the assessment of the
Canyon , Aztec Ruin is an excellent example Archaic , horticulture requires more labor
of Mesa Verde modi fication ( Morris 1921 ) . investment than does hunting and gather
The late Pueblo III Mesa Verde affiliation ing and , therefore , might not be a
is indicated also by the presence of Mesa preferred strategy . Third , although
Verde Black -on-white ceramics, even in people may be " willing" to invest more
areas where no architectural modi fication is labor in cultivation without population
obvious ( Hayes 1975 : 32 ) . The Mesa Verde pressure , the requirements of the crops
occupation is not considered to have been themselves must be considered . These
dense or as long as any of the Chacoan requirements are both edaphic ( soil condi
Phases , and a terminal date of A.D. 1300 tions and nutrients ) and climatic ( available
for Anasazi habitation of the area is not moisture , length of the growing season ) .
unreasonable . Given the elaboration at Corn , which is considered the dietary
Chaco and its abandonment , one can staple , requires about 120 days to mature .

67
Further, maturation rates depend on the temperature decreases northward from 1.50
amount of available moisture ; in years of F to 2.5 ° F for every degree of latitude .
drought it matures very slowly , if at all. Temperatures al so generally correlate
Any consideration of Anasazi economy must inversely with elevation , but this is condi
consider both the requirements of their tioned by several factors related to
basic crops as well as the material arti facts regional topography . The direction of
recovered archeologically . With this in exposure is important for the amount of
mind , some considerations of present and insolation received and there fore tempera
past conditions in the study area as these ture . The contrast is marked especially in
pertain to horticulture , are examined . deep , narrow valleys and canyons with
Maps 2 through 6 and Figures 2 through 4 east- west orientations . For example ,
a-r provide more detail than is addressed temperature differences at the same eleva
in the text and should be examined . tion on the south wall and the north wall
of Frijoles Canyon showed a 13 ° difference
Unfortunately, very little research on the in mid - afternoon . The Frijoles Canyon
edaphic requirements of prehistoric cave dwellings , restricted to the north
varieties of maize has been done , except to wall , would have been warmer in winter
note that salinization is a problem in many than other parts of the canyon ( Houghton
areas of the Southwest because of inade 1959 : 68 ) . Temperature differences are also
quate drainage and high rates of evapora noted between the east and west flanks of
tion ( Fosberg and Husler 1977 ; Castetter north- south oriented mountains , such as
and Bell 1942 ) . For this reason , climatic the Sangre de Cristos, the Sandias and
considerations are given more attention . the Jemez . The maximum temperature is
As remarked above , corn requires about higher on the west flank than on the east
120 days to mature . For example , Hack even when the amount of radiation received
( 1942 : 20 ) has commented that the 130 day is the same . Another well known factor is
growing season at the Hopi villages on air drainage and wind shifts that cause
First Mesa is considered short because of temperature changes in narrow valleys and
the lack of moisture . Thus , the length of steep canyons . Particularly on clear , still
the growing season and the availability of evenings , cool heavy air drains into
moisture must be considered relevant canyon botto ms SO that temperatures at
variables . these locations may be be several degrees
below those on the sides of canyons .
Four approaches have been used widely in Shifts in wind direction , which are common
examining past climatic conditions . First , in canyons , also cause temperature changes .
modern climate may be taken as a general Houghton ( 1959 ; 70 ) stated that a sudden
guide to the past , because much of the shift in wind direction one night in October
variability in rainfall and growing season of 1917 caused a temperature drop of 27 ° F
in the Southwest is the result of latitude in one hour in a canyon setting .
and topography ( including elevation and
exposure ) , and these have not changed Some general observations with respect to
during the period under consideration . temperature are particularly important to
Second , dendroclimatological ( tree-ring ) plant germination and growing season
reconstructions useful and becoming
are length . In New Mexico , daily temperature
more refined . Third , geological studies of changes are greatest in spring which may
sequences of arroyo cutting and alluviation endanger germinating seeds . In April, the
are general indices of precipitation trends . daily average range may be as much as 390
Finally , palynological reconstructions F ; a secondary peak occurs in the early
( studies based on fossil pollen ) are useful autumn ( Houghton 1959 : 70 , 71 ) . Variability
in the analysis of past vegetation and in the length of the growing season and
there fore , the climatic conditions which frost - free period is characteristic . For
supported the plant communities example , at Chama the mean growing
represented . Although none of these season over a ten year period was 109 days
methods produce completely unambiguous but varied as much as 15 days from one
results , when used in combination they are year to another . Taos had a mean

considered to be quite accurate . growing season of 138 days over a ten year
period , but variations of more than 30
Today , as in the past , temperature range days occurred from one year to another
is determined primarily ( not exclusively ) ( Tuan 1969 ; Houghton 1959 ) . ( See Map 5
by latitude and altitude . In New Mexico , ( in map pocket ) and Figures 3 a-j . )

68
 1

1970

LEGEND
11

* INTERPOLATED

+4 , -4 STANDARD DEVIATIONS

TWO OR MORE STANDARD

DEVIATIONS FROM THE MEAN

Figure 2 .

MEAN RING WIDTH

1
 Santa
Fe
+30

+20

1930

+10

178
mean

Variation
Growing
in
Season

70
1882

1874
-10 1885

Deviation from the mean in days

-20

1870 1980 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940

Figure
.3,
a
-35

--
 +36 +36

+30

Taos

+20

1885

+10

mea
145 n

71
Variation
Growing
in
Season

1902

-10

Deviation from the mean in days

1893

-20
1930

II 1
1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960

.3
,b
Figure
 +41

+30
Springs
Jemez

+20

1911

+10+

mea
172 n

72
Variation
Growing
in
Season

-10

Deviation from the meanin days

1930

-20

1
1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960

Figure
,
3
.c
 +64 +36

+30 River
Red

+20

1907

+10

80
mean
1909
0

73
Growing
in
Variation
Season
1930

-10

Deviation from the mean in days

-20

1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960

.
,d
3
Figure
 1895
Espanola
+30

1928

+20
1905
N 1918

1907
+10

mean
163
1900

Se
Gr ow
in as on
in g
Var iat ion
0
1911

74
-10

Deviation from the mean in days

-20

1950 1960
1930 1940
1910 1920
9001900
1890
.e
,3
Figure -43
 +30

Chama

+20 1896

1905

+10

1918

109
mean

75
Season
Growing
in
Variation

-10 1893 1930

Deviation from the mean in days

1921
-20

1
1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960

.3,f
Figure
 +30
Albuquerque

+20

1946

1+0

mea
186 n

92
Growing
in
Variation
Season

-10

Deviation from the mean in days

-20

1893

1
1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960

,3
g
.Fig ure
-60 -49
 +30

Tres
Piedras
1910

+20

1905

+10

1930

77
Variation
Growing
in
Season

1912
-10

Deviation from the mean in days

-20

1 1
1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960

h
.3
,
Figure
 +30
Truchas

1930

+20

+10

138
mean
0

78
Season
Growing
in
Variation
1905

-10

Deviation from the mean in days

1909

-20

1
1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960

Figur
,
i.3 e
 +30

Station
Ranger
Tijeras
+20

+10

mea
136 n

79
1930 Variation
Growing
in
Season

-10

Deviation from the mean in days

1911

-20

1
1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960

Figure
j.3,
 +10

+9

+8

+7
+6
Red
River

+5

+4

+3
+2

08
+1
0

inche
20.76 s
mean

Deviation from the mean in inches

-

-
-2
1906

-3

1
1952
-4
1947

1890 1900

-5
1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980
-6 Rahfall
of
Variation

-7.97 -7.05

Figure
a.4,
 +10
10.2

+9

1
+8

+7

+6

-
Spr
Jeming
ez s
+5

1
+4

1
1

.
+3
+2

81
1
0

Deviation from the mean in inches

17.99
inche
means
-1

1952

-2
-3

-4

-5 1
1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980
-6 Variation
Rainfall
of

-8.74 -6.22

Figure
4,b
.
 +10

+9

+8

+7

-
+6
River
Red

+5

-
+4
+3

-
+2

80
1
0

O
20.76
inche
means

Deviation from the mean in inches

-1

-2
1906

-3

-
1952
-4
1947

-5
1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980
-6 Rainfall
of
Variation

-7.97 -7.05

Figure
a.4,
 10.2
+10
of
+9

+8
+7

+6

Spring
Jemez s
+5

-
+4 1

-
+3

+2

18
+1

0
17.99
inches
mean

Deviation from the mean in inches

-1
1952

-2

-3
-4

-5
1890 1900 1910 1929 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980
Rainfall
of
Variation
-6

-8.74 -6.22

b
.4,
Figure
 +10

+9

+8

+7

-
+6
River
Red

+5 4
+3

-
+2

80
+1 O
20.76
inche
means

Deviation from the mean in inches

-1

-2
1906

-3
|
1952
-4
1947

-5 I
1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 940 1950 1960 1970 1980
-6 Rahfall
of
Variation

-7.97 -7.05

Figure
,a
.4
 10.2
+10
of
+9

+8

-
+7

-
+6

-
Jemez
Springs
+5

-
T +4
1

+3
+2

18
+1

0
17.99
inches
mean

Deviation from the mean in inches

-1
1952

-2
-3

-4
-5
1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980
Rainfall
of
Variation
-6

-8.74 -6.22

b
.,4
Figur e
 +10

+9

-
+8

Bernalillo

I
+7
+6

-
+5

+4
+3
1974
1901
+2

28
+1
1923
0
1939 8.53
inches
mean

Deviation from the mean in inches

-
-2
1924

-3

-4
-5
1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980
of
Rainfall
Variation
-6

,C
4.
Figure
 12.24 11.0
12.12
11.0

+10

+9
Alamos
Los

+8

+7
+6

6
+5

-
I
+4
-

+3 +2

83
1974

+1
O

Deviation from the mean in inches

-1

-2
-3

-4
1
1960 1970 1980
-5 1930 1940 1950
1900 1910 1920
1890
Rantall
of
Variation
-6

-6.95 -6.69 -11.30

-6.84
-8.74 -8.14
.d
,4 ure
Fig
 +10

+9

+8

+7

1
+6 Tierra
Amarilla

-
+5

- -
4
+3

-
+2 1952

84
1
1940

0
1933 16.20
inches
mean

Deviation from the mean in inches

-
-2

-3

1944

4
1
-5 1980
1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970
of
Rainfall
Variation
-6

.
,e
4
Figure
 12.26

+10

+9

+8

-
Piedras
Tres
+7

-
+6

+5
+4

-
+3

+2

85
1905

+1
14.87
inches
mean

Deviation from the mean in inches

1898
-1

-2
1952

-3
-4

-5 1970 1980
1890 1900 1919 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960
Rainfallon
of
Variati
-6
1946

.,f4
Figure
 +10

+9

+8

Espanola
+7

-
1929

+6

-
+5

-
+4
1895
+3

+2

98
1
1960

inches
9.80
mean

Deviation from the mean in inches

-1
-2
-3 1939

1-4
1
-5 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980
1890 1900 1910 1920
Rainfall
of
Variation
-6
-6.0

Figure
,
.4
g
 +10

+9

+8
Fe
Santa
+7

-
+6

1
+5

-
+4
+3

+2

87
1971

14.17
inches
mean

Deviation from the mean in inches

-2

-3

-4

-5
1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980

-6 of
Rainfall
Variation

-9.14
-7.49
.,h
4
Figur e
 +10

+9

1
+8

+7
Rito
El

+6

+5

+4

-
+3

+2

88
1931

1
-
0
11.93
inches
mean

Deviation from the mean in inches

-1

-2 V 1952

-3

-4

-5 1 J
1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980
-6 Rainfall
of
Variation

4,i.
Figure
 +11.2

+10

1
+9

+8

+7
Taos

1
+6

-
+5
1901

+4
-

+3
+2

68
+1
1896

0 mean
inches
12.24

Deviation from the mean in inches

1960
-1

-2

-3
-4
1
1960 1970 1980
-5 1930 1940 1950
1900 1910 1920
1890
Rainf
of tion
Variaall
-6

.j,4 ure
Fig
 +11.0
+10

+9

+8

-
+7
Cuba

+6

+5

-
1

+4
+3

90
I+2
1

Deviation from the mean in inches

-1
14
in ch
me.2 6es
an
-2

-3
1939

-4
1952
-5
1890 1900 1910 1920 1
-6 1930 1940 1 1
1950 1960
Varia
Rainf
of alltion 1970 1980

Figure
4
.,k
 +10

+9

+8

+7

-
Canjilon
+6

+5

4
+3

--
+2

16
0
15.04
inches
mean

Deviation from the mean in inches

-1

1
-2
1952

-3
1939

-4
1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980

-5
of
Rainfall
Variation -6.0

-6
.1,4Figure
 11.5

+10

+9

1
+8
Bland

+7

-
+6

+5

+4
+3

+2

26
-

+1
1915

O
1923 19.08
inches
mean

Deviation from the mean in inches

-
-1
-2
-3

-4
J
-5
1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980
Rainfall
of
Variation
-6

-7.74

m
Figure
.4,
 20.14

+10

+9

-
+8

Gallinas
+7

-
-
+6
-
+5
1931
+4 1

-
+3
1

-
+2

93
+1

O
15.84
inches
mean

Deviation from the mean in inches

-1

-2

-3

-
1944

-4

-5
1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980
Rainfall
of
Variatiod
-6

-7.75

.
4,n
Figure
 +11.6

+10

+9

+8

+7

+6

-
Truchas

+5

-
+4

in inches
1

mea
+2

94
1943

+1
1952 mean
inches
15.60

Deviation from
-1

-2

-3 1949

-4

1909 1
1960 1970 1980
-5 1930 1940 1950
1890 1900 1910 1920
Rainfall
of
Variati on
-6

-8.21
0
.4,
Figur e
 11.7 1897
12.0 11.3

1957
+10

+9

+8 Chama

+7

-
+6

+5

1
+4
+3

+2

95
+1
0
21.10
inches
mean

Deviation from the mean in inches

-1

.
-2
-3

1
1905

-4
-5 1950 1960 1970 1980
1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 940
Rainfall
of
Variati on
-6
1954
1
-9.78 -6.64 -7.65 -6.27
Figure
.4,
p
 18.19

+10

+9

+8

-
+7

+6
Station
Ranger
Tijeras

+5
4
+3

+2

96
1952

1O
13.49
inches
mean

Deviation from the mean in inches

-
-2
1910

-3

1
-4

1
1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1960 1960 1970 1980

-5
-6 Rainfall
of
Variation

-6.75

Figure
.4,
q
 +10

+9

-
+8

Albuquerque
+7

-
+6

+5

- -
+4
1973

-
3
+2

97
+1
8.20
inches
mean

Deviation from the mean in inches

-
-2
-3
-4

1
-5 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980
1890 1900 1910 1920 1930
Rainfall
of
Variation
-6

.,r
4
Figure
Precipitation depends on the direction of during which the climate was drier than
prevailing winds as well as regional topo average ( Dean and Robinson 1977 ) . The
graphy . In general, large mountain tree - ring data for the central Rio Grande
masses act as catchment areas for rain fall, area (of Santa Fe) evidence conditons that
and the correspondance between elevation were drier than present priorr
prio to 1200
and precipitation is quite close . Today , ( Dean and Robinson 1977 ) . The Cebolleta
about 50 percent of the annual precipita Mesa sequence manifests relatively more
tion in New Mexico falls in winter and 50 moist episodes from about A.D. 680 until
percent in summer . Summer rainstorms 1340 , after this period , average or below
are , however , of short duration and high average precipitation is indicated ( Dean
intensity . The characteristically dry and Robinson 1977 ) .
spring allows the ground surface to dry
out and become compact So that summer The chart in Figure 2 was derived from
storms may not saturate the soils . Runoff the most recently published dendroclimato
is high and erosion may be severe logical studies in the Southwest ( Dean and
(McGehee 1963 ) . Palynological data seem to Robinson 1977 ) . The chart shows statisti
indicate shifts in seasonality in the rainfall cally significant deviations both above and
pattern during prehistoric times , however ; below mean ring width for selected
these are discussed below . Particularly sequences within the San Juan and Rio
important for agriculture is the observation Grande areas . I have followed Dean and
that June , a relatively dry month during Robinson's (1977 ) caution in plotting only
the growing season , is also the month of those deviations which exceed two standard
maximum evapotranspiration ( Houghton deviation units in either direction , because
1959 ) . The geographically spotty distribu these are considered to have been impor
tion of rain fall, particularly in summer tant in effecting the adaptations of plant,
when crops are maturing , has long been animal and human communities (Dean and
noted (Map 6 (in map pocket ) and Figures Robinson 1977 : 7 ) . Two warnings must be
4 a- r ) . Variability in summer rain fall is given in interpreting the chart . First,
most marked in the Gallina area , on the plots with superscript dashed lines were
Pajarito Tijeras
Plateau and in Tijeras Canyon compiled from data for surrounding areas ,
( Tuan 1969 ; Houghton 1959 ) . because no tree - ring specimens were
available for the particular time segment
In general then , modern data on climate within the area . Second , readers should
indicate that with respect to the length of not attempt to correlate a dry (or wet)
the growing season and precipitation , interval noted in one area with another
reliance on horticulture is risky . The area . The significance of deviations in
growing season is not reliably 120 days in mean ring width must be determined for
some areas . This is true not only in the each locality separately . Thus , if one is
high areas of the Sangre de Cristos , interested in deviations in the Albuquerque
where a short growing season would be District , extrapolations from the Santa Fe
anticipated , but also along most of the data are not reliable . The Albuquerque
Chama above Espanola and in the Red data have not yet been compiled , but will
River area of Taos . The fact that these be available soon ( William J. Robinson ,
areas are climatically unsuitable or risky personal communication 1978 ) . .

for agriculture today does not rule out

their suitability in the past , given the In a recent study of tree - ring data from
possibility of climatic fluctuations . five separate areas in the Southwest,
Jorde ( 1977 ) found that between A.D. 750
That annular ring widths in certain and A.D. 1040 most short term droughts
drought resistant species of trees vary lasted for about two years , but from A.D.
with the amount of available moisture has 1050 to 1349 periods of aridity increased to
long been known ( Douglass 1929 ) . Various two and a half to three years . The data
refinements in constructing past climate suggest that cultural mechanisms appro
from tree -rings have been developed priate for adapting to short term drought
( Fritts 1965 ; Fritts et al . 1965 ; Dean and be fore A.D. 1050 may not have been
Robinson 1977 ) . Recent paleoclimatic adequate beyond this date . This problem
profiles, derived from tree -rings indicate is discussed further below .
episodes of relatively greater moisture in
Chaco Canyon from about A.D. 650 to Studies of alluviation and palynology in the
A.D. 1150 , after which there were episodes Navajo Reservoir District ( Dittert et al.

98
1961 ; Schoenwetter and Eddy 1964 ;
Schoenwetter and Dittert 1968 ;
Agriculturalists, for example faced with a
decrease in effective moisture , might find
Schoenwetter 1966 ) have been interpreted it advantageous to shift their settlements
as indicating changes in the seasonality of to higher elevations , This solution would
rain fall and in the amounts of annual
rain fall . The studies suggest that from be efficient only if unoccupied territory
was available at high elevations or if
A.D. 200 to 700 there is evidence of amicable relations had been established
abundant moisture and long winters and with groups already in the area and
general aggradation of streams. Beginning sufficient land for newcomers was
at about A.D. 700 and extending until available . With these considerations in
A.D. 1100 there was a shift to a warmer mind , an examination of past adaptations in
regime , with rain fall concentrated in the the Eastern Anasazi area must be of broad
summer . This altered rain fall pattern may interregional scope and relate to other
have produced arroyo cutting and erosion . areas of the Southwest . An examination of
The pattern continued through the 12th the adaptive decisions made by various
and 13th centuries, except for a wide groups is attempted here . In this
spread drought bet ween A.D. 1275 and
between exercise , I rely heavily on both arche
1300 . The dry period lasted into the first ological and ethnographic examples from
decades of the 14th century , but there was areas outside the Southwest . This
a shift in seasonality of rain fall to a winter approach may be considered somewhat
dominant pattern and alluviation until A.D. heretical, but I believe that it is necessary
1850 , when the present short winters and to expand the comparative horizon ,
summer droughts began another episode of because for the reasons discussed the
channel cutting . Unfortunately , similar modern Pueblos do not provide adequate
palynological reconstructions for the Rio
Grande Valley area are not available at analogs for past adaptations .
present , however palynological, botanical The limited data we have on Basketmaker
and faunal data from archeological sites in II adaptations are in formative, in part ,
the Gallina area ( Holbrook and Mackey because they are scarce . Sites have been
1976 , 1978 ) may indicate locally drier con found only in areas where intensive
ditions beginning at about A.D. 1200 . surveys and excavations were undertaken
for salvage purposes ( the Navajo Reservoir
It would be imprudent to rely exclusively Project ) or where modern building activity
on the preceding data to " explain " the and subsequent erosion exposed remains
archeology of the Rio Grande area. For
( the Albuquerque area ) . Although corn
one methods of paleoclimatological
thing , and habitation structures are reported , I
reconstruction are relatively new and suggest that dependence on horticulture
refinements are expected to continue in was minimal , and that the sites that we do ·
each field . From the in formation on hand have represent seasonal occupations .
it is undoubtedly safe to in fer that there This , in turn , indicates that hunting and
were no great changes in climate over the gathering must have been critical to the
last 500 years , but variability existed economy and that local groups must have
withi n any one area
area through
through time and at dispersed throughout much of the year .
any one time from one locality to another . Similar interpretations have been made by
Most importantly , this variability affected others ( Glassow 1972 ; Irwin - Williams n.d. ) ,
the prehistoric population , although not in although an alternative view is expressed
the same direct way that rain fall deficiency by Schoenwetter and Dittert (1968 : 45 ) .
effects crops . Human culture provides a Despite meagre , quantitative data the
means of adapting to the natural environ
ment and its fluctuations . The paleo diversity of fauna and flora from these
early sites is consistent with a suggestive
climatic reconstructions provide a back broad subsistence base .
ground against which various cultural
techniques for adaption may be evaluated . Basketmaker III sites have been regarded
as indicative of more dependence on horti
culture , as evidenced by the shift in
An Ecological Approach location of sites closer to arable land , the
Human beings are capable of alternative presence of numerous storage cists and
courses of action though these are pits , and an increase in ceramic containers
( Glassow 1972 ) . Schoenwetter and Dittert
ultimately limited by the natural environ (1968 ) believe the more moist climatic
ment and the size of human populations . regime between A.D. 200 to 700 would

99
 ( Carneiro 1968 : 136 ; Sahlins 1972 ) have
have been favorable for this adaptation ,
noted that group ( village ) size in
but that corn of a low yielding variety egalitarian societies is relatively small and
necessitated planting larger fields . They
suggest that aggradation processes pro that conflicts or potential conflicts may be
vided the land which made this possible , resolved by the fission of parts of the
group to form separate communities .
and that the location of sites in areas of
topographic variability offered access to Although the factors that condition fission
wild plants and game . I propose also a ing of a local group are not agreed upon
( as examination of the above citations
relationship between the increased amount
of trade goods in Basketmaker III sites indicates ) , the archeological implication of
and increased dependence on agriculture, such a process would be a gradual expan
sion in the distribution of small
although this covariation may not reflect communities . This may account for the
the accumulation of large quantities of
surplus goods , as has been suggested marked increase in the number of villages
( Eddy 1966 : 472 ) . Rather , given the un seen in Pueblo I as well as the expansion
reliable nature of crops from one year to of villages into the more mountainous
another , increased dependence on agricul portions of the Eastern Anasazi area .

ture may have also meant that access to

wild plant and animal foods would have There are three characteristics of Pueblo I
that I believe are interrelated : ( 1 ) as
been essential for coping with years of
poor yields . Few societies with shaky noted , villages expanded in number and
economic bases risk maintaining exclusive into more mountainous settings ; ( 2 ) rectan
territories ( cf. Steward 1970 ; Flannery gular surface structures were built , appar
1972 ; Waddell 1975 ) , and one way of ently for storage ; and ( 3 ) a diversity of
insuring access to neighboring territory ceramic types were present at each site .
and in formation about the availability of Schoenwetter and Dittert (1968 : 49 ) believe
food outside one's immediate setting is that a shift in seasonality of rain fall and a
through trade relationships with several decrease in effective moisture at about this
other groups of people . It might be time would have lowered the water table in
suggested also that the kivas at the Navajo Reservoir District and
Shabik'eschee and the Navajo Reservoir decreased the amount of land available for
sites , whatever particular ceremonies took
planting . Whether or not deteriorating
place within them , were important places climatic conditions are further substan
where members of different communities tiated through additional paleoclimatological
could meet periodically and exchange research , the increased amount of storage
in formation , if not food and other goods space does indicate that people were com
( Athens 1977: 374 ; Ford 1972 ) . pensating for periods of scarcity . It may
be that the expansion of villages into
diverse areas also limited free access to
Three basic features of Anasazi li fe which
seem to have been established during these areas . There would be greater
Basketmaker III ; the use of cists , pits and competition for the game and wild plant
ceramic containers to store immediate foods where villagers had moved gradually
surpluses , the maintenance of trade ties to into the elevations which support the most
other areas ( perhaps as insurance against abundant sources of game , nut crops and
local scarcities ) , and the construction of berries .Above ground storage does more
special ceremonial rooms which might have than provide additional space . One could ,
been important in sustaining ties among after all , dig larger holes in the ground .
communities . The few sites which have ( The size of the Basketmaker III kivas is
been found and excavated indicate that good evidence that such labor would not
regional and community populations were be shirked if it were important . ) Above
relatively small. Within each community ground storage adjoining habitation rooms ,
most of the hearths , work areas and in my opinion , are important for another
storage cists were outside house struc reason . They provide space which is
tures , suggesting that food preparation essentially private ( cf. Flannery 1972 ) .
and storage must have been done in full Access to such structures may be watched
view of members of the village . Hoarding so will not know whether or
that others
individual property is virtually impossible not goods are being hoarded . This sug
under such circumstances , so that commu gests a change in social organization from
nities likely were markedly egalitarian (cf. a situation of extreme egalitarianism to one
Fried 1967 : 27-106 ) . Various ethnographers in which access to produce could be limited .

100
(I do not mean to imply that certain Verde populations could incorporate immi
individuals had political authority as in a grants and cope with their presence , at
ranked society , discussed below . ) Some least in part , through the development of
corporate group smaller than the entire labor intensive agricultural features ( Hayes
village , probably existed , although I 1964 ; Rohn 1971 ) .
hesitate to label or define the type of
group ( ie . whether clan , extended family The data from Chaco Canyon indicate that
or some other kind of social unit ) ( cf. prior to A.D. 900 techniques for coping
Kroeber 1917 ; Martin and Rinal do 1950 ; with uneven resource distribution and
Brew 1946 ) . The geographical expansion short - term droughts were the same as
those in existence elsewhere in the
of villages and the potential for limiting
access to produce suggest that styles in South west ; i.e. , the shi ft to surface
decoration of ceramics were additional storage structures and establishment of
" social markers . " small - scale trade networks ( Judge 1976 ) .
After A.D. 900 ; however , the abundance
The observation that ceramics were widely of imported ceramics suggests that Chaco
traded and that " local varieties " of types had developed a formalized trade network .
were produced indicate that maintaining Judge ( 1976 : 13 ) thinks that during the llth
alliances and networks of communication century Chaco may have become a center
among groups waswas of importance . This for redistribution , and that turquiose , for
argument is derived from Flannery's ( 1967 ) which there is abundant evidence , might
interpretation of the function of style in have served as a medium for exchange .
interaction and alliance , but I do not wish The situation at Chaco is remarkable for a
to imply that societies of different levels of number of reasons , the most significant
social complexity ( Steward 1955 ) were
being that there are no analogs for Chaco
involved . The maintainence of social ties among the modern Pueblos , and perhaps
among villages in different environmental
none in any contemporary society ; that the
setting , serves two advantages . First , in tremendous growth of Chaco was so short
times of local scarcity , the potential for lived ; and that the amount of labor
obtaining goods from an advantaged group invested in such non - essentials as beauti
is enhanced . Such exchange , of course ,, fully decorative masonry veneers must
would have to have been reciprocated when have been enormous . The first two obser
situations were reversed . Second , in the vations involving the lack of analogs and
case of a real economic disaster , such as a the short duration of the developments are
prolonged period of crop failure, it might striking in the light of current evolu
be possible to move to villages where tionary writing in ethnological theory . For
alliances had been maintained . I am example , Fried ( 1960 : 713 ) , in discussing
impressed here particularly with Waddell's the origins of social ranking and stratifica
( 1975 ) account of how the Enga , a highland tion , notes that contemporary ethnographic
New Guinea group , cope with famine . data provide " a murky mirror in which to
Although economic disaster is in frequent, discern the stages in the development of
when particularly severe frosts occur in pristine states . " Service ( 1971 : 142 ) , com
the mountains , entire villages of people menting on the instability of chiefdoms,
abandon their homes and move in with notes " the ' rise and fall' of chiefdoms has
groups at lower elevations and with whom been such a frequent phenomenon that it
they had maintained trade ties . The seems to be part of their nature . " There
homeland may lie abandoned for more than are important differences between Fried's
a generation . One need not look as far conception of a ranked society and
away as New Guinea to see this kind of Service's notion of chiefdoms, but it is not
mechanism operating . Among Pueblos in important to label Chaco during Pueblo III
the historic period the Pecos moved to as one
one or the other , because providing a
Jemez , and the Tano as far away as Hopi name or label does not increase our under
during the disruptions of the
the Spanish standing of why the phenomona developed .
conquest , ( Kidder 1958 ; Dozier 1954 ) . A The theoretical discussions are important ,
similar mechanism is implied by the obser in part , because they offer directions for
vations that Mesa Verde ceramics occurred inquiry into features of the Chaco system
in the Navajo Reservior District during which might have been important to its
Pueblo II , and that in about A.D. 1050 the rise and demise .
population of the Navajo Reservoir District
apparently moved north to Mesa Verde Rank societies and chiefdoms differ from
( Eddy 1966 : 506 ) . Apparently , the Mesa egalitarian societies in that there are a

101
limited number of positions of status and begun (Veigand et al. 1977 ) and the mecha
that the economy is dominated by redistri nisms involved in " inter - regional
bution ( the collection and dispersal of interaction " ( Flannery 1968 ) are better
goods ) rather than reciprocal exchange understood , the precise nature of the
among groups or individuals of equal
Chacoan adaptation remains moot .
status (Sahlins 1968 ; Fried 1960 ; Service
1971 ) .It has been suggested that the The archeological data indicate that Chaco
development of social ranking may be maintained ties within the eastern Anasazi
related to the control of irrigation area . The roads , for example , lead both
systems , general population disequilibrium north and east of Chaco, in addition to
within a region , and / or the control of south , Although quantitative data are not
long - distance trade ( Flannery 1972 ; Athens available as yet , remains from Bonito sites
1977 and Gall and Saxe 1977 provide indicate the acquisition of diverse fauna
detailed discussions of the major issues ) . and flora which were not at hand locally
but did occur in more mountainous areas
Vivian's (1974 ) discussion of the irrigation ( Vivian and Mathews 1964 ) . Finally , the
system at Chaco is relevant in that he wide distribution of Chacoan " cognate"
argues that although each segment of the ceramics in the Rio Grande area indicate
system , diverting water from one rincon , that at least some forms of social ties
could be controlled independently, run-off existed . An outstanding exception may be
in each rincon would be unpredictable and the Gallina area which , as I have said ,
an integrated system of apportionment appears to have been relatively isolated .
would have been necessary . The integra
The Taos likewise may be an exception .
tion of the system would require some kind However, as noted above, the data may be
of central authority . The discussions of
long - distance trade elaborated by Di Peso
biased since no systematic investigation of
early Gallina or Taos sites has been under
(1974 ) are also important in view of the taken . Alternatively , and from my per
effort expended in road construction , the spective, more reasonable is the proposi
abundance of turquoise , the debris from tion that each of these areas-- which are
manufacturing items of turquoise (Judge quite high in the mountains--were main
1976 ) and some of the specific similarities tained as neutral " buffer zones " (in the
between Chaco Canyon and Casas Grandes . sense that Hickerson 1965 uses this term ) . .

I believe the question of population disequi My suggestion is that game such as elk ,
librium must be addressed first. If Chaco
deer , and mountain sheep , and wild plant
were undergoing a period of climatic stress , products, which have been found in Chaco
as has been suggested , the least
as well as in the Santa Fe area sites
" expensive " solution , ( in terms of labor ) ( Vivian and Mathews 1964 ; Traylor et al
would probably have been to migrate .
1977 ) ,were still essential resources and
However , this option may not have been that only relative isolation could insure
available , in part because the regions at their continued It may be
abundance .
higher elevations within the vicinity of significant in this respect that after A.D.
Chaco already were densely inhabited . I 1200 , when the Gallina and Taos areas do
suggest that people who were closer to contain evidence of dense occupation ,
areas of higher elevation expanded into further constraints seem to
have been
these areas , as the archeological data from placed on the economic system .These are
the Gallina and Taos areas suggest , and discussed below in the context of Pueblo
that perhaps , the only alternatives for the IV adaptations .
Chacoan groups were those that required
tremendous investments of labor and organi The abandonment of the central San Juan
zation ( for roads , craft specialists etc. ) . during Pueblo III has been addressed from
Perhaps the acquisition of a " valuable
a number of perspectives ( Douglass 1912 ;
resource " ( turquoise ) enabled the popula Jett 1964 ; O'Bryan 1952 ; Roberts 1935 ;
tion of Chaco to enhance their security by Davis 1965 ; Ellis 1964 ) . I believe that it is
interacting with Mesoamerican states to the use ful to distinguish two varieties of
south , providing an item of exchange for abandonment and to keep them conceptually
economic support . Until necessary docu distinct . The first kind of abandonment
mentation of the extent of the redistributive a ffects individual sites or very small local
network is analyzed, through the determi areas , and was a feature of Anasazi pre
nation of the turquoise source locations of history from its inception . Rarely did any
Mesoamerican stones , a process which has
site remain occupied for longer than about

102
100 or 150 years ( Zubrow 1971 ; Cordell perspective emphasizing that migrants
1975 ) . This process probably related to a could lose many distinctive attributes
variety of causes, from difficulties in the during the process of their incorporation
constant repair of houses , to local con into ongoing communities . Again , one need
ditions of salinization , poor crop yields in not look further than Jemez or Hano to see
any one locality , factionalism or disease how difficult it would be to discern such a
(Colton 1960 ; Titiev 1944 ; Cordell 1972 ) . migration archeologically . Further indica
The abandonment of vast districts , tions of the adaptability with which Pueblo
however is a distinctive phenomenon , and groups were able to integrate and incorpo
there is no consensus as to its cause . rate others are provided by the various
The fact that Chaco Canyon and Mesa de fensive " refugee sites " founded following
Verde were not abandoned at the same time the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 and de Vargas
argues against a simplistic climatic explana reconquest of New Mexico in 1692 . These
11
tion . No evidence as yet supports the idea sites , consisting of stone " pueblitos , were

that nomadic groups were either in the occupied by various Pueblo people who had
area or would have posed any threat had been joined by , or joined , both Apache
they been , It is more likely that the and Navaho .
cause , or causes , were internal and
systemic . These might include resource The evidence for migration into the Rio
depletion and salinization (related to local Grande area , rather than comprising
agricultural practice ) , or the failure of the constellations of specific traits, is manifest
political system to maintain the necessary in the marked increase in population
trade network to support the population or instability in the area during Pueblo IV .
otherwise cope with increasing climatic As discussed , numerous sites were aban
variability and , perhaps , dessication doned during the Rio Grande Classic at
( Lister 1966 ; Zubrow 1971 ; Hayes 1964 ) . .
different times during the Classic and not
Most of the current research in the area associated with any particular instances of
continues to be concerned with this problem widespread drought . I suggest that the
( Judge 1976 ; Irwin - Williams 1977 ; Plog et al long term stability of the Fastern Anasazi
1978 ) . region , outside of the San Juan , which has
been attributed to "marginality " to the San
Related to abandonments are the problems Juan ( Wendorf and Reed 1955 ) prior to
of tracing specific traits in the Rio Grande 1400 , was the result of proximity to the
and Acoma Laguna areas to the San Juan mountainous buffering zones . For
populations ( Windorf and Reed 1955 ; example , within the middle Rio Grande the
Stubbs and Stallings 1953 ; McNutt 1969 ; time at which villages appear varies con
Ellis 1964 ) . As mentioned , archeologists siderably . As noted , in both the
working in the Rio Grande have been Albuquerque and Cimarron districts
troubled by the lack of a constellation of Basketmaker II villages have been shown
traits ( ceramic types and details such as to date within the appropriate temporal
kiva orientation , lack of benches and period for Basketmaker II elsewhere in the
pilasters ) at Rio Grande sites , while noting South west . However , the Taos , Chama ,
the marked increase in population in the Pajarito and Santa Fe areas show consider
area during Pueblo IV . It is in this able " lag . This has been interpreted as
context that I believe a re- evaluation of representing marginality , in that much of
the long term mechanisms for coping with the Rio Grande was viewed as isolated from
minor stress are valuable . If one accepts more progressive areas . The evidence
the evidence that trade and alliance net from both Albuquerque and the Cimarron ,
works were standard features of Anasazi which are even more geographically iso
adaptions , then it is reasonable to propose lated and distant from the San Juan than
that when abandonment became necessary the rest of the area , makes the notion of
the San Juan groups, probably gradually , marginality untenable . It would appear
joined the local population to the east and that until the 1400's the mountainous areas
southeast , integrating themselves into provided an outlet for local population
communities in much the same way as the increase , since in essence , people could
highland Enga do ( Waddell 1975 ) . Thus , become hunters and gatherers if necessary .
the apparent dispute between whether or Following the abandonment of the Chaco
not the large Pueblo IV sites are the area , however , this outlet was not suffi
result of local population growth or immi cient for the numbers of people in the
gration may be viewed from a different eastern area . The added constraint , I

103
believe , is reflected by the large and both untested and probably untrue ( Dozier
unstable aggregated communities of 1970 ) .We have yet to establish a relation
Pueblo IV . The grid gardens along the ship between language and the type of
Chama and in the Picuris area , the ceramics manu factured , and despite the
terraces and grids of the Pajarito Plateau , fact virtuallay all ethnographic studies
as well as the expansion of groups into the indicate that there is no relationship
Plains margins in the Salinas district, between the two ( Dozier 1970 ; Brugge 1963 ;
indicate that intensive efforts were being Turner 1977 ) , this line of enquiry is still
made to support a relatively tremendous being pursued ( Ford , Schroeder and
population increase . It is not surprising , Peckham 1972 ) .
given even minor climatic fluctuations, that
many of these efforts would be failures ; A similar problem is encountered in
that pueblos would be abandoned , and new attempts to trace the origins of specific
communities founded . ceremonial features , such as the masked
dances of katchina ceremonies , and re
During the historic period, not only did lating these to architectural features . For
the presence of Athabascan speakers , the ethnographically known
example ,
Utes , Spaniards and Anglos constrain masked dances are developed most elabo
migration and relocation , but the introduc rately among the western Pueblo groups,
tion of livestock destroyed most of the wild developed secondarily among the Rio
resources that would have been available Grande Pueblos , and not at all at Taos .
during times of stress . What we seem to
Masked dances are rituals involving the
see among the modern Pueblos is remark whole community , and among modern
able adaptation considering that two of Pueblos take place
place in large community
their former means of coping ( reliance on buildings ( Ellis 1950 ) . Large kivas , recog
wild food sources and migration ) are no
nized archeologically, and kivas with very
longer open . elaborate features, such as the Great
Kivas of the San Juan , are more numerous
west of the Rio Grande , where they addi
Culture History tionally have considerable time depth
( Vivian and Reiter 1965 ) . With these data
As a final comment on the prehistoric
in mind , archeologists have suggested that
archeology of the Rio Grande , I would the masked dances of the katchina cere
briefly like to discuss the results of monies originated in the west and were
another large segment of the research introduced into the Rio Grande area .
which has been carried out over the past Although logically reasonable , excavations
50 or so years . These efforts have been in the Tsegi Canyon area of northeastern
directed toward tracing the origins of Arizona at sites which date to A.D. 1250 to
specific Pueblo cultural traits and specific 1300 yielded no artifacts which could be
groups of people . associated with the katchina ceremonies
( Dean 1970 ) . Recent studies of rock art
Attempts to determine the linguistic affilia (Schaafsma and Schaafsma 1974 ) showing
tion of various prehistoric groups has had complex masked figures and kiva murals
a long history in the Anasazi area ( Mera representing katchina figures , may indicate
1935 ; Ford , Schroeder and Peckham 1972 ) that are older in the southern Rio
these
with few substantial results . There are at
Grande area than they are in the west .
least two major problems in establishing The suggestion made is that although
linguistic ties for archeologically known katchina ceremonies were first introduced
populations . First , there are excellent into the Rio Grande Pueblos and later
ethnographic cases of two linguistically spread west, the long period of prohibition
diverse groups sharing essentially the of the ceremonies by the Spainards makes
same material culture inventory , such as them appear less developed today in the
the Hopi and Hopi- Tewa ( or Hano ) of Rio Grande . Although this argument is
Arizona ( Dozier 1954 , 1970 ) . Second , not definitive, largely because rock art is
although the historic and contemporary
notoriously difficult to date and interpret,
distributions of related languages in the it does highlight a major problem of
Pueblo area does show geographic pattern Anasazi archeology . Put simply , the
ing , the assumption that geographic pat problem is that we must seek to determine
terning in ceramic types or architectural how approporiate the modern Pueblos are
features represents linguistic patterning is as analogs for heir ancestors . This is

104
not meant to be glib . It is well - known
The documents , arti factual and written , of
that modern Pueblo groups are the historic period , as well as the
1970 ; Ortiz 1979 ) .
" conservative " ( Dozier diversity of ethnographic detail records for
However , the ethnographically know Pueblo various Pueblos ,, may serve best as a
Indian cultures have been disrupted,
long - term record of mutual
mutual acculturation
because they have had to cope with mas and adaptation . The historic period in the
sive incursions of outside groups . It has
study area , addressed below , reflects this
been about 400 years since options which approach .
were once available were closed by the
presence of outsiders .

105
 SOUTHERN ATHABASCAN ( DINE )

The historically known Navajo and Apache burials from Trinidad Lake are derived
speak Athabascan languages which relate
from Rio Grande types and would not have
these peoples to various groups in the been recognized as Athabascan ( Turner
interior of western Canada , Alaska and the
1977 ) . The difficulty in defining, and ,
Pacific Northwest Coast . At the time of therefore, recognizing , the earliest
the Spanish Entradas the southern
Athabascan adaptation ( whether hunting
Athabascans occupied land which sur
interdigitated with Pueblo and gathering or hunting and gathering
rounded and combined with some agriculture ) and
land . Although anthropologists acknowl
material culture ( circular stone dwellings
edge the theory that race , language and
or tent rings , pointed bottom ceramics or
cultural adaptations should not be expected Rio Grande - like wares ) highlights one of
to be completely congruent , this is often the problems of Athabascan archeology .
ignored in the context of culture history
studies in the Southwest . Tracing the The earliest historical references to Apache
beginnings of Athabascan residence in the groups appear to be those of the 1541
Southwest continues to be a difficult
Coronado expedition . The people identi
problem , in part because these peoples fied as Querechos ( later Vaqueros ) were
have displayed considerable adaptive encountered in the New Mexico -- Texas
flexibility over time ; this is reflected in 1973 : 124 ) .
panhandle region ( Schroeder
their settlement patterns and items of Entrada accounts also mention
Later
material culture available for study by
Lipanes, Faraones, Jicarillas and Carlanas
archeologists . Glottochronological studies living east of the Manzano , Sandia and
indicate that the southern Athapascan Sangre de Christo Mountains ( Oaks 1978
speakers may have diverged from their
map ) . The earliest historical reference to
northern linguistic relatives from about one
the Navajo appears to be the 1629 account
thousand to 600 years ago ( Hoijer 1956 ) . of Fray Geronimo Zarate - Salmeron who was
Although Huscher and Huscher ( 1942 , 1943 ) told by the Jemez of " Apaches de Nabaju "
have argued , on the basis of circular
living in the Chama River area (Loumala
masonry houses and pointed bottom pottery 1938 ) . Recent archeological work in the
forms found in Colorado , that the
Piedra Lumbre Valley (Schaafsma 1976 ) may
Athabascans followed a route through the support the notion that Navajo were in this
Rocky Mountains to the Southwest , Hester area prior to 1696 . The evidence consists
( 1962 ) places their route farther east by of 33 archeological sites and isolated arti
way of the Plains of western Nebraska , facts including hogans , sheep pens , stone
Kansas and eastern Colorado . The current
structures , sherd areas , lithic scatters
consensus favors the Plains route , and
and hearth areas (Schaafsma 1976 : 73 ) .
some genetic data seems to support this
( Spuhler 1978 ) . If the Athabascans did
Three aspects of the 17th century Navajo
enter the Southwest by way of the Plains , remains in the Piedra Lumbre Valley are
they might have obtained knowledge of These are settlement
worthy of comment .
agricultural practices from Plains groups configuration , ceramics , and projectile
be fore they entered the Southwest . It is points . Modern Navaho adaptation
interesting in this regard that the name requires considerable residential mobility
" Navajo " probably derives from the Tewa with concomitantly small residential group
terms nava ( field ) and hu'u ( canyon )
size . The archeological sites in the Piedra
(Harrington 1920 , Loumala 1938 , Dutton
Lumbre Valley consisting of two hogans are
1975 ) . Most scholars currently place the consistent with this view . In addition ,
arrival of the Athabascans in the
importantly , two large village sites ( AR - 4
Southwest shortly before that of the
and AR - 33 ) and an other possible large
Spaniards ; however , recent studies of covering areas of
village site ( AR - 130 )
dental morphology from skeletal remains
about 50,000 m2 indicate that the early
dating from A.D. 1075 to 1190 from the
Navajo adaptation supported large , seden
Trinidad Lake area of Colorado , may
tary communities ( Schaafsma 1976 : 103-104 ;
indicate the presence of Athabascans at 73 ) . Based on his work west of the
this very early time ( Turner 1977 ) . If Brugge ( 1963 : 19 ) sug
continental divide ,
this date is substantiated , it is important
gested that 17th century Navajo ceramics
to note that the ceramics accompanying the probably were of a generalized woodland

106
 type produced by a paddle and anvil obsidian which " almost certainly originated
technique . Gunnerson ( 1969 ) and in the Southern Jemez " (Schaafsma
Gunnerson and Gunnerson ( 1971 ) describe 1976 : 154 ) .
Ocate Micaceous ware , found at Apache
sites near Ocate and Cimarron , New Mexico , From the avaiable Spanish records , as well
and in Dismal River Apache complexes in as the archeological remains , it appears
Nebraska , as being distinct from similar that during the 17th century the Apaches
micaceous ceramics produced at Picuris and ( including the Navajo ) were living in the
Taos . Ocate Micaceous generally is а middle and northern Rio Grande Valley
black ware in a widemouth olla form accord
area and prior to Spanish contact were at
ing to the type description ( Gunnerson peace with their Pueblo neighbors , or at
1969 : 26-27 ) it di ffers from Penasco least enjoying considerable trade with
Micaceous from Picuris and Vadito them . The eastern Apaches were partic
Micaceous from Taos ( Dick 1965 ) , in being
ularly involved in trading salt from the
thin ( 1.5-6mm ) . Schaafsma ( 1976 : 164-169 ) , salinas east of the Manzano Mountains to
however , found that the ceramics from the Picuris and Taos ( Bolton 1916 ) . Following
possible Navajo sites in the Piedra Lumbre the Pueblo Revolt and de Vargas
Valley were indistinguishable from Picuris Reconquest of New Mexico in 1692 , Pueblo
and Taos wares and suggests that they
and Navajo refugees lived together in the
were probably made at those pueblos . He Largo- Gobernador area . This Refugee
states " personally I wonder if Ocate Period was , naturally , one of considerable
Micaceous can be separated from Penasco Athabascan - Pueblo interaction . Refugee
Micaceous if only sherds are examined " sites consist of masonry " pueblitos , " which
( Schaafsma 1977 : 164 ) . It should also be are de fensively located but impressive in
noted that similar , if not identical, their extent ( Brugge 1963 ) ; they are
ceramics were produced at Nambe Pueblo in numerous in the Jemez Mountains and in
the 17th and 18th centuries ( Ellis 1964 , the Largo - Gobernador region . Ceramics
Schaafsma 1976 ) . associated with refugee sites indicate that
the Navajos may have been producing jars
Other ceramic types found in the exca with pointed bottoms and a few bowls of
vated Piedra Lumbre Valley were all appa what is referred to as Dinetah Utility ware
rently from contemporary Rio Grande ( Brugge 1963 ) . The
Th notion
e not ion that pointed
Pueblos . These include Tewa Red -on - buff bottom forms are predominantly Athabascan
(Carlson 1965 ) or simply Tewa Red is unreasonable in view of the fact that
(Schaafsma 1976 : 162 ) , Tewa Black and Tewa these forms occur in late Gallina Phase
Gray (Schaafsma 1977 : 163-171 ) . It would sites , as discussed above . During the
appear that on the basis of ceramics , it Refugee period , the Navajo also produced
would be impossible to differentiate 17th a distinctive polychrome pottery
century Navajo , Apache or Northern Rio ( Gobernador Polychrome) which was
Grande Pueblo sites . This is important influenced by several contemporary Pueblo
primarily in the context of site survey and styles . The ware is generally orange with
ceramic scatters . Finally , prior to the designs painted in red , black and white
recent work in the Piedra Lumbre Valley , ( Brugge 1963 : 19 ) . Archeological evidence
no " Navajo " projectile point forms had been from the Largo - Gobernador region indicates
described , and Hester ( 1962 : 50-51 ) sug that by 1700-1750 the Navajo probably
gested that they did not manufacture
already had the Night Chant , since masks ,
points . Based on excavations at AR - 4 , ceremonial paraphernalia and rock art
AR - 130 and AR -133 , Schaafsma isolates
relate to this ceremony ( Hester 1962 : 121 , P.
what he regards as an early Navajo point Schaafsma 1972 : 40 , 41 ; Schaafsma 1976 : 197 ) .
type that compares to points found in
excavations in the Navajo Reservoir Brugge ( 1963 : 20-21 ) considers 1750 as the
District ; the latter were unusual in not
beginning of a transitional period during
resembling Pueblo forms ( cf. Hester and which several changes leading toward more
Shiner 1963 : 53 ) . These points are trian recent Navajo patterns began . First , the
with side notches and a deep ,
gular polychrome ceramics became more variable
V - shaped basal notch , producing flaring in form and of inferior quality . The
basal tangs . The points described by resultant type , Navajo Painted , also
Schaafsma ( 1976 : 154 ) are between 24mm and
declined in quantity , much of it eventually
27mm in length . Five of seven specimens
being produced for ethnographers and
are of white chert , while two are of glassy other whites and for ceren use .

107
 After 1800 , the utility wares , Navajo Utility may be all that remains of a summer sheep
and Pin yon Utility , show changes which camp ( Luomala 1938 , Allen et al. 1975 : 133 ,
relate both to increased mobility and Richard A. Goddard , personal
" ethnic identity . " Changes linked to communication 1977).
mobility are the use of sherd temper ,
which produces a sturdier paste , an It is clear that distinguishing Athabascan
increase in wall thickness , and rounded sites from Pueblo sites and camps will
bottoms and cylindrical bodies ; shape often be difficult , while eastern Apache
modi fications which make transportation and Navaho sites probably cannot be
somewhat easier . Finally , decoration distinguished without historic records .
consisted either of an appliqued or molded Schaafsma ( 1976 : 200 ) makes the generally
fillet around the neck of jars . This deco sound suggestion that the Apaches near
rative treatment , which has Plains anteced Picuris and those in the Chama River area
ents , was modified by a Navajo pattern probably were basically the same group of
with a "ceremonial break " in the fillet people . " During the seventeenth century
ridge . the Apaches living in the Chama River
gradually acquired the name " Navajo " and
Athabascan house types show considerable those to the east acquired the name
variability through time and in space , as ' Jicarillas ' " (Schaafsma 1976 : 200 ) . In any
well seasonal variability within any any one case , the Navajos of the Chama area appa
area . Apache sites in the eastern foothills rently did not return after the Refugee
of the Sangre de Cristos were adobe Period . To add to the confusion another
" pueblo - like " structures of up to eight group of people , the Eastern Ute , also
houses . Hearths within rooms were central the Chama Valley and the Taos
used both
or built against one wall, while interior basin .
floor features might include bell - shaped
storage pits . Extra - mural roasting or The Ute language is spoken by Eastern
baking pits are characteristic . Other and Western Ute , Southern Paiute and the
Apache sites in the same area consist of Chemehuevi ( Goss 1972 ) . Ute is not
the remains of " tipi" villages. Houses are related to Athabascan but to the wide
circular , generally 10-12 feet in diameter , spread " Utoaztecan " family of languages ,
with depressed floors and central fire pits . which includes Hopi and other languages .
Outside roasting pits and baking ovens are The Eastern Ute generally are regarded as
present as well ( Gunnerson 1969 : 23 , 32 ; affiliated with the Great Basin cultural
Terrell 1974 : 53 ) . In 1719 an Apache group , tradition , but they also had various
probably Jicarilla , were living in an adobe " Plains" traits related to buffalo hunting
village near Ocate , growing corn and ( Stewart 1977 : 1 ) . The Eastern Ute had
maintaining irrigation ditches , according to relationships , both friendly and hostile ,
( Gunnerson 1969 ) . Navajo hogans may be with the Rio Grande Pueblos , the Navajo ,
circular or polysided stone buildings or the Jicarilla Apache and the Spanish .
polysided cribbed log structures ( cf. Apparently , the Utes were known to and
Kluckhohn , Hill and Kluckhohn 1971 ) . traded with the Jemez at least as early as
Reichard ( 1928 ) and Luomala ( 1938 ) note 1598 ( Lummis 1900 : 182-183 , Stewart 1977 : 3 ) .
seasonal patterns , with tentsbeing used In 1694 Governor Vargas reported meeting
by Navajos during the summer and hogans with Apaches near Taos and with Ute in
in winter . A series of hogans and corrals the same area , who complained that the
might be built at various sheltered places Apache were in their territory ( Espinosa
near water , grazing land , and fuel ; foot 1936 : 185 , Stewart 1977 : 20 ) . The Moache
hill and mesa locations were used in winter band of Eastern Utes , until 1878 , were in
and lower elevations in spring . Navajo south central Colorado and in New Mexico
sites may include hogan remnants with an on the Maxwell Ranch east of Taos . The
ash or charcoal heap to the east , corral first peace treaty the Utes signed with the
walls or areas denuded of vegetation which United States ( December 30 , 1849 ) was
had been corrals , and the remains of signed by a Moache Ute chief at Abiquiu ,
brush shelters or ramadas . Sweat houses , placing the Utes in the Chama Valley at
because these are usually built in the that time ( Stewart 1977 : 9 ) . Both the
sidewalls of arroyos ( out of sight of Moache Ute and Jicarilla Apache were
hogans ) may not always preserve . Navajo administered together by the United States ,
tent camps , consisting of a tent base and first from Taos and later on from the
on or two ovens with little cultural debris , Maxwell Ranch , on the Cimarron River

108
( Stewart 1977 : 21 ) . The Utes had a long Mexico , it is quite likely that many of the
and unusual relationsh ip with the Spanish . isolated Archaic ( and perhaps PaleoIndian )
Prior to the Pueblo Revolt , many Utes points found in these areas are the result
were kept as slaves , having been sold to of their activities .
the Spanish by other Utes . Thus , they
quite early learned the use of the horse ,
and Stewart ( 1977 ) suggests that they may ASSESSMENT OF THE PROTOHISTORIC
have been instrumental in introducing the PERIOD
horse to the Comanche . Utes also fre
quently acquired land as Genizaros, and As mentioned at the beginning of this
became Hispanicized to some degree in section , language and race do not neces
Genizaro settlements , especially Abiquiu sarily coincide with cultural adaptations.
Swadesh 1974 , Stewart 1977 ) . The Ute The northern Pueblos of Taos and Picuris
apparently traded with the Navajo and speak Tiwa . The Jemez are Towa speakers ,
acquired a great many Navajo blankets and both Tiwa and Towa are classified in
( Schroeder 1965 ) . On the other hand , the the Tanoan language family . The Navajo
Utes acted as guides for Kit Carson when and Apache speak Athabascan languages
the Navajo were rounded up and forcibly related to languages spoken in far north
removed to the Bosque Redondo area ( Fort ern North America . The Utes are linguis
Sumner ) in the Long Walk of 1863 . tically related to the Hopi and Chemehuevi .
Recent studies of genetic distances among
That the Utes lived in and among the a sample of 50 North American tribes
Pueblo , Apache and Spanish settlements of indicate that the Eastern Navajo are related
northern New Mexico is evident. As with most closely to the Jemez ( Spuhler 1978 ) ,
the Apache , distinguishing the remains of probably reflecting, in part , their associ
Ute camps would be exceptionally difficult, ation during the Refugee Period . Un for
if not impossible . The Utes , like the tunately , the Utes were not among the 50
Jicarilla , used tipis . Intertribal inter tribes used in the sample ; however , I
and ,, according to
marriage was frequent and would hazard the guess that they are most
the comparison of " traits " used in the closely related to the Jicarrilla . I think
culture element surveys , the Wiminuche the cautionary lesson for the archeologist
Ute shared more elements with the Jicarilla is clear : cultural "traits " such as ceramic
than to any of the other 19 southwestern types are not in formative with respect to
tribes used in the study ( Stewart 1977 : 22 ) . language group or genetic affiliation . On
There is some con fusion as to whether or the other hand , a positive lesson may be
not the Eastern Ute made pottery ; Stewart drawn that relates to the meaning which
( 1942 : 341 ) was told by an in formant that we , as scientists , attribute to form . The
some Moache women made pottery , but the lesson also is one of scale .
in formant thought they had learned this
skill from the women of Taos . In any I suggest that most of the formal attributes
case , as with " Ocate Micac eous " VS.
which archeologists believe monitor " style "
" Penasco Micaceous, " it would be virtually or " cultural affiliation" are functional and ,
impossible to distinguish the wares . Other for that reason are potentially extremely
implements known to have been employed in formative with respect to the kinds of
by the Eastern Utes are also adaptations pursued . If Brugge
non - distinctive . They used beamers of ( 1963 : 20-23 ) is correct about the " cermonial
deer or elk bone as did Apache and Plains break " in the fillet around the neck of
groups . Stone tools included metates and Navajo ceramic jars being a distinctive
mullers which could not be differentiated ethnic " stamp , " and I believe he is , the
from similar items used by the Pueblos ( cf. chances of archeologists recognizing pat
Stewart 1977 : 29 ) . Probably most significant terning in minor elements such as this for
is that the Utes frequently salvaged Archaic unknown prehistoric peoples are minimal.
projectile points and used them ( Stewart Recognition of a distributional pattern of
1977 ) , and it is not surprising that the such minor elements would , it seems , be
only point types that Schaafsma ( 1976 ) virtually impossible . Attributes which
found in the " tipi " ring sites in the Piedro could be considered functional should , I
Lumbres Valley were Archaic forms . Since believe , be studied within very large scale
the Utes were highly mobile and seem to frameworks ( both temporal and spatial ) .
have ranged all over the mountainous areas Further , I believe that minor elements
of southern Colorado and northern New

109
 ( such as minerology or physics ,
genetics ,
should be monitored at a much finer scale
than we currently attempt and that the depending on specific questions ) , or , if
methods are derived from anthropology ,
finer scale must derive substantive content
from methods outside of anthropology they must be experimentally replicable .

110
 HISTORIC PERIOD

My training and experience are not in perspective of an anthropologist in that I

will examine the kinds , features , and
history or in historic site archeology , and distributions
consequently, my approach to historic of material remains which
resources will differ from that familiar to accompanied activities such as farming,
most historians. Rather than discussing ranching , mining and timbering during the
the chronology of events, or an evaluation historic period . I have indicated the major
of documentary and archival resources , or historical events in New Mexico on Table
the background details of various political 4 , as a general reference . Further , much
and social movements, I provide the reader of the relevant material in this section is
with a guide to the more available histor presented in the form of maps (Maps 7
ical works which do treat these matters . I through 15 ) .
approach cultural resources from the

Table 4

KEY DATES IN THE HISTORY OF THE CENTRAL AND NORTHERN RIO GRANDE ,
NEW MEXICO

-
1540 - 42 Francisco Vasquez de Coronado Expedition
1581 Francisco Chamuscado Expedition
1582 Espejo and Beltran Expedition
1598 - 99 Onate's Conquest of New Mexico
1598 First Capital Founded at San Gabriel de Yunque
1610 Capital moved to Santa Fe
1680 Pueblo Revolt
1696 De Vargas' Reconquest Completed
1706 Villa founded at Albuquerque
1776 New Mexico placed under the jurisdiction of the
Comandante General of Sonora

1776 Escalante and Dominguez Expedition

1786 de Anza's Treaty with the Comanche
1806 Zebulon Pike taken prisoner
1821 Treaty of Cordova . Mexico Independent from Spain
1821 Becknell opens Santa Fe Trail
1822 Cimarron cut off opened
1829 1830 Spanish Trail ( to California ) opened
1828 Gold Discovered in the Ortiz Mountains
1834 First Printing Press brought to New Mexico
(by Josiah Gregg )
1836 Governmental Reorganization under the Departmental
Plan

1837 Revolt in the north , Governor Perez killed

111
1839 Governor Armijo retakes Santa Fe

1846 New Mexico surrenders to Kearny

1846 Construction of Fort Marcy ( Santa Fe ) begun

1847 Taos Revolt ( Governor Bent killed )

1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

1850 Territory of New Mexico created

1854 First Protestant Church founded in Santa Fe

1862 Battles of Valverde and Glorieta Pass

1863 Mescalero Apache removed to Bosque Redondo

1863 Long Walk - Navajo removed to Bosque Redondo

1866 1913 Gold and Silver " Boom "

1891 1903 Land Grant Claims adjudicated

1875 New Mexico given Archdiocesan Status

1880 A.T. & S.F . Railway in Albuquerque , " Chili Line "
to Espanola

1889 University of New Mexico and Agricultural College

at Las Cruces founded

January 6 , 1912 Statehood

1913 "Sandoval Decision " Pueblo Indians claimed

as U.S. wards

1914 1929 Taos Society of Arts , Santa Fe Artists Club ,

New Mexico Art Museum , Harwood Gallery ( Taos ) , and

New Mexico Art League ( Albuquerque ) founded

1924 Pueblo Land Board Created

1943 Los Alamos taken over for Manhattan Project 1

HISTORICAL LITERATURE of Spanish exploration and initial settle

ment include the edited documents in
A concise and accurate history of New Hammond and Rey ( 1953 , 1966 ) , Thomas
Mexico is available in the work of Jenkins ( 1935 ) , and Bolton ( 1950 ) . The New
and Schroeder ( 1974 ) . Twitchell's classic Mexico Missions are treated by Scholes
( 1911 ) 5 volume summary on the major ( 1930 , 1937 ) ; Dominguez ( 1956 ) , and
events of New Mexican history was Parsons ( 1966 ) . The social, economic and
reprinted in 1963 ; Jenkins ' ( 1967 ) work is religious background of Hispanic settlement
a guide to the archival material of the is given especially good coverage in the
Spanish period , while her 1969 guide works of Swadesh ( 1974 ) , Fisher ( 1942 ) ,
( Jenkins 1969 ) deals with the archives of Weigle ( 1975 , 1976a , 1976b ) , Gonzalez ( 1969 )
the Mexican period. The three publications Dozier ( 1970 ) , Spicer ( 1962 ) , Simmons
pertaining to the Historic Preservation ( 1968 ) , Chavez ( 1954a , 1954b , 1974 ) , Scholes
Program for New Mexico ( Cultural ( 1942 ) , and the bibliographical references
Properties Review Committee 1971 , 1973a , provided in these works . In this regard ,
1973b ) contain good thematic reviews and Weigle ( 1975 ) , 1976b ) presents comprehen
bibliographical information . Finally , Ellis sive annotated bibliographies of works
( 1971 ) provides selected historical pertaining to Hispanic communities .
documents .
Discussions of Pueblo - Hispanic interactions
Materials which are useful for the period and the Pueblo ethnography of the historic

112
period are so extensive that not all of the discussed here ( farming and ranching ;
more important sources can be listed here . mining , roads and railways)) are given in
Nevertheless , Dozier (1970 ) provides a the text . Finally , when in formation about
good basic introduction . Saunder's (1944 ) , a particular area or historic site cannot be
Swadesh (1973 ) and Shelton (1954 ) contain located in published sources, the materials
annotated bibliographies . Francis (1956 ) , of the New Mexico State Records Center in
Hawley and Senter ( 1946 ) , Johansen ( 1948 ) , Santa Fe should be consulted .
Siegel (1959 ) , Knowlton (1964 ) , Swadesh
( 1974 ) and Spicer ( 1962 ) have produced
analyses of comparative acculturation and EXPLORATION AND EARLY
Ortiz ( 1969 , 1972 ) , Aberle ( 1948 ) , Dozier SETTLEMENTS
(1961) , Ellis (1964a, 1964b ) , Ford (1968 ) ,
Jones (1966 ) , Lange (1959 ) , Parsons (1925 , Map 7 , provides a general reference to the
1936 ) , Reed (1943 ) , Smith (1966 ) , Trager early Spanish explorations in New Mexico .
( 1967 ) , White ( 1932 , 1935 ,, 1960 ) , Whitman From an anthropological perspective it is
(1947 ) and Harrington (1916 ) are some of in formative to note that the earliest expe
the standard sources of information about dition into New Mexico, under Fray Marcos
the Pueblos during the historic period . de Niza , did not reach the study area , but
ended at Zuni . Because de Niza was in
Bloom ( 1913-15 ) , Forbes ( 1960 ) , Gregg search of the "cities of Cibola , " the fact
(1968 ) , Weigle (1976a ) Burma (1949 ) , Dozier that the journey led to Zuni often is
( 1969 ) , and Leonard ( 1970 ) contain in forma glossed as a typical example of Europeans
tion specifically related to the period of being mislead by Indian guides . The real
Mexican Rule in New Mexico . Unfortunately , importance of the direction of the expedi
this period is not as well synthesized in tion , as well as those of Father Kino in
available documents as
might be . it Arizona and Coronado in New Mexico , is
However , it was during the Mexican period that the guides were Indians, and that
that trade with the United States began , they did not travel the route of the Rio
and histories of this trade and of the Grande River . Nearly every discussion of
experiences of various entrepreneurs , migration routes I have seen considers
" mountain men , " and explorers comprise a Indian trails in terms of the use of major
voluminous literature . Among the more drainage systems and rivers . Yet it was
use ful references are : Rittenhouse's (1971 ) not until Onate's 1540 expedition that the
bibliography of the Santa Fe Trail ( Map ford at El Paso was " discovered " and
10 ) and the works of Gregg (1952 ) , Gregg systematic use of the Rio Grande route
( 1954 ) , Brown (1963 ) , Moorhead ( 1958 ) and begun . Given both the geographic setting
James In formation on the Treaty
(1966 ) . of places such as Mesa Verde, Chaco
of Guadalupe Hidalgo and subsequent
boundary disputes with Texas may be
Canyon , Casas Grandes , and Zuni as well
of the earliest European
as the routes
found Hammond ( 1949 ) , Rippy ( 1926 ) ,
in . explorers, it seems likely that the important
Binkley (1920 ) and Ganaway (1944 ). Indian trade and travel routes led past
various seeps , springs and playas rather
Colton (1959) and Keleher (1952 ) specifi than along the rivers .
cally address Civil War operations in New
Mexico (Map 11 ) . Most of the works Swadesh ( 1974 : 12 ) uses the term " culturally
dealing with Indian groups during the Spanish " to refer to the early Spanish
historic period contain bibliographical settlers in New Mexico, and it is an apt
references to materials on Indian U.S. designation . New Mexican settlers were
military encounters . In addition , Baldwin largely either Mestizos ( people of mixed
(1969) , Frazer (1965 ) and Schroeder (1973 ) Spanish and Indian ancestry) from Mexico,
should be consulted . Christiansen and or Hispanicized Indians from Mexico. Even
Kottlowski (1963 ) , Meinig (1971 ) , Reeve various were Creoles ( people of
officials
( 1964 ) , Trimmer ( 1974 ) , Harper , Kalvaro , Spanish descent who were born in the
Oberg and Cordova ( 1943 ) , Weber (1973 ( ), Americas ) rather than Iberian Spanish .
Sanchez ( 1967 ) , and Swadesh , Vigil and Aside from the interesting genetic compo
Ochoa (1976 ) provide concise histories and sition of this population , it might be
cover issues relating to land grant ques expected that despite whatever official
tions and recent man-land relationships . policies the Spanish government promul
gated regarding colonists, these would be
References related to various themes both loosely interpreted and filtered by

113
SPANISH EXPLORATION & 17th CENTURY MISSIONS

PAOS 1

PODRIS .
1
1
Ry

JEMEZ
SANTA FE

Pecos

SAN OR STOBAL

SAN FELIPE
ER N
SLETA

•CORONADO ( 1540 )
.CHAMUSCADO - RODRIGUEZ ( 1581 )
ESPEJO ( 1582 )
•CASTANO DE SOSA ( 1530)
• ONATE ( 1598)

Map 7 .

114
the culturally heterogeneous backgrounds Pueblo Revolt was Santa Fe . The majority
of the settlers . This condition is reflected of 17th century colonists lived along the
both in patterns of land use and in Rio Grande north of Santa Fe and from
material culture items . New Mexico was at Santo Domingo southward to Belen , but
the extreme northern frontier of the this " culturally Spanish " population num
Spanish Colonial world , and probably bered under 3,000 persons ( Simmons 1969 ,
because it did not provide tremendous Swadesh 1974 : 12 ) . One component of LA
mineral wealth , was rather more trouble 591 , the Las Majadas site ( Snow 1973 ) in
than it was worth to the Spaniards . Not White Rock Canyon about 3 miles north of
only was distance from the major Spanish Cochiti Pueblo, was a mid-17th century
communities in Chihuahua and Mexico City Hispanic ranch complex . It comprised a
great , but transport was exceptionally five room house with associated corrals .
difficult . It could take longer for goods As might be anticipated , the artifacts
to reach Santa Fe from Mexico City than it associated with the occupation largely
did for products from Mexico City to reach consisted of Indian ceramics , stone manos
the Philippines by ship ( Stephen Horvath , and metates , scrapers and spindle whorls .
personal communication 1976 ) . Snow ( 1973 : 43 ) indicates the Indian items
were associated with domestic functions .
Items of metal and manufactured goods Spanish handcrafted items were rare and
were extremely scarce among the form a functionally distinctive assemblage
New Mexican settlers . Thus , the ceramics that included gun flints , bits of chain
found on 17th and early 18th century mail , a metal point and nails . Luxury items
were restricted to a small amount of
Hispanic sites are predominantly the same
wares as those reported for contemporary imported majolica ceramics and a turquoise
Indian communities while materials used in stone . Observations of interest are : the
house construction were represented by house was solidly constructed , apparently
local resources almost entirely . Further , with a view to permanance, the size of the
under certain circumstances , culturally corrals and the faunal remains indicate
Spanish settlers might live in Indian com that ranching was the most important
munities, and detection of this coresidence economic activity, and the site was not
from material remains would be virtually precipitously abandoned or burned during
impossible . Maps 7 , 8. and 9 reflect the the Pueblo Revolt . Faunal remains demon
difficulties of discerning Hispanic settle strate that sheep were the most common
ments in two ways . Map 7 shows known animals . Domestic cattle were present , but
Spanish missions of the 17th century . members of the genus Equus ( including
Archival records mention that missions horses , burros and mules ) were rare .
were to have been established at other suggests that the site may
Snow ( 1973 )
Indian communities as well . One of these , have been occupied by "nuclear kindred
within the study area , is Paa-ko , but no families " in what Swadesh (1974 ) refers to
mission structure was encountered during as a joint residence , that is , a structure
the excavation ( Lambert 1954 ) . For this with separate entrances for each family .
reason , although there may have been a
resident cleric , Paa - ko is not noted on the Apart from the excavations at Las Majadas
map . Map 8 , which depicts Spanish settle
. and as yet unreported work at San Gabriel
ments and administrative units , indicates de Yunque and Santa Rosa de Lima de
Spanish residents at the Pueblos . This Abiquiu , 17th century domestic colonial
reflects only the presence of an administra sites have been sadly neglected , reflecting
tive official and not communities of in part an emphasis on excavations of
colonists . As archeological sites , it is missions and churches . Yet the study
unlikely that these Pueblos
Pueblos could offer area is ideally suited for addressing an
evidence of Hispanic residents . thropological questions for which domestic
sites are critical ; such as the arti fact
Simmons ( 1969 ) notes a change in colonial patterning at missions and churches as
settlement patterns between the 17th and compared to that at hacienda sites, the
18th centuries . During the 17th century comparison of Spanish colonial settlement
the pattern was one of large landholdings patterns with those of the British and
( haciendas ) located close to Indian settle French ( cf. South 1978 ) , and tests of
ments , which provided labor under the general models of frontier patterns
encomienda system . The only formally recently proposed ( South 1977a, 1977b ) .
organized Hispanic community until the Although documentation for 17th century

115
SPANISH SETTLEMENTS & ADMINISTRATION UNITS ( 1540-1821 )

Saare

OON TEAM DE
FAOS

PIGURIS

SAN GABRIEL
SANJUAN

ALLDEFONSO SANTA CRUZ

pbJOAQUE

JEMEZ : RESUQUETE

SANTARE

SANTO DOMINGOS
SAN MARCOS
SANTA ANA
SPA FELIGE SANCRISTOBAL
GALISTEO
PUARA Y BERTAZHETO
SANDIAS .
ALAMEDA

ALBURQUERQUE

HSLETA CHILLI

TAJTOVE

2.

ALCALDIA OF TAOS
- ALCALDIA OF SANTA CRUZ
DE LA CANADA
ALCALDIA OF THE QUERES
ALCALDIA OF ALBURQUERQUE
ALCALDIA OF SANTA FE
ALCALDIA OF SANDIA

Map 8 .

116
MEXICAN ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS 1820 1848

TIR
te
n

BONANDO DE

‫والليمة‬ SUBIS
ATTEN
SAnatara PATRUZ DE LA CANADA
SAN, TAPEENISO : NAMBE
PONORO !
TESQQOBs ng
WITZ Ford
SANTA FE
соєНЕМА
Recog
POMINICO
SANTA AN RODONES
BETA AYLLO ANMEDEL
SANDIAT
LAMEBA .

LEUROCERQUE

ASLETA
PERALTA

E POME
BELEN

SABU

PARTIDO CAPITAL
APPROXIMATE PARTIDO BOUNDARY

Map 9 .

117
settlements is generally not as available or Las Trampas , Truchas , Taos , Cebolleta
abundant as for the 18th century , Hackett and Ojo Caliente ( Simmons 1969 ) . Even
( 1937 ) , Hackett and Shelby ( 1942 ) , then , the Indian Pueblos were more secure
Swadesh ( 1974 ) , and Swadesh , Vigil and than the Spanish plazas , and colonists
Ochoa ( 1976 ) provide enough in formation to might take shelter within them , as they
determine where many of the original did frequently at Taos ( Jenkins 1966 ) .
communities were located .

Following the Pueblo Revolt and de Vargas ' PATTERNS OF LAND USF
reconquest , the 18th century colonial
AND SETTLEMENTS
pattern shifted away from large land
grants and haciendas to smaller land
Remains in the study area which document
holdings and an associated rancho settle the colonial way of life include agricultural
ment pattern . Simmons (1969:11) attributes features , physical mani festations of
the change to a decrease in the Indian patterns of land use , and structure types .
population which reduced the labor supply , Agricultural features comprise acequias
and to an increased number of colonists . ( ditches ) , such as the impressive Acequia
Although official Spanish policy provided Madre de Chamisal y Ojito in the Taos
precise specification of community arrange Valley ( Lopez 1975 : 47 ) and canoas ( flumes )
ments , featuring a grid system of parallel used to divert water across small canyons .
streets , rectangular blocks with one or Patterns of land use , which might be
more rectangular plazas , and surrounding monitored initially through aerial photo
commons , pastures and municipal lands this graphy , include old field patterns and
pattern was not followed in New Mexico
grazing land , the latter possibly indicated
( Simmons 1969 ; Swadesh 1974 ) . Rather , by denudation . Types of structures
the dispersed community pattern of farm encompassed houses of jacal ( post and
steads was characteristic . Reasons cited adobe , or mud ) and adobe
of adob e brick ,
for the nature of the settlement pattern ramadas and torreones ( towers ) , which
include adjustment to terrain , necessitated might be free - standing or built on the
by available agricultural technology ; protec corner of a residence , Swadesh ( 1974 :
tion of herds from Indian raiders ; the
138-139 ) , while noting that colonial house
importance of illegal crops and trade , and types have not been fully documented ,
patterns of inheritance and tenure distinguishes two major classes of larger
( Swadesh 1974 : 133-136 , Simmons 1969 : 13 ) . domestic structures in use in the Chama
The scarcity of metal tools precluded
Valley area ; sectional houses with ramadas
clearing benchlands along the rivers of and plazuelas ( structurally unified houses
heavy stands of pinon or sage , and narrow with enclosed patios ) .
discontinuous bottomlands were used for
cultivation . Dispersed sheep herds were Swadesh ( 1974 : 144-145 ) relates di fferent
considered better protection against Indian types of residences to group , size and
raids than corrals which could be breached . proposes that the latter is functionally
In the Chama area , punche ( semi related to economic conditions , Poorer
domesticated tabacco ) was grown illegally families, principally herders , maintained
for trade with the Utes and other nomadic small single structure households with
Indians , and a dispersed settlement adjacent corrals and ramadas . Larger and
pattern assured that close official moni wealthier families built sectional houses or
toring of such activities was at a minimum . plazuelas that facilitated cooperation in the
Agricultural plots were long narrow strips , sharing of tasks and food . Further ,
reflecting the necessity for stream or Swadesh ( 1974 : 145 ) suggests that a popula
irrigation ditch access and the Spanish tion of about 100 individuals, including at
custom of subdividing plots among all heirs least 20 able -bodied men , was the minimal
( Swadesh 1974 : 19 , 133-136 , 147 ; Simmons size necessary for a kin - based plaza unit
1969 ) . There fore , although each commu to survive the hazards of Indian raids .
nity might have a church and plaza as a Many plaza communities were abandoned for
focal point for community activities ,
considerable periods of time during the
settlers lived in scattered ranchos until height of raiding activity . The proposed
late in the 18th century when increased relationships among economic conditions,
raids by equestrian Comanches , and
house type , population size , and community
sometimes Utes , encouraged the building of longevity can be tested through archival
defensive plazas , such as those at Chimayo , and archeological research ,. For example ,

118
the soil management reports and maps ( Tijeras Canyon ) , Ojo Caliente and else
available for many of the Forest Service where ( Dozier 1970 ; Swadesh 1977 , 1978 ) .
Ranger Districts contain enough data to Questions about the Genizaro settlements
stratify land units with respect to agricul amenable to archeological and ethnohistoric
tural and grazing potential. One could research include the degree to which the
then test the association of small house quasi- military functions of these grants are
holds and relatively poor land . Archival reflected in settlement and material culture .
data contain census material which may be ( For example , they might be expected to
appropriate for determining thresholds at contain more gun flints and metal items
which various types of settlements were no than ranchero settlements ) . It should be
longer viable . possible also to monitor the amount of
interaction Genizaro communities maintained
Both Swadesh ( 1974 ) and Simmons ( 1969 ) with non - Hispanicised Indian groups and
with Hispanic colonial settlements . For
discuss the kin aspects of colonial settle
ments , with the former suggesting that example , at Abiquiu some of the Genizaro
household groupings were largely settlers were Hopi ( Swadesh 1975 : 35 ) , and
uxorilocal . A combination of archival and it would be of interest to know if trade
archeological research should address the relations were maintained with the Hopi
problem of variability in patterning of villages of Arizona , and if SO whether
architectural and arti factual correlates of these declined over time .
group size and kin composition . Such
analyses could be compared to the prehis Events during the early 19th century
toric data presented in Holschlag's ( 1975 ) changed the political and economic struc
treatment of changing household composi ture of New Mexico , but the implications as
tion among Indians in the Taos District. reflected in the archeological and historical
records have not been fully explored . In
Material culture items found on Colonial 1803 the purchase of the Louisiana
sites and on contemporary Indian sites Territory from France by the United States
should be useful indices of acculturation , may have opened the possibility of illegal
syncretism and rates of change . There trade in American manufactured goods such
are no reports of this type in the study as firearms, cloth and agricultural tools
area ; however , the discussion by Ward , ( Abbink and Stein 1977 : 161 ; Kenner 1969 :
Abbink and Stein (1977 ) indicate the direc 52 ) . In 1821 the Republic of Mexico was
tion which such work might take . Berge founded , and almost immediately initiated
(1968 ) , and Abbink and Stein ( 1977 ) pro legal trade with the United States over the
vide descriptions of historic artifacts and Santa Fe Trail ( Map 10 ) and by way of the
suggestions for their classification . Comanchero trade network ( Kenner 1969 ) .
In addition , Anglo merchants , ranchers
Data from the study area should be appro and other settlers soon came to New
priate for testing hypotheses about the Mexico . The increase in population and
spatial and material correlates of function livestock is evidenced in that after 1800 ,
ally and ethnically variable settlements . the population of various traditional
For example , Cattle , Carroll and Stuart
Carroll Pueblos ( Santo Domingo , Taos and Zuni )
( 1977 ) have de fined differences in the varied in response to rainfall ( Zubrow
technology and material culture of 1974 ) . Whether rural Hispanic communities
were affected similarly has not been
shepherding activities between Laguna and
Jicarilla . Similar studies of sheep and studied but should be . During the
cattle husbandry among Pueblo , Apache Mexican Period raiding by nomadic Indians
and Hispanic communities would be useful. was intensified , because the Mexican
Several communities in the study area were government could not afford to continue
founded primarily as Genizaro settlements . the supplementary aid which the Spanish
( Genizaros were detribalized Indians who had supplied ( Abbink and Stein 1977 : 161 ) .
adopted Hispanic culture and were given Raiding forced the abandonment of numer
grants to establish communities which were ous communities and the consolidation of
geographically peripheral to the areas of some settlements . Data for a comparative
major colonial settlement and served to study of those communities that failed or
protect frontiers . ) The most famous were success ful should be collected ,
Genizaro settlements were at Abiquiu , Population and locational information might
Tome, Belen and San Miguel ( Santa Fe ) , indicate the factors that were responsible
but they were present also at Caornuel for the di fferential survival rate of

119
SANTA FE TRAIL

STON Rouse

MARRON POLET PAROOK

A CROSSTRA

CTAJES
kasside

GOAL MORNO

FORSION

AWATHUYS
η

LORETA PASS
picas MAS : VEGAS

SAN MIGUEL

LBMQUEROLE

MOUNTAIN BRANCH
CIMARRON CUT OFF
ZEBULON PIKE ( 1806-07 )
SIBLEY - BROWN ( 1825-26)

Map 10 .

120
 settlement . An analysis of variation in the Bingler ( 1968 ) , Pettit ( 1966 ) , Schilling
( 1960 ) , and Miller , Montgomery and
incorporation of types of trade goods in
Hispanic and Indian communities would be Sutherland ( 1963 ) . Prehistoric mining
useful for studies of acculturation rates , activity was limited to quarrying chert and
while patterns of artifact distributions in other cryptocrystallin rocks for flaked
e
early Anglo settlements could be compared stone tools , and turquoise and a few other
with similar data from frontier communities minerals for pigments and jewelry .
elsewhere in the United States ( cf. South Known sites of these activities are the
1977b ) . Cerro Pedernal area of the Chama District
( Warren 1976 ) , basalt outcrops in the Taos
During the Mexican - American war General District ( Hume 1974b ) , and the Cerrillos
Stephen W. Kearny took Santa Fe ( 1846 ) turquoise mines ( Northrop 1975 ) . Sources
and claimed New Mexico as a territory of of good clay for ceramics and mud for
the United States . Territorial status adobe were undoubtedly " mined "
became official with the treaty of throughout the study area by the prehis
Guadalupe Hidalgo ( 1848 ) , but more impor toric Indians. Whether or not galena,
tant changes for the population of New used in the production of glaze pigment
Mexico were the result of the Civil War , for ceramic decoration , was mined is not
the establishment of U.S. military forts known . It should be possible to determine
and stage routes in New Mexico ( Maps 11 galena sources through trace element
and 12 ) , the Homestead Act of 1862 , the analysis, but I know of no attempts to do
Indian wars and eventual formation of Ute , so . In general, both the nature of
Apache and Navaho Reservations , and the deposits of the cryptocrystalline rocks ,
arrival of the first railroads in 1880 . The turquoise , clay , adobe , and galena , as
establishment of military forts had two well as the available technology indicate
effects , the gradual introduction of limited that the prehistoric mines and quarries will
cash into the economy ( through Army be represented by rather shallow pits and
payrolls ) and the expansion of the sheep tunnels , perhaps with associated tools such
as hammer stones (Northrop 1975 : 52 ) .
grazing industry ( to provide meat for the
troops and later for markets both in the
east and west ) . Both the Homestead Act The early Spanish explorers did consider
and the removal of hostile Indians after able prospecting ( Snow 1973 ) . Prior to the
the Civil War encouraged land speculation Pueblo Revolt the Spanish , with Indian
and an increase in the number of Anglo labor , mined gold , silver , and copper in
settlers and ranchers . Due to U.S. mis
Taos County , silver and gold from the
undertanding of traditional Spanish and Ortiz Mountains , and gold ( and perhaps
Mexican law and boundary disputes involv copper ) in Tijeras Canyon , and salt from
ing overlapping Land Grant claims among the salinas of Estancia . There is ,
Hispanic communities , these communities however , some dispute as to how extensive
lost most of the communal grazing land these early Spanish mining operations
which had provided their major economic were , despite the fact that the oppression
base , The introduction of the railroad of working in mines is cited as one of the
firmly tied New Mexico's economy to the factors responsible for the Pueblo Revolt
rest of the United States . It provided ( Northrop 1975 ) .
opportunities for wage labor and encour
aged the development of mining , as well as Following the Pueblo Revolt and the
making goods from the industrialized east Reconquest , Spanish mining operations
available first time on a major
for the first were resumed , and smelters and slag ,
scale . apparently associated with mining of this
period are described for Tijeras Canyon
( Northrop 1975 : 13 ) . In addition , mica was
MINING used extensively for window panes in
Santa Fe and probably was obtained from
Map 13 and Tables 5 and 6 provide in forma the Ojo Caliente , Petaca and Nambe
tion on the locations and materials mined Districts ( Northrop 1975 and Map 12 ) .
within the study area prior to 1920 . Good
discussions of the history of mining in New During the Mexican Period placer gold was
Mexico , and in the study area in partic discovered in the Ortiz Mountains ;
ular , may be found in Northrop ( 1975 ) , however , Bregg ( 1958 ) indicated that the
Anderson ( 1956 ) , Chase and Muir ( 1923 ) , amount of gold extracted between 1832 and

121
CIVIL WAR MILITARY OPERATIONS

...:

FORT UNION

SANTA FE
GLORIETĄPASS
Picos

BERNAL SPRINGS

ALBUQUERQUE IKERAS
N

PERALTA

UNION ARMY
CONFEDERATE ARMY
BATTLES

Map ll .

122
 U.S. FORTS & STAGE ROUTES

TONS
DHOUSE
FORT_COWekt
FOREY

TCANTONMENT BURGWIN'S
GALA
CATE

TO)
FORTUNION
KWATROUS
ALT FOREST
FORT MAREY SANTA
CABEZON
STAHON
BAN KIENG and - RIGEON'S EGAS
RANCH
WINGA Pikos
BANCHI Hecome
SAN JOSE
BERNAME SAN MIGUEL

ALUOWERQUE
R N
co
.
12 PERALTA
SOME

co

• MAJOR STAGE STOPS

Map 12 .

123
MINING DISTRICTS PRIOR TO 1920

31

MIDNIGHT LA BELLE
345 33 ELIZABETHIOWYMI
Zn
1 C
PO
BALAY
VTRGING ETY
TWINING AS 2
TAMIZETLE
185

32

cithe
COPPERCI
12
SENORILOR
22 179

16 ADBLANES
ALLERTON 30 20
ALBEMAREE
BONANZA CITY
za il 26
-BAJADA

25 CARBONATE MELLEM
LEBRILLOS
15 MADRID
HACAI
XoUORES
GOLDEN
18
A SAN PEDRO
14
28

37

Cu COPPER Мі MICA
Pb LEAD Oc OCHER
Au GOLD Op - OPTICAL CALCITE
Ag SILVER Sa - SALT
Zn ZINC Si - SILLIMANITE
CO - COAL St - BUILDING STONE
Ch CHERT Tu - TURQUOISE
CI - CLAY - GHOST TOWN

Map 13 .

124
Table 5 Major Mining Activity Prior to 19201

Mining District Materials Mined

1 Baldy
( Aztec, Baldy Mountain , Cimarron
Copper Park , Eagle Nest , Maxwell's Gold , silver , copper ,
Mount Baldy, Old Baldy Mountains , lead
Ute Creek , Virginia City , Willow
Creek )

2 Cimarroncito
(Bonito, Cimarron Canyon , Urraca , Gold silver , copper
Urraca Creek )

3 Elizabethtown
Cimarron , Eaglenest, E - Town ,
Hematite , Iron Mountain , Moreno , Gold , silver
Moreno Valley , Moreno Creek ,
West Moreno )

4 Mora Gold

5 Rociada
(Hadley, San Carlos , Upper Rociada ) Copper , gold , lead ,
silver , zinc

6 Abiquiu
Cobre Basin , Cobre Canyon , Copper Copper
Can yon )

7 Abiquiu Stone Building Stone

( Sandstone & Tuff)

8 Bromide No. 2
(Bromide , Headstone, Tusas Mountain ) Gold , silver , copper ,
lead , zinc

Chama Placers
(Rio Chama Placers Region ) Gold

10 Gallina
Coyote , Gallina Prospect Region , Copper , silver , clay
Jarosa , Mesa Alta Mining
Mountain , Youngsville )

11 Hopewell
( Eureka , Good Hope , Headstone , Gold , silver , lead ,
Tres Piedras ) copper , zinc

12 Ojo Caliente No. 1

TOjo Caliente) Mica

13 Petaca
( Alamos, Cribbenville , Gold , silver , lead ,
La Madera , Las Tablas , Ojo Caliente , copper
Paloma Canyon Prospect , Servilleta ,
Tres Piedras , Vallecitos)

14 Cochiti
( Albemarle , Bland , Peralta Canyon ) Gold , silver , lead ,

125
15 Hagan Coal
(Hagen , Una del Gato ) Coal

16 Jemez Springs
( Jemas, Jemes, Jemez Mountain , Jemez Copper
Plateau , Jemez Pueblo , Spanish Queen )

17 Nacimiento Mountains
(Copper City , Cuba, Fureka mine , Copper , silver
Nacimiento , San Francesca ,
San Miguel, San Miguel mine , Senorita ,
Senorito , Sierra Nacimiento )

18 Placitas
( Algodones, Pernalillo , Capulin Peak , Lead , copper
Juan Tabo , La Luz , La Luz mine , La Madera ,
Las Placitas , Montezuma, Nero Placers ( ? ) ,
Placitas -Montezuma, Sandia , Sandia
Mountains , Sandia - North Manzano Prospect
Region , Sandia No. 1 )

19 Flk Mountain
(Bull Creek , Cow Creek , Flk Creek , Mica
Las Vegas , Rio de la Vaca )

20 El Porvenir
( Permit Mountain , Mineral Hill , Copper
Porvenir )

21 Tecolote
(Las Vegas, Las Vegas mines , Mineral Copper
Hill ( ? ) , Ribera , Ribera Copper Prospects ,
Rivera , Salitre , San Miguel, San Pablo ,
Selitre )

22 Willow Creek
Cooper, Cowles, Hamilton , Pecos , Zinc , lead , cooper ,
Pecos River , Tererro , Valley Ranch ) gold , silver

23 Aspen Mountain
( Aspen Ranch ) Gold , silver , copper ,
lead , zinc

24 Cerrillos
( Ponanza City , Carbonateville , Cerillos , Turquoise , zinc , lead ,
Galisteo Creek , Hungry Gulch , silver copper , gold ,
Los Cerrillos , Los Cersillos , Mount clay
Chalchihuitl , Turquesa , Turquois ( e ) ,
Turquoise City , Turquoise Hill )

25 Cerrillos Coal Field Coal - anthracite and

bituminous

26 Glorieta
(Glorieta , Glorieta Mesa , Glorieta , Copper , mineral paint
Mailleuchet ( ? ) Mesa ) ( ocher )

27 Nambe
(Chimayo , Cordova , Santa Fe Mountains, Mica
Truchas )

126
28 New Placers
(Alamillo , Carnahan , Golden , Golden
Placers , Lazarus Gulch , Nero Placers ( ? ) , Copper , silver , gold ,
Placer Mountains, San Isidro ( ? ) , San Lazaro ,
San Lazarus Placers , San Pedro ,
San Pedro Mountain ( s ) , Santa Fe , San Ysidro
Mountains , San Zaro , Silver Butte ( s ) ,
Tuerto Mountain ( s ) , Tuertos Range )

29 Old Placers
Cunningham Gulch , Dolores , El Real Gold , copper
de Dolores , Lone Mountain , Ortiz ,
Ortiz Mountains , Rio Galisteo,
San Lazaro ( ? ) , San Zaro ( ? ) , Sierra del
Oro , Silver Butte ( s )

30 Santa Fe
(Dalton -Macho , Mailleuchet ( ? ) , Copper , silver , gold
Mikado , Montezuma , Penacho Peak clay , limestone
Prospects , Santa Fe Mountains ,
Tencaho )

31 Anchor
(Keystone, La Belle , Midnight , Red Gold
River )

32 Picuris
(Copper Hill , Copper Mountain , Dixon , Copper, gold , silver,
Glenwoody , Harding Mine , Hondo Canyon , optical calcite , silli
Penasco , Picuris , Rinconada , West Picuris ) manite

33 Red River
(Alum Gulch , Black Copper , Black Gold , silver , copper
Mountain , Lower Red River , Moly , Questa ,
Sulphur Gulch )

34 Rio Colorado Placers

Colorado Creek ) Gold

35 Rio Grande Valley

(Rio Grande Placers ) Gold

36 Twining
TAmizette , Arroyo Hondo , Rio Hondo ) Copper

37 Estancia Salt
(Big Salt Lake, Laguna del Perro , Salt
Laguna Salina )

38 Cerro Pedernal Chert

1. Compiled from Mardirosian , 1971 ,

127
Table 6 Ghost Towns Post Office Founded ?

Col fax County

Baldy 1888
Elizabethtown 1868
Virginia City 1868

Sandoval County
Albemarle 1901
Allerton 1894
Bland 1894
Copper City 1883
Coyote 1904
Hagan 1902
Senorito 1901

Santa Fe County
Bonanza City 1880
Carbonateville 1879
Cerrillos 1880
Golden 1880
La Bajada 1870
Madrid 1896
Real de Dolores 1887
San Pedro 1881

Taos County
Amizette 1893
La Belle 1895
Midnight 1895
Twining 1902
1
from Sherman and Sherman 1975 .

1835 was not more than $ 80,000 per annum prominant producers were the Willow ,
( cited in Northrop 1975 : 17 ) . Various small Humbug , Grouse , Big Nigger and Pine .
scale mining operations were undertaken The Aztec mine was discovered in 1868 ,
during the period of United States control and Montezuma in 1869 ( Pettit 1966 ) . Poor
of New Mexico but prior to the Civil War . management and the difficulty of main
It was not until 1867 , as a result of the taining the hydraulic systems led to
discovery of gold in the Moreno Valley that end of most activities between 1901 and
the first real " boom " in New Mexico mining 1904 . A number of "boom " towns were
occurred . In that same year , most of the founded , with Elizabethtown in Col fax
creek bottoms on the west side of Baldy County probably the most famous .
Mountain yielded gold and a rush ensued . Established in 1867 , it had a population of
The mining involved was hydraulic , and 7,000 by 1868 and was the seat of Col fax
water supply was uncertain . Work on the County from 1870 to 1872 ; by the 1880's
" Big Ditch " was initiated in 1868 ; even there were fewer than 400 residents ( Pettit
tually the diversion channel was extended 1966 ) . The better known ghost towns of
for 41 1/8 miles , diverting nearly 1,000 the early mining period are indicated on
cubic feet per minute from the headwaters Map 13 .
of the Red River . Three large lakes were
constructed to serve as reservoirs along
the ditch , with several smaller reservoirs RAILROADS
on Baldy Mountain above the placers
( Pettit 1966 ) . The ditch and reservoirs The mining boom , particularly in the
are still observable and , as of 1966 , some Leadville area of Colorado and in the San
of the original flumes were still in place . Juan Basin , was important to the develop
Those creek bottoms which were the most ment of railroads in New Mexico . Various

128
companies fought legal battles to obtain about the area of Cochiti Pueblo . There a
rights for new rail lines to connect the standard gauge railroad was built to carry
mining areas with the east , and to extend ties to the main line of the Santa Fe
rail transport facilities as far south as railroad which moved them to the treating
Mexico . There was a railroad war between plant in Albuquerque . Although the
the Santa Fe Railroad and the Rio Grande tracks of the narrow gauge railroads built
Railroad starting in the 1870's , culminating for lumbering were removed in the 1930's
in open fighting at Raton Pass ( Lyckman and 1940's , the remains of small logging
1976 : 7 ) . An agreement , known as the communities and company towns are still
Boston Treaty of 1880 , was reached in
standing and provide a valuable source of
which the Union Pacific , Santa Fe and Rio in formation about the domestic activities
Grande railroads divided access lines and of li fe of these communities
way
within the area ( Map 14 ) . As Lyckman ( Kirkpatrick 1977 ) .
( 1976 ) points out , the narrow gauge lines
were most useful in mountainous terrain , Depending on the particular situation ,
because they were cheaper to construct timber cutting was carried out by families ,
and could handle sharper turns than the independent contractors or the lumber
standard gauge . The most important of companies . Some of the labor was
the narrow gauge lines was the "Chili specialized . For example , the production
Line " from Alamosa , Colorado to Santa Fe , of mine props required special processing,
operated by the Rio Grande Railroad . whereas timber for ties was rough - cut
Some of the stations along the line in New prior to transport . Crews consisting of
Mexico were Palmila , Volcano ( opposite San either one or two families or a few men
Antonio Mountain ) , Skarda , No Agua , Tres would specialize in one of these two major
Piedras , Servilleta , Caliente ( Taos types of production ( Kirkpatrick 1977 ) .
Junction ) , Barranca , and Embudo Company records and other archival
( Lyckman 1976 ) . sources provide in formation which would
permit analysis of the composition and
structure of the work groups . These
LUMBERING PRIOR TO 1930 data , combined with archeological investi
gation of the timber camps and company
The railroads proved critical for lumbering towns , are a valuable resource for the
operations that were numerous in the generation and testing of hypotheses
mountainous portions of the study area , relating to the material correlates of
Particularly between about 1905 and 1930 . di fferent kinds of household composition
Timber was used by the railroad companies and labor organization , and for docu
for ties and trestles and by the mining menting the technology of lumbering opera
companies for props ( Lyckman 1976 , tions of the period .
Kirkpatrick 1977 ) . Access to timber was
difficult , as was the transport of logs by
horsedrawn carts . Therefore , miles of ASSESSMENT OF THF
short narrow gauge rail lines were con HISTORIC PERIOD
structed into the mountains from major
transport or processing centers . For The resources of the study area provide a
example , timber was rough - cut at Ponil unique opportunity for research relevant
Park and Metcalf and transported on for contemporary questions in anthropo
flatcars to the mill at Cimarron logical demography , human adaptation ,
( Kirkpatrick 1977 ) . Several lines were social and political organization and under
built from La Madera to Taos Junction . standing of the long - term effects of
Lyckman ( 1976 ) describes the operation of various patterns of land use . Historic
the Santa Barbara Tie and Pole Company documents span the period from 1540 to the
in southern Taos County . The company present and contain information pertaining
cut timber which was initially transported the biological and cultural character
by horse to chutes or flumes which carried istics of the inhabitants , their settlement
it down the mountain sides . А narrow patterns , economic activities and social,
gauge railroad moved the logs to the political and religious organizations , as
Penasco area , where a saw mill cut most of well as data on climate , flora and fauna .
the lumber into ties . The ties were The documents , combined with the material
floated down available streams during high remains of activities carried out by peoples
water to the Rio Grande , and then to of diverse ethnic affiliation , permit an

129
Table 6 Ghost Towns Post Office Founded !
Col fax County
Baldy 1888
Elizabethtown 1868
Virginia City 1868

Sandoval County
Albemarle 1901
Allerton 1894
Bland 1894
1883
Copper City
Coyote 1904
Hagan 1902
Senorito 1901

Santa Fe County
Bonanza City 1880
Carbonateville 1879
Cerrillos 1880
Golden 1880
La Bajada 1870
Madrid 1896
Real de Dolores 1887
San Pedro 1881

Taos County
Amizette 1893
La Belle 1895
Midnight 1895
Twining 1902
1
from Sherman and Sherman 1975 .

1835 was not more than $ 80,000 per annum prominant producers were the Willow ,
( cited in Northrop 1975 : 17 ) . Various small Humbug , Grouse , Big Nigger and Pine .
scale mining operations were undertaken The Aztec mine was discovered in 1868 ,
during the period of United States control and Montezuma in 1869 ( Pettit 1966 ) . Poor
of New Mexico but prior to the Civil War . management and the difficulty of main
It was not until 1867 , as a result of the taining the hydraulic systems led to an
discovery of gold in the Moreno Valley that end of most activities between 1901 and
the first real " boom " in New Mexico mining 1904 . A number of " boom " towns were
occurred . In that same year , most of the founded , with Elizabethtown in Col fax
creek bottoms on the west side of Baldy County probably the most famous .
Mountain yielded gold and a rush ensued . Established in 1867 , it had a population of
The mining involved was hydraulic , and 7,000 by 1868 and was the seat of Col fax
water supply was uncertain . Work on the County from 1870 to 1872 ; by the 1880's
" Big Ditch " was initiated in 1868 ; even there were fewer than 400 residents (Pettit
tually the diversion channel was extended 1966 ) . The better known ghost towns of
for 41 1/8 miles, diverting nearly 1,000 the early mining period are indicated on
cubic feet per minute from the headwaters Map 13 .
of the Red River . Three large lakes were
constructed to serve as reservoirs along
the ditch , with several smaller reservoirs RAILROADS
on Baldy Mountain above the placers
( Pettit 1966 ) . The ditch and reservoirs The mining boom , particularly in the
are still observable and , as of 1966 , some Leadville area of Colorado and in the San
of the original flumes were still in place . Juan Basin , was important to the develop
Those creek bottoms which were the most ment of railroads in New Mexico . Various

128
companies fought legal battles to obtain about the area of Cochiti Pueblo . There a
rights for new rail lines to connect the standard gauge railroad was built to carry
mining areas with the east, and to extend ties to the main line of the Santa Fe
rail transport facilities as far south as railroad which moved them to the treating
Mexico . There was a railroad war between plant in Albuquerque . Although the
the Santa Fe Railroad and the Rio Grande tracks of the narrow gauge railroads built
Railroad starting in the 1870's , culminating for lumbering were removed in the 1930's
in open fighting at Raton Pass ( Lyckman and 1940's , the remains of small logging
1976 : 7 ) . An agreement, known as the communities and company towns are still
Boston Treaty of 1880 , was reached in standing and provide a valuable source of
which the Union Pacific , Santa Fe and Rio information about the domestic activities
Grande railroads divided access lines and way of li fe of these communities
within the area (Map 14 ) . As Lyckman (Kirkpatrick 1977 ) .
(1976 ) points out , the narrow gauge lines
were most useful in mountainous terrain , Depending on the particular situation ,
because they were cheaper to construct timber cutting was carried out by families ,
and could handle sharper turns than the independent contractors or the lumber
standard gauge . The most important of companies . Some of the labor was

the narrow gauge lines was the " Chili specialized. For example , the production
Line " from Alamosa , Colorado to Santa Fe , of mine props required special processing ,
operated by the Rio Grande Railroad . whereas timber for ties was rough- cut
Some of the stations along the line in New prior transport .
to Crews consisting of
Mexico were Palmila , Volcano ( opposite San either one or two families or a few men
Antonio Mountain ) , Skarda , No Agua , Tres would specialize in one of these two major
Piedras , Servilleta , Caliente ( Taos types of production ((Kirkpatrick 1977 ) .
Junction ) , Barranca , and Embudo Company records and other archival
( Lyckman 1976 ) . sources provide in formation which would
permit analysis of the composition and
structure of the work groups . These
LUMBERING PRIOR TO 1930 data , combined with archeological investi
gation of the timber camps and company
The railroads proved critical for lumbering towns , are a valuable
resource for the
operations that were numerous in the generation and of hypotheses
testing
mountainous portions of the study area , relating to material correlates of
the
Particularly between about 1905 and 1930 . di fferent kinds of household composition
Timber was used by the railroad companies and labor organization , and for docu
for ties and trestles and by the mining menting the technology of lumbering opera
companies for props ( Lyckman 1976 , tions of the period .
Kirkpatrick 1977 ) . Access to timber was
.

difficult , as was the transport of logs by

horsedrawn carts . Therefore , miles of ASSESSMENT OF THE
short narrow gauge rail lines were con HISTORIC PERIOD
structed into the mountains from major
transport or processing centers , For The resources of the study area provide a
example , timber was rough cut at Ponil unique opportunity for research relevant
Park and Metcalf and transported on for contemporary questions in anthropo
flatcars to the mill at Cimarron logical demography , human adaptation ,
( Kirkpatrick 1977 ) . Several lines were social and political organization and under
built from La Madera to Taos Junction . standing of the long - term effects of
Lyckman (1976 ) describes the operation of various patterns of land use . Historic
the Santa Barbara Tie and Pole Company documents span the period from 1540 to the
in southern Taos County . The company present and contain in formation pertaining
cut timber which was initially transported to the biological and cultural character
by horse to chutes or flumes which carried istics of the inhabitants , their settlement
it down the mountain sides . A narrow patterns , economic activities and social ,
gauge railroad moved the logs to the political and religious organizations , as
Penasco area, where a saw mill cut most of well as data on climate , flora and fauna .
the lumber into ties . The ties were The documents , combined with the material
floated down available streams during high remains of activities carried out by peoples
water to the Rio Grande , and then to of diverse ethnic affiliation , permit an

129
EARLY RAILROADS

LUMBERTON
DULCE CHAMA

TRES PEDRAS :
SERVILLETA

EMBED

SAN ILDEFONSO
BUCKMANN

SANTA FE
VEGAS

todoCore
GALSTED

SA BUQUERQUE
R N

WSLETA

BETER

ATCHISON , TOPEKA
& SANTA FE
ATLANTIC & PACIFIC
DENVER & RIO GRANDE WESTERN
TRAIN STATION

Map 14 .

130
 more promising holistic direction which
understanding of the dynamic interrelation
ships among peoples and the natural envi might be taken . In addition , a combination
of archeological, ethnohistorical and
ronment over a period of more than 400
years . Yet , the potential of this research archival research would be valuable specifi
base has not been systematically or compre cally to archeology in providing the devel
opment of methods for distinguishing
hensively explored .
unambiguously the cultural affiliation of
groups from material remains . A combined
Among the reasons for this neglect are the
approach would also provide an under
lack of archeological interest in sites which
standing of processes of site formation and
date to the historic period , the tiny number
of archeologists trained in the use of the development of expected " visibility "
archival data , the few institutions that and longevity estimates for the material
remains of known activities , It would be
employ interdisciplinary teams ( including
valuable to ethnologists interested in
archivists , ethnohistorians, ethnologists ,
differential acculturation rates reflected in
archeologists and physical scientists ) , and
material items , and inin material culture
the emphasis on the remains of Indian
items associated with various activities .
communities and disregard for Hispanic and
Anglo communities . The many historians Both archeologists and ethnologists are
concerned with the spatial patterning of
who have conducted research in the study
area have emphasized major " events " ( such settlements and activities , and with devel
as the establishment of the first capital, oping and testing hypotheses to explain
this observed patterning ( Smith 1977 ,
the Pueblo Revolt, civil war battles , etc. )
Gummerman 1971 , 1972 ) . Integrated
or the lives of famous persons ( such as
Kit Carson , Juan Francisco Martin or D. research strategies which use the data of
the historic period can contribute to the
H. Lawrence) at the expense of studies of
advancement of anthropology and social
social history . The works of Swadesh
( 1974 , 1978 ) , Simmons ( 1969 ) , Zubrow history as disciplines .
( 1975 ) and Kirkpatrick ( 1977 ) , indicate the

131
 MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

GENERAL CONCERNS prediction by extrapolation are efficiency

( cost effectiveness ), and practicality ( that
Prior to developing effective and efficient is,, they work ) ( Stuart , 1978 ) . The dis
management programs, cultural resource advantage of the approach is that it does
specialists must be able to estimate the not necessarily lead to an understanding of
number and kinds of resources in their the conditions that cause differential
area . Although the bulk of this report distributions of cultural resources nor does
has provided the background for antici it contribute to the explanation of varia
pating the resources in the study area , bility either in human behavior or in the
relatively little attention has been given to archeological record ( cf. Grady and
predicting the density of resources in Morenon 1977 ) .
specific locations . Generally , there are
two approaches to site prediction in the The second major approach to the predic
current literature . The more common tion of site distributions and densities
approach involves extrapolating predictive relies on developing general models of
statements from known distributions , an human behavior , particularly with respect
art that is far better developed in parts of to settlement patterns and land use .
the Southwest outside the study area . There are fewer examples of this type of
Expectedly, attempts along this line have approach in the archeological literature ,
been made where modern energy resource and again those that do exist do not relate
exploration and mining are most intensive . directly to the study area . Among the
The San Juan Basin is a particularly good more productive of these are the investiga
example . Two apparently success ful tion of human utilization of diverse plant
examples are those of Camilli and Seaman communities during the Archaic ( Allan ,
(1978 ) and of Stuart (1978 ) . The first Osborn , Chasko and Stuart 1975 ) , and
uses environmental stratification based on work on the selection by prehistoric agri
remote sensing imagery , and discriminated culturalists of particular topographic
differences in the amount of vegetative settings and proximity to specific vegeta
cover and frequency of broken terrain , tion zones ( Zubrow 1971 , Plog 1974a , 1974b ,
which in directly monitor areas that receive Plog , Hill and Read 1976 , Cordell 1975 ) .
different amounts of rain fall ( Camilli and The primary disadvantages of these models
Seaman 1978 : 42 ) . second example
The are that they were not designed to be cost
derives from the observation that , within effective , and they vary considerably in
portions of the San Juan , site density accuracy . In the long run ; however ,
appears to be a function of topographic because this approach is explicitly con
characteristics which can be measured by cerned with developing and testing
mean contour intervals ; exceptions occur hypotheses about human behavior , its
where critical environmental variables such explanatory potential is high , its goal is
as distance to nearest watercourse con consistent with the general aims of anthro
dition the placement of Anasazi farming pology as a discipline , and it should lead
complexes ( Stuart , 1978 ) . to the isolation of causal variables which ,
in turn , allow more precise prediction , but
Within the study area predictive models for it must be remembered that the archeologi
the density of arti facts have been explored cal record is a product of the interaction
in a preliminary manner in the Taos district of human behavior and geological processes .
( Morenon and Quinn 1977 , Grady and In order for site prediction to become
Morenon 1977 ) . In this case , di fferential accurate , the interaction of both must be
distributions noted in one drainage were considered . I offer two examples of the
extrapolated to another drainage with directions that might be pursued , which
moderate success . It is expected that have cautionary implications for archeology
both use and refinement of the extrapola in general .
tion approach in the study area will
increase by necessity as the geothermal , In reviewing the PaleoIndian data , the
water and mineral resources of the middle spotty distribution of sites is apparent
Rio Grande become more important to the immediately . Given the temporal depth
national economy The advantages of involved , I have been troubled by behav

132
ioral interpretations based on character system . " (Wobst's 1977 work is a notable
istics of the environmental settings in exception . ) It occurred to me , as I am
which these sites are found . It seemed to sure it has to others , that " system
that we might be looking at areas in boundaries " will be conditioned , in part ,
which surfaces of the appropriate antiquity by the relative productivity of specific
are exposed , rather than at geographic areas . In order to examine the implica
features which were selected as activity tions of this proposition more closely ,
loci by PaleoIndian groups. In order to Table 7 was prepared , based on recent
begin to investigate this possibility , Map land claims cases (Ellis 1974a , 1974c ) .
15 was prepared . Although the degree of Although land claims data may be suspect
detail on this map is not as precise as for a variety of reasons , in this case I
desirable , it indicates those areas of New think they provide an in formative baseline .
Mexico in which erosion ranges from The Pueblos examined , Taos and Laguna,
extreme to moderately severe . It should were selected because they occupy very
be noted that , with the exception of cave different kinds of settings . Taos receives
sites , all known PaleoIndian sites in New considerably more rain fall and is in an

Mexico are located within the eroded areas . of relatively more dense vegetation .
Further , it is unlikely that PaleoIndian It is also in close proximity to mountains
sites will be found outside these areas . which provide lithic source materials, game
Thus , it may be suggested that the failure and other resources . Laguna , by con
of the site pattern recognition approach in trast , is in a location which is drier , more
the Negeezi area ( Oaks 1977 ) indicates only sparsely vegetated and further from the
that the area is not eroded to a sufficient resources of high elevations . Intuitively,
extent to expose PaleoIndian deposits . it seemed likely that the support area
Behavioral statements about the preference necessary to sustain the population of Taos
of PaleoIndian hunters for particular would be less than that necessary for
land forms must be evaluated against the Laguna . The land claims data were
co-occurrence of land form types with screened so that activities which were the
patterns of erosion . Population estimates result of European contact were eliminated .
for the PaleoIndian period must consider Thus, grazing areas , for example , were
the proportion of finds in relation to the omitted . The anticipated contrast in
eroded surfaces , and not to continental distances travelled is revealed clearly by
land mass . Whether the presence or Table Equally informative are the
7.
absence of PaleoIndian sites in a particular actual distances specified for each of the
area is of outstanding significance for activities and the kinds of sites which
behavioral interpretation must also consider should be anticipated both with respect to
the condition of the land surfaces . the activities being performed and the
Specifically , soil maps of a finer scale necessities of travel ( such as overnight
which indicate eroded land forms and are camps ) .
available to National Forests and Bureau of
Land Management district offices must be Table 7 is " first approximation " which
a

consulted . should be It does suggest that

refined .
careful consideration of site function must
Current research emphasis on defining and be accomplished before reasonable popula
explaining the extent of prehistoric cultural tion estimates are derived , that data
systems combined with the management collection strategies among institutions
concerns of agencies which are responsible should be coordinated so that the extent of
for relatively large areas of land have sustaining areas for prehistoric groups
shifted the level of archeological interest eventually may be defined , and that the
from a focus the single site to the
on utility of lithic and sherd scatters for
distribution of both habitation and special contributing to the delimitation of the
use sites ( and in some cases , isolated extent of sustaining areas should be given
arti facts ) on a regional basis . Although attention . Specifically , determination of
numerous recent studies have been con lithic sources , degree of lithic reduction ,
cerned with the stratification of regions on tem per used in ceramics , varia
sources

the basis of potentially significant bility in design elements and design execu
resources ( vegetation zones , arable land , tion in ceramics, as well as ethnographic
water sources, etc. ) , there has been little studies of contexts of use , discard and
effort directed toward defining the geo loss of various classes of artifacts should
graphic limits of of any
any particular " cultural be pursued . These kinds of analysis

133
 Sa
n as R
im
An
Juan Aztec Raton
River
Ei Vede Tierra Amarilla
Roservoir
SAN
TOS

Ch
RIO COLFA х

Cana
A R RIBA

am
UNION

di
Taos Clayton
ADiguin
Dom

RIO

M O
Mori
LosAlamos
HARDINS
SANDOVAL
MC Mosque
ΚΙ Ν ι εY SANTA FE
Las Vegas
SANTA FE Conches
SAN Reservoir
poc IGU
os Uro
Roservoir
Vumcan
Albuquerque
DALILLO Y
A
LE Nc Santa Rosa
Los Lund G UPE

N Γ Ε x
Fort
Sumner

Socorro
с
AR ос OSTEV

Reserve
LINCOLN

Cart 2010

Elephant
Butto
ROS
r Reservoir
ve
Ri
pequences

curio
Gi
lo

Lordsburg
A NT
Silver City

Demine
S
Caballo
1

Reservoir
E R

Alamogordo

Carisbe
von

Las Cruces
LUN А

Sall
Loto

HIDALGO

0 40 80 120 MILES

LEGEND

BADLY ERODED
国目

MODERATELY ERODED

SLIGHTLY ERODED

AREAS OF SUBSTANTIAL EROSION

Мар 15 .

134
Table 7 Comparison of Distances Travelled from Taos and Laguna

Direction Distance Travelled Distance Travelled

Activity
From Taos in Miles From Laguna in Miles

N
NE 12
E 11
SE 19 160
Hunting S 10 65
SW 11 120
W 13 30
NW 13 25

Total 89 400
12.71 80
Average

N 9 10
NE 11
Collecting E 12
SE 14
and s 10
SW 90
Gathering W 9 75
NW 11 16

Total 76 191
Average 10.86 47.75

5
NE 10
E 5
Farming SE 8
S 5 25
SW 7 9
W
NW 11

Total 33 52
Average 6.60 13

N 18 16
NE 11
E 16 16
Other Activities SE 19 4
( Shrine Visits ) S 9
SW 14 90
W 13 32
NW 20

Total 100 178

Average 14.29 29.67

should be focused on very large geo recording ( as exemplified by the site and
graphic areas . survey forms now in use by the USDA
Forest Service in Region 3) will be
In general, I assume that inventorying of sustained . There should be no doubt
cultural resources on Federal lands will about the utility of this process . Cultural
continue and that the current level of data resource managers should use the computer

135
files currently available and continuously wares should consider manufacturing
assess their utility and limitations . The technology , vessel size , temper
preparation of this overview suggested sources , and design affiliations in
that research and management concerns addition to temporal position . P. 46 ,
require considerably more integration of p . 49 , pp . 55-50 , p . 58 , pp . 102-104 .
professional expertise as well as of data
4. Specific attention should be given to
from areas larger than cultural districts ;
these objectives are appropriately pursued sites which may date between B.C.
by land managing Federal agencies . 2000 and A.D. 400 . pp . 25-33 .
Specifically , the talents of archeologists ,
ethnologists, historians, geographers , 5. The chronology of the Taos District
geologists and climatologists are needed to needs refinement . pp . 34-41 .
exploit fully the information potential of
cultural resources . 6. Paleoen vironmental reconstructions are
needed for both the PaleoIndian and
The gaps in our current knowledge stem in the Archaic . pp . 10-13 , pp . 29-30 .
part also from insufficient analysis of
existing collection , which in some 7. Because PaleoIndian and Archaic
instances , may be more important than deposits are frequently surficial and
additional excavation . This seems to be chemical and palynological data can be
particularly true of the Pueblo IV material . recovered , a non - collection survey
In any case , no future excavation should strategy should be pursued . Alter
be undertaken without a comprehensive natively , the collection of artifacts
program , including a budget for analysis. and materials which will be analyzed
There is an apparent need to determine for paleoenvironmental data should be
the full range of variability for all time considered . p . 33 .
periods including documentation of settle
ment patterns on a regional basis , com 8. Cave sites and eroded surfaces within
munity patterns , architectural features and the study area are areas of high
artifact classes . Finally , methods for potential for Archaic and PaleoIndian
deriving population estimates , again for all remains . The former may yield data
time periods, need to be developed in an of pre- Clovis antiquity . pp . 17-18 .
integrated fashion .
9. Systematic examination of grassland
timber ecotones and mountain foothill
SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS areas for early PaleoIndian material is
important for testing recent hypoth
The suggestions listed below derive from eses about the adaptation of groups
the preceeding narrative . Here they are during this period . pp . 19-21 .
stated briefly and without amplification .
For this reason , page numbers are given 10 . Geological and paleoenvironmental
after each statement that refer the reader studies of the Albuquerque District's
to the appropriate sections of the text for eroded west mesa may be used to test
relevant background . models of Clovis subsistence .
p . 21 .
1. Basic chronological data , derived ll . The study area is especially signifi
independently of artifact types , are cant with respectto its potential
needed for the PaleoIndian and contribution to understanding arti fact
Archaic periods . pp . 13-17 , pp . variability during the Archaic .
25-28 , pp . 32-33 . There fore , typologies , paleoclimatic
reconstructions and chronology
2
.

Chronological control , independent of developed for the Puerco should not

artifact types , is necessary for an be generalized to the study area , but
early all Rio Grande Black-on - white independently investigated . pp . 24-28 .
wares , especially early types such as
Red Mesa-like and Kiatuthalana -like 12 . The lithic sites of the Taos and
types . pp . 35 , 39 , 43 , pp . 54-56 , Chama areas should be evaluated
p . 58 , pp. 102104 . along broad lines which should in
clude determining whether their
3. Re- evaluation of existing collections of context of recovery is Archaic , Ute ,
locally manu factured Black - on - white

136
 part of an Anasazi subsistence pattern , insufficiently explored . p. 115 .
or an Anasazi adaptation
adaptation to hunt
ing and gathering when agriculture 21 . Photoarchives and aerial photography
was not possible or not efficient. should be useful in monitoring the
pp . 106-108 . effects of agriculture and grazing on
the landscape of the study area .
13 . Refined paleoclimatological studies in p.118 , p . 132 .
the Taos and Chama areas should be
combined with suggestion 12 . pp . 22 . Ethnographic and historic data should
48-50 , pp . 67-101 . be employed in order to develop
models for determining " cultural
14 . Paleoenvironmental reconstruction and affiliations" of prehistoric groups .
excavation on the western plains pp . 104-105 . .

margin of the study area are impor

tant in relation to current models of 23 . Domestic sites of the Spanish Colonial
Anasazi origins . pp . 28-33 . and Mexican periods are important to
test hypotheses relating settlement
15 . Excavation in the Gallina District type to economic structure . pp .
should include isolated pithouses . 118-119 .
pp . 48-49 .
24 . Indian sites which date to the early
16 . Excavation in the Gallina District
historic period may provide useful
should consider the degree to which in formation on di fferential accul
there was an emphasis on hunting turation rates . pp . 118-121 .
during all time periods and on inter
action with other areas . pp . 49-50 , With enlightened management policies and
pp . 100-101 . integrated long -term goals , the cultural
17 .
resources of the study area will provide
The analysis of lithic tools has been in formation which is of great value to
neglected for sites of the Anasazi anthropologists , historians , geographers
Period in all parts of the study area . and economists . The recreational value of
p.64 , p . 135 . these resources is enhanced by exploiting
their scientific potential . In effect, they
18 . Excavation on the Pajarito Plateau are tools of public education . The
has been biased toward the larger temporal depth provided by archeology may
and later sites . The amount of contribute significant in formation to land
variability in the smaller, predom management For example , it is
itself.
inantly " Santa Fe , " sites needs to be possible to monitor floral succession rates
addressed . pp . 60-61 , pp . under different climatic conditions and
63-64 , different conditions of land use when
archeological data provide baselines . The
19 . There has been neglect of 17th long-term effects of grazing , mining and
century domestic sites . pp . 115 . timber cutting within the study area are
also amenable to analysis . It is my hope
20 . Variability in domestic sites of both that future work in the study area will
the 17th and 18th centuries has been
proceed toward these goals .

137
 APPENDICES

1. LOCATIONS OF SOURCE 1. Some general publications relevant

DOCUMENTS AND FILES to Southwestern archeology and
ethnology .
This section lists and briefly categorizes 2. Complete runs of the Southwestern
the holdings of locations visited during the Journal of Anthropology ( now
preparation of this report . Journal of Anthropological
Research ) .
1. U.S.D.A. Forest Service , South western 3. Complete file of all unpublished
Regional Office , Albuquerque masters thesis and doctoral disser
tations produced by students in
1. Clearance reports for all forests the department .
within the Region . 4. Indexed photo archive .
2. Preliminary and final reports on
final 5. Nearly complete set of Bureau of
research activities carried out American Ethnology publications .
within the forests .
3. Publications of the Regional Office , V. Maxwell Museum of Anthropology ,
such as the Archeological Report University of New Mexico
Series .
4. A small working library of major 1. Collections of artifacts and original
publications which contain data field notes for many sites within
relevant to the archeology of the the study area .
Region . 2. Computerized listings of holdings
5. Computerized site and survey form of the museum .
files .
6. Aerial photographs and topographic VI . Laboratory of Anthropology , Museum
maps of the Region . of New Mexico , Santa Fe

II . U.S.D.I. Bureau of Land Management, 1. An excellent working library of

Albuquerque Office materials pertaining to archeology ,
ethnology and history of New
1. Clearance reports for all survey Mexico .
and excavation on BLM lands 2. Bound and indexed set of Museum
within the district . Notes series , which contains exca
2. Site forms and survey forms for vation reports and reports of
recent work done on BLM holdings special analyses conducted as part
within the district . of museum excavations .
3. Preliminary and final reports 3. The holdings of the Survey Room
submitted by contracting institu includes information on sites , filed
tions for work done on BLM lands . by LA number and indexed by
county . Some files contain com
III . Zimmerman Library , University of New plete site in formation and and
Mexico , Albuquerque reference to final excavation
reports ; others contain unsorted ,
1. Most publications relevant to unedited excavation notes . Some
Southwestern archeology and files contain only indications of
history , including major journals . surficial material ( ie . types of
2. Both the Special Collections and sherds found on the surface during
Anderson Rooms contain complete survey ) .
runs of journals and some out of 4. Of particular interest is that the
print publications . Special museum has Nelson's original
Collections al so contains a map survey notes of the Galisteo Basin
file . and old photographs of many
excavated and unexcavated sites .
IV . Clark Field Archive , Department of 5. Complete highway salvage reports
Anthropology , University of New with index .
Mexico , Albuquerque

138
 6. Some artifact collections relevant to 2. Excellent soil and vegetation maps
the study area . for most of the Districts of the
Forest .
VII . Fort Burgwin Research Center , Taos
XII . School of American Research , Santa
1. An excellent, small working Fe
library on southwestern arche
ology , ethnology and history . 1. Publications , reports and collec
2. Preliminary and final reports of tions which result from the con
the survey and excavation activ tract program , with available
ities carried out by Fort Burgwin . index .
3. Field notes and arti facts from 2. Some original field notes and
excavations and surveys conducted archival data .
by Fort Burgwin .
4. Masters theses and doctoral disser Other Sources of Information
tations pertaining to the Taos
area . Unfortunately , given the time for the
preparation of this report , I did not visit
VIII . Kit Carson Memorial Foundation , other institutions where there is in forma
Taos tion on the study area . I was fortunate in
being able to obtain some reports and
1. Unsorted and uncatalogued documents by contacting individuals by
holdings. Most of the arti factual telephone , and my own professional library
material recovered by Helen was used extensively for both published
Blumenschein is apparently in the and unpublished reports . Nevertheless ,
collection . anyone working in the study area should
be aware of the following :
IX . Office of Contract Archeology ,
University of New Mexico , Albuquerque 1. Southwest Cultural Resource Center ,
National Park Service , Santa Fe .
1. Small, indexed working library of 2. Santa Fe Office , National Park Service .
southwestern archeology. 3. Remote Sensing Laboratory , National
2. Reports of all excavation and Park Service , Chaco Center , University
survey carried out by the office . of New Mexico , Albuquerque .
3. Files of reports of other contracting 4. Technical Applications Center ,
agencies working in New Mexico . Albuquerque .
4. Publications such as the Working 5. Harwood Foundation Library , University
Draft Series and the results of of New Mexico , Taos .
large mitigation programs such as 6. Contract Archeology Program , New
the Cochiti Project . Mexico State University , Las Cruces .
7. State Planning Office , Santa Fe .
x. Chaco Center , National Park Service , 8. Center for Anthropological Studies ,
University of New Mexico , Albuquerque Albuquerque .
9. New Mexico Historical Library ( State
1. Small working library of south Archives ) , Santa Fe .
western archeology . 10. Muesum of Albuquerque .
2. Computerized bibliography of all 11. Supervisor's Office , Santa Fe National
documents, publications and papers Forest , Santa Fe .
relating to the Southwest . 12. Supervisor's Office , Cibola National
Forest , Albuquerque .
XI . Carson National Forest , Taos

1. Clearance reports for work on the

Forest .

139
 II . PERSONNEL EMPLOYED maps in their
initial form and was of
ON THIS PROJECT inestimable help in this as well as in
checking bibliographical references . Julia
The Contracting Officer's
representative
Officer's Dougherty, Gwen Young and Ted Greer
for the Bureau of Land Management on this were employed by the Forest Service on
project was Leo L. Flynn , Santa Fe Office . the work-study program while contributing
Dr. Dee F. Green , Southwest Regional to this project .
Office , USDA Forest Service served as
coordinator for this project . Manuscript typing done by
was Donna
Calkins, Recreation Staff Unit , Southwest
Julia Dougherty and Gwen Jarahian Young Regional Office , Forest Service .
provided support in preparing graphics
material during the earlier phases of my The manuscript was edited by Dr. Harry
work . Julia Dougherty gathered much of Basehart and myself. Dr. Basehart ,
the modern climatic information and pre emiritus Professor of Anthropology,
pared three of the maps in their initial University of New Mexico , was retained as
form . Gwen Young compiled additional a project consultant by the Forest Service .
climatic data and prepared the initial map
on eroded areas . All maps
final
map s wer
weree prepared under the
direction of Bruce Bohannan , USDA Forest
Ted Greer prepared all of the historic Service, Regional Office .

140
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION Valley , Fastern Wyoming . American

Antiquity 26 : 588-560 .
This bibliography is not definitive, nor is ( Paleolndian . )
it meant to be . It should provide a good
introduction to the literature available on 1968 Archaeological Excavations at
the Middle Rio Grande Valley . Most of the Black water Draw Locality No. 1. ,
references are annotated . Those which New Mexico 1963-4 . National
are not are either adequately described in Geographic Society Research
the text or were use d as supplementary
used Reports on 1963 Projects : 1-7.
sources . The annotations provide general (General overview , pertaining
to
relevance in terms of cultural districts . PaleoIndian . )
Thus an annotation such as " Taos , Carson
National Forest " indicates that the source A gogino, George A. and James Hester
is important for the Taos District and 1953 The Santa Ana Pre -Ceramic
there fore for the Carson National Forest . Sites . El Palacio 60 ( 4 ) : 131-140 .
The annotation does not indicate that the Discussion of work done by
report refers specifically to a site or sites University of New Mexico students
located within the Forest or BLM in the spring of 1951 south of
boundarie s . Since administra tively the Santa Ana Pueblo and State
study area includes one BLM unit Highway 44 . The artifacts from
( Albuquerque District ) but three National 100 surface sites and 50 sites
Forests ( Carson , Cibola , Santa Fe ) to save located in recent arroyo cuts are
space only the latter are specifically described . The projectile point
referenced . typology indicates that the assem
blages are not uni form .
( Albuquerque , Cibola National
Abbink , Emily K. and John R. Stein Forest . )
1977 An Historical Perspective on
Adaptive Systems in the Middle Alexander , Herbert L. , Jr.
Rio Grande , pp . 151-172 In 1963 The Levi Site : A Paleo - Indian
Archeological Investigations in Campsite in Central Texas ,
Cochiti Reservoir , New Mexico , American Antiquity 28 ( 4 ) :
Volume 1: A Survey of Regional 510-528 .
Variability , Jan V. Biella and General overview pertaining to
Richard C, Chapman , eds . PaleoIndian section . Note radio
University of New Mexico , Depart carbon dates from Levi are con
ment of Anthropology , Office of sistently more recent than would
Contract Archeology , Albuquerque . be expected , as indicated in
Paper treats the historic period in Figure 1 .
the middle Rio Grande from the
perspective of the impact of Alexander , R. K.
various economic uses of the area 1971 LA 6869 : The Wheeler Site , In
and its peoples . Treatment is Salvage Archaeology in the Galisteo
chronological and very use ful. Dam Area , New Mexico , edited by
David W. Kayser and George H.
Aberle , S. D. Ewing , ( Ms. on file , Laboratory
1948 The Pueblo Indians of New Mexico : of Anthropology , Santa Fe . )
Their Land , Economy and Civil Report on a small Classic site on
Organization , Memoirs of the the Galisteo River .
American Anthropological
Association , No. 70 . Allan , William C.
Tribal constitution , population , 1975a An Archeological Clearance Survey ,
and economic data as of the Public Service Company of New
1940's . Mexico's 46 KV , Tijeras Canyon
Powerline . ( Ms. Office of Contract
Agogino , George A. Archeology , University of New
1961 A New Point Type from Hell Gap Mexico , Albuquerque . )

141
 Survey done on Cibola Forest Alpers , Frank H.
Land and no sites ecountered . 1963 Surface Survey of Prehistoric
( Albuquerque , Cibola National Ponil River Sites . El Palacio
Forest . ) 70 : 35-43 .
This report contains arti fact
1975b An Archeological Survey of a descriptions by category ( ie .
Floodwater Retarding Structure in points , scrapers , etc. ) of material
the Corrales Watershed . Working recovered near the foothills where
Draft No. 6. Pp . 145-158 in the Cimarron emerges from the
Archeological Reports Cultural canyons into the broader valley
Resource Management Projects . areas . No locational information
Working Draft Series No.l. F. J. about finds is given . Alpers
Broilo and D. E. Stuart , eds . notes that the area as of 1963 had
Office of Contract Archeology , already been picked clean by
University of New Mexico . collectors . ( Taos Area , Carson
This report contains in formation National Forest . )
on three Basketmaker - Pueblo I
pithouses located at ca. 5070 feet Anderson , Adrienne B.
in elevation near modern Corrales . 1975 " Least Cost " Strategy and Limited
The report compares the surficial Activity Site Location , Upper Dry
remains with the Artificial Leg Cimarron River Valley , North
material described by Frisbie . No eastern New Mexico ( Unpublished
excavation was done . ( Albuquer PhD Dissertation in Anthropology ,
que , Cibola National Forest . ) University of Colorado ) .
Primary concern is with PaleoIndian
Allan , W. C. , A. Osborn , W. J. Chasko sites . Anderson re - examined the
and D. E. Stuart Folsom type site and environs.
1975 An Archeological Survey : Road
Construction Rights - of-Way - Block Anderson , E. C.
II Navajo Indian Irrigation 1956 Mining in the Southern Part of
Project , pp . 91–143 In Archeological the Sangre de Cristo Mountains,
Reports Cultural Resource pp . 139-142 , in Guidebook of
Management Projects Working Southeastern Sangre de Cristo
Draft Series No. 1 , F. J. Broilo Mountians, New Mexico , New
and D. E. Stuart eds . Office of Mexico Geological Society , 7th
Contract Archeology , Department Field Conference .
of Anthropology , University of Concise , in formative account with
New Mexico , Albuquerque . a map .

Allen , J. W. Ansalone , Ronald D.

1973 The Tsogue Site Highway Salvage 1971 The Chiflo Site : A Problem in
Excavations near Tesuque Pueblo , Early Northern Rio Grande
New Mexico . Museum of New Prehistory . ( Unpublished senior
Mexico , Laboratory of thesis , William and Mary College ,
Anthropology Notes, No. 73 , Ms. on file , USDA Forest Service,
Santa Fe Southwestern Regional Office ,
Reports the excavation of a single Albuquerque . )
pithouse with Red Mesa B/w The Chiflo site is on state land ,
ceramics . 30 miles northwest of Taos . The
site was surface collected , and no
Allen , J. W. and C. H. McNutt excavation was done . Material
1955 A Pit House Site Near Santa Ana seems to be comparable to some of
Pueblo , New Mexico . American Hume's material form Garrapata
Antiquity 20 ( 3 ) : 241-255 . ridge . ( Taos Area , Carson
Discussion of Late Basketmaker National Forest . )
Pueblo I pithouse and the notion
that the Albuquerque District Archibald , Robert
represents a frontier between the 1976 Canon de Carnue : Settlement of
Mogollon and the Anasazi . A Grant . New Mexico Historical
( Albuquerque , Cibola National Review 51 ( 4 ) : 313-328 .
Forest . )

142
 ( Albuquerque , Cibola National American Archeology . Santa Fe . )
Forest . ) ( General overview pertaining to
PaleoIndian . )
Athens , John Stephen
1977 Theory Building and the Study Baker , Galen R.
of Evolutionary Process in 1964 The Archaeology of the Park
Complex Societies . Pp . 353-384 Plateau in Southeastern Colorado .
in For Theory Building in Southwestern Lore 30 ( 1) : 1-18 .
Archaeology: Essays on Faunal Cultural historical report . ( Taos
Remains, Aquatic Resources , area , Carson National Forest . )
Spatial Analysis , and Systemic
Modeling, Baker , William E. and T. N. Campbell
Lewis R. Bin ford, ed .
New York : Academic Press . 1960 Artifacts from Pre -Ceramic Sites
Athens provides a critique of the in Northeastern and Southern New
major theoretical contributions in Mexico . El Palacio 70 : 78-86 .
cultural evolution , and suggests This report describes material
an ecological approach derived Baker collected between 1930 and
from succession models . 1950 in Union , Harding , Quay ,
and Sierra Counties , New Mexico .
Axelrod , D. I. Nearly all of the material came
1967 Quaternary Extinctions of Large from an area between the Canadian
and North Canadian Rivers
Mammals , University of California
bet wee n Cla yto n and Log an . The
Publications in Geological Sciences
4 : 1-25 . remainder was from a site near
(General overview pertaining to Elephant Butte . All finds were
PaleoIndian . ) sur ficial and consisted of points
and other lithics ranging in age
Bachuber , Frederick W. from Clovis like through San
1971 Paleoclimatology of Lake Estancia , Jon . ( Taos area , Carson National
New Mexico. (Unpublished PhD Forest . )
dissertation , University of New
Mexico , Albuquerque . ) Baldwin , Gordon C.
The most recent geological study 1969 The Warrior Apaches ; A Story of
of lake levels in the Pleistocene the Chiricahua and Western
Recent Estancia Basin and how A paches Tucson : D. S.King .
these reflect past climate .
( General overview , pertaining to Bandelier , Adolph F.
paleoclimatology . ) 1890 Investigations among the Indians
of the Southwestern United States ,
Bahti , T. N. Carried on Mainly in the Years
1949 A Largo -Gallina Pit House and from 1880-1885 , Papers of the
Two Structures . El Palacio Archaeological Institute of America,
56 ( 2 ) : 52-59 . American Series III , Part I ,
Field report of excavation on Peabody Museum of American
Rattlesnake Ridge . Contains Archaeology and Ethnology ,
description of the reservoir . Harvard University , Cambridge .
(Gal lina Distri ct , Santa Fe National The first volume of Bandelier's
Forest . ) classic observations of the runis
of the Southwest . There are data
Bailey , V. relevant to the Pajarito , Chama
1913 Life Zones and Crop Zones of and the Rio Grande in general ,
New Mexico . North American
Fauna , No. 33 . Washington : 1892 Final Report of Investigations
Government Printing Office . Among the Indians of the
Southwestern United States ,
Baker , Ele M. Carried on Mainly in the Years
1968 Belen : A Paleo - projectile Point from 1880-1885 , Papers of the
Type from the Middle Rio Grande Archaeological Institute of America ,
Basin , ( Paper read at the 33rd Series IV , Part II, Peabody
Annual Meeting Society for Museum of American Archaeology

143
 and Fthnology, Harvard Solar Engery. 10 ( 3 ) : 145-158 .
University , Cambridge . Collection of monthly insolation
This is a classic document , rele maps for the United States .
vant to most of the Rio Grande Discussion of data collection and
Valley area . The descriptive interpretation problems encoun
detail is valuable . tered in an analysis of solar
radiation .
Barton , R. L. (General overview , pertaining to
1974 General Geology and Ground climatology . )
Water Conditions in the Truchas
-Espanola - Valarde Area of Rio 1967 Frequency of Daily Insolation in
Arriba County , New Mexico , pp . Anglo North America During June
351-354 in New Mexico Geological and December , Solar Energy
Society Guidebook , 25th Field 11 ( 1 ) : 41-55 .
Conference, Ghost Ranch , Charles Discussion of solar radiation in
T. Siemers ed . general and the problems with
The article briefly discusses the consistant data collection . Good
modern settlement ( in terms of general maps of insolation in the
economy) of the area . ( Chama United States .
area and Pajarito Plateau , Santa (General overview , pertaining to
Fe and Carson National Forests . ) climatology . )
Beal , John D. 1969 Correlation of Daily Insolation
1976 An Archaeological Survey of " The with Daily Total Sky Cover ,
Volcanoes " West of Albuquerque , Opaque Sky Cover and Percentage
New Mexico . ( Ms. on file , School of Possible Sunshine . Solar
of American Research , Santa Fe . ) Energy 12 : 391-393 .
Four " sites " recorded , none with Discussion of the measure of solar
diagnostic cultural material, radiation , how the actual measure
except for an historic house / sheep ment has changed and differed in
pen / petroglyph site and a 1940 the past . Insolation is discussed
" bombing target . " ( Albuquerque , in terms of types of cloud cover ,
Cibola National Forest . ) altitude , and latitude .
( General overview , pertaining to
Beardsley , John W. climatology . )
1975 An Archeological Clearance Survey ,
Ideal Basic Industries Cement 1975 Variation of Daily Solar Radiation
Division , 16 Acre Quarrying in North America During Extreme
Project . ( Ms. on file , Office of Months . Archive of Meteorology ,
Contract Archeology, University Geography, and Bioclimatology .
of New Mexico , Albuquerque ) . Ser . B. No. 23 : 31-57 . Austria :
Survey was done on the Cibola Springer -Verlag .
National Forest on 16 acres at Discussion of solar radiation
elevation of 6780 and 6820 feet . extremes in the U.S. using
No sites were located . Albuquerque as an example for
( Albuquerque , Cibola National pointing out problems in the
Forest . ) measurement and recording of
insolation measurements with
Bell , Willis H. and Edward Castetter seasonal and latitudinal changes .
1937 The Utilization of Mesquite and ( General overview , pertaining to
Screwbean by Aboriginies in the climatology . )
American Southwest , Ethnobiolog
ical Studies in the American Berge , Dale Leroy
Southwest . University of New 1968 Historical Archaeology in the
Mexico Bulletin , 314 Biological American Southwest . ( Unpublished
Series 5 ( 2 ) . PhD Dissertation , University of
(General overview , pertaining to Arizona , Tucson . )
ethnobotany . ) Discussion of major historic events
important in the Rio Grande area .
Bennett , Iven The dissertation also contains
1965 Monthly Maps of Mean Daily lengthy descriptions of non-Indian
Insolation for the United States . ceramics and other artifacts. The

144
 bulk research reported and estimated edible
of the weights
deals with historic sites in Arizona . weights for mammals and avi fauna;
(General overview . ) a good discussion on the stratifi
cation of land on the basis of
Biella , Jan V. and Richard Chapman agricultural potential , and an
1975 An Assessment of Cultural excellent summary of use of the
Resources in Cochiti Reservoir area during the historic period .
Submitted by Frank J. Broilo , ( Cochiti , Santa Fe National
Principal Investigator to National Forest . )
Park Service , Southwest Division .
Department of Interior Contract Bin ford , Lewis R.
No. CX700050323 ( UNM Proposal 1968 Post- Pleistocene Adaptations .
No. 101-82 ) University of New Pp.313-342 in S. R. Bin ford and
Mexico , Albuquerque . ( With L. R. Bin ford , eds . New
contributions Emily K. Abbink , Perspectives in Archeology ,
John R. Stein , A. H. Warren , Chicago : Aldine.
and Dan C. Witter . )
This is the preliminary assessment Bingler , Edward C.
of resources in the permanent 1968 Geology and Mineral Resources of
pool of Cochiti Reservoir . The Rio Arriba County , New Mexico .
research approach is explicitly Bulletin 91 State Bureau of Mines
cultural - ecological in nature . and Mineral Resources . New
There is an excellent summary of Mexico Institute of Mining and
research done in the " study area " Technology , Campus Station ,
( larger than the permanent pool) , Socorro .
data on the 103 sites located , and Standard geological reference ,
a discussion of utilization of the includes brief history of mining
area by time period . Nearly all activity from ca. 1865 . ( Taos,
the sites in the permanent pool Chama , and Gallinas areas , Carson
reflect short - term , possibly National Forest . )
seasonal utilization of the area
( from late Archaic on ) though the Binkley , W. C.
structure of the sites differ ( ie . 1920 " The Question of Texan
camps , field houses , corrals ) . Jurisdiction in New Mexico Under
The sites there fore offer unusual the United States 1844-1850 , "
research potential for examining Southwestern Historical Quarterly
the roles of these short - term 23 : 1-38 .
seasonal sites in the general
adaptive system . ( Cochiti , Santa Blevins , Byron B. and Carol Joiner
Fe National Forest . ) 1977 The Archeological Survey of
Tijeras Canyon . The 1975In
1977 Archeological Investigations in Excavation of Tijeras Pueblo ,
Cochiti Reservoir , New Mexico . Cibola National Forest , New
Volume 1 : A Survey of Regional Mexico , Archeological Report No.
Variability . Office of Contract 18 . USDA Forest Service, South
Archeology , University of New western Regional Office ,
Mexico , Albuquerque . Albuquerque .
Much of this is repetitive of the Results of the University of New
1975 volume, but this volume Mexico survey of the Tijeras
contains : site descriptions , Canyon / South Sandia area . A
minimal in formation on the 223 discussion of the history of
sites in the floodcontrol pool , archeological work in the area is
petrographic study by Warren and included as is a discussion of
her comments on lithic source their formulation of " Ceramic
material, lists of edible plants by Groups " and their temporal posi
major zones by Drager and Loose tions . ( Albuquerque , Cibola
which indicates that some
indicates zones National Forest . )
have more edible plants than
others ; discussion of the fauna of Bloom , Lansing B.
the area with both average live 1913-15 " New Mexico Under Mexican

145
 Administration 1821-1846 , Old Bogan , Samuel D.
Santa Fe l : 131-75 , 235-87 , 346-68 ; 1946 Let the Coyotes Howl: A Story of
2 : 3-56 , 119-69 , 223-77 , 351-80 . Philmont Scout Ranch , New York :
G. P. Putnam's Sons .
Blumenschein , Helen G. Descriptive site report . ( Taos
1956 Excavations in the Taos Area and Cimarron areas . Carson
1953-55 . El Palacio 63 : 53-56 . National Forest . )
This is a brief report of survey
and excavation undertaken by the Bohrer , Vorsila L.
Taos Archaeological Association . 1962 Ethnobotanical Materials from
She mentions Association excava Tonto National Monument , Arizona .
tions at Site 1 ( Pot Creek ) , and Pp . 75-114 in Archeological
three pithouses . ( Taos area , Studies at Tonto National Monument
Carson National Forest . ) Arizona , by Charlie R. Steen ,
Floyd M. Pierson , Vorsila L.
1958 Further Excavations and Surveys Bohrer and Kate Peck Kent .
in the Taos Area . El Palacio Louis R. Caywood , ed .
65 : 107-111 . Southwestern Monuments
This report notes that the Taos Association , Technical Series 2 .
Archaeological Association extended Globe .
its survey north to Questa , east (General overview , pertaining to
to Pot Creek , south to Penasco ethnobotany . )
and Rinconada , and west to
" about three miles " west of the 1970 Ethnobotanical Aspects of
Rio Grande Canyon . She notes 3 Snaketown , a Hohokam Village in
areas of pithouse concentrations : Southern Arizona , American
on the 50 ' ridge on the north side Antiquity 35 : 413-430 .
of the Hondo ; on the 100 ' ridge (General overview , pertaining to
paralleling Taos creek , and the botany . )
100 ' terrace above Pot Creek .
Three pithouses in addition to 1971 Paleoecology of Snaketown . The
those previously reported are Kiva 36 : 11-19 .
discussed as is trenching in (General overview , pertaining to
" unit -type" pueblos between Taos botany . )
Pueblo and Talpa. ( Taos area ,
Carson National Forest . ) 1973 Ethnobotany of Point of Pines
Ruin , Arizona W : 10 : 50 . Economic
1968 Historic Roads and Trails to Botany 35 : 423-437 .
Taos . El Palacio 75 (1 ) : 9-19 . General overview , pertaining to
U se ful locational in formation is ethnobotany . )
provided . ( Taos area , Carson
National Forest . ) Bohrer , Vorsila L. , Hugh C. Cutler , and
Jonathan D. Sauer
Boden , Paul 1969 Carbonized Plant Remains from
1974 Soils of New Mexico , New Mexico Two Hohokam Sites , Arizona
State University Agricultural BB : 13 : 41 and BB : 13 : 50 . The Kiva
Experiment Station , Research 35 : 1-10 .
Report 285 , Las Cruces . (General overview , pertaining to
Data used to compile map of ethnobotany . )
eroded land forms.
Bolton , Herbert E. editor
Bodine , John J. 1916 Spanish Exploration in the
1972 Acculturation Processes and Southwest, 1542-1706 , New York :
Population Dynamics , pp . 257-288 Scribner's Sons .
in Alfonso A Ortiz , ed , New
Perspectives on the Pueblos , Bolton , Herbert E.
School of American Research 1950 Pageant in the Wilderness , Utah
Book , Albuquerque , University of Historical Society , Salt Lake City ,
New Mexico Press . ( reprint ) .

146
 Work of general historical interest . Southeastern Utah . Papers of
Peabody Museum , Harvard
Boserup , Ester University 21. Cambridge .
1965 The Conditions of Agricultural Brew raisesa number of issues in
Growth , Chicago : Aldine this classic work ; the meaning
Publishing Company . attributed to ceramic types ,
Relevant to the assessment sections diversity of architectural styles ,
of both PaleoIndian and Archaic . room / kiva ratios , etc.
Boserup's model involves viewing
population as the independent Brody , J. J.
variable in agricultural intensifi 1968 Archaeological Studies in the
cation , Her view has had con Taos Area . ( Ms. on file USDA
siderable recent impact on arche Forest Service , Southwestern
ological thinking. Regional Office , Albuquerque . )
Notes for a talk given to the
Bousman , C. Britt , Paul Larson , and Albuquerque Archeological Society .
Frances Levine This is an overview of his
1974 Archaeological Assessment of University of New Mexico field
Bandelier National Monument . school work . He discusses the
Archaeological Research Programs. need to de fine the marginal
Southern Methodist University , Anasazi in themselves and not in
Dallas, relation to the San Juan . He
This report is primarily an anno notes that sites in the marginal
tated bibliography and a very area indicate a population as
good one . ( Pajarito Plateau , dense as Chaco , but ( he thinks )
Santa Fe National Forest . ) they remained hunters and gath
erers until ca. A.D. 800 when
Brad field , Maitland there was a dramatic shift to
1971 The Changing Pattern of Hopi agriculture , ( Taos area , Carson
Agriculture , Royal Anthropological National Forest . )
Institute of Great Britain and
Ireland , Occasional Paper 30 . Brody , J. J. and J. Lindsey
Excellent account of field selection 1955 Report on Excavation at Bg 92
and agricultural technology . ( Ms. on file , Department of
(General overview . ) Anthropology , University of New
Mexico , Albuquerque ) .
Bradley , Zorro A. Excavation report of work on
1971 Site Bc236 , Chaco Canyon National Rattlesnake Ridge . (Gallina
Monument, New Mexico , Cultural District , Santa Fe
Washington : National Park Service, National Forest . )
Division of Archeology .
Broilo , Frank
Braid wood, Robert J. and G. R. Willey , 1971 An Investigation of Surface
editors Collected Clovis , Folsom , and
1962 Courses Toward Urban Life, New Midland Projectile Points from
York : Wenner - Gren Foundation Blackwater Draw and Adjacent
for Anthropological Research , Localities . ( Unpublished Master's
Inc. Thesis , Department of Anthro
pology , Eastern New Mexico
Breternitz , David A. University , Portales . )
1966 An Appraisal of Tree - Ring Dated (General overview , pertaining to
Pottery in the Southwest PaleoIndian ) .
Anthropological Papers of the
University of Arizona 10. Univer Brown , Carol yn and Jane Robershaw
sity of Arizona Press, Tucson . 1973 Casitas : A Plaza of the El Rito
Standard reference on chronology Valley , ( Ms. on file , Colorado
of ceramic types . College ) .
( General overview . ) Paper done as part of the
Colorado College ethnohist ory
Brew , J. 0 . project . Ground checking of
1946 Archaeology of Alkali Ridge , possible locations for the Casitas

147
 community refers to several sites and its Relation to Puebloan
on the Carson National Forest . Culture in New Mexico , American
(Chama District , Carson National Antiquity 8 ( 3 ) : 269-290 .
Forest . ) Discussion of San Jose Points ,
now considered Late Archaic .
Brown , W. E.
1963 The Santa Fe Trail National Bullard , William Rotch , Jr.
Survey of Historic Sites and 1962 The Cerro Colorado Site and
Buildings, U. S. National Park Pithouse Architecture in the
Service . Southwestern United States Prior
to A.D. 900 . Papers of the
Brugge, David M. Peabody Museum of Archaeology
1963 Navajo Pottery and Ethnohistory , and Ethnology, Harvard University
Navajo - Land Publications , Series 2 , XLIV (2 ) . Cambridge .
Navajo Tribal Museum , Window This a report of two large
is
Rock . pithouse villages near Quemado .
Report provides a detailed , cogent Additionally , the report provides
treatment of Navajo ceramics and a synthesis of all excavated
their dating . pithouses in the Northern Rio
Grande Area up to ca. 1960 . His
1965 Navajo Use of Agave The Kiva review fails to substantiate the
31 ( 2 ) : 88-98 . notion that any of the phases of
Brugge notes that both Eastern the Mogollon or Hohokam (with
and Western Navajo occasionally the possible exception of the
used agave and that their agave Hilltop Phase ) are demonstrably
technology had some unique older than the Basketmaker III of
traits . Importantly , the Navajo the Anasazi .
used rocks ( either in or out of (General overview . )
pits ) for roasting , so before
assuming that the presence of fire Burma , John H.
cracked rock is aa clear sign of 1949 " The Present Status of the
the Archaic , the presence of Spanish - Americans of New Mexico, "
d
agave shoul be noted . Social Forces 28 : 133-38 .
( General overview . ) General discussion .

Bryan , Alan L. Bussey , Stanley D.

1965 Paleo - American Prehistory . 1963 The Llaves Site : Salvage Excava
Occasional Papers of the Idaho tions at LA 5859, Laboratory of
State University Museum 16 . Anthropology Notes No. 23 ,
Pocatello . Museum of New Mexico, Santa Fe.
(General overview , pertaining to (Gallina Cultural District , Santa
PaleoIndian . ) Fe National Forest . )

Bryan , Kirk 1964 The Llaves Pipeline Salvage

1929 Flood-water Farming . Geographical Project- Preliminary Report .
Review 19 : 444-56 . Laboratory of Anthropology Notes .
Standard reference on agricultural No. 32 . Museum of New Mexico ,
technology of dry farming in the Santa Fe . ( Gallina Cultural
Southwest . District , Santa Fe National Forest . )
( General overview . )
Campbell , John Martin and Florence Hawley
1939 Stone Cultures Near Cerro Ellis
Pedernal and Their Geological 1952 " The Atrisco Sites : Cochise
Antiquity . Bulletin of the Texas Mani festations in the Middle Rio
Archeological and Paleontological Grande Valley , " American Antiquity
Society 2 : 9-42 . ( Taos area , 17 ( 3 ) : 211-21 .
Carson National Forest . ) (General overview related to the
Archaic . )
Bryan , K. and J. H. Toulouse , Jr. Camilli , Eileen and Tim Seaman
1943 The San Jose Non - Ceramic Culture 1978 The Crownpoint to Bisti Water

148
 Pipeline : Cultural Resource Cattle , Dorothy J. , Charles H. Carroll and
Management with the Aid of David E. Stuart
Remote Sensing . An Assessment 1977 An Ethnographic and Ethnohistori
of Cultural Resources for Public cal Investigation of Eight Historic
Service Company of New Mexico Laguna Archeological Sites within
( Ms. on file , Public Service the Anaconda Company's P -15 / P -17
Company of New Mexico ) . and Dames and Moore Acreages :
Discussion of a predictive model The Jackpile Mine , Paguate , New
for determining site densities in Mexico . (Ms. on file , Office of
the San Juan Basin , based on Contract Archeology , University
previous survey data and stratifi of New Mexico , Albuquerque . )
cation of the Project area on the Report contains an excellent
basis of LANDSAT imagery . di scussion of the reasons for
using an ethnographic and ethno
Carlson , Roy historical approach for mitigation
1965 Eighteenth Century Navajo of impact on historic sheep camps .
Fortresses of the Governado In addition , land use patterns,
District, the Earl Morris Papers , and locations of sheep camps are
No. 2, Series in Anthropology discussed , and Laguna and
No. 10 , University of Colorado . Jicarilla sheepherding activities
are compared . ( Albuquerque ,
Carneiro , Robert L. Cibola National Forest . )
1967 On the Relationship Between Size
of Population and Complexity of Caywood , Louis R.
Social Organization , Southwestern 1966 Excavations at Rainbow House,
Journal of Anthropology 23: Bandelier National Monument,
234-243 . National Park Service Southwest
Archeological Center . Globe .
Castetter , Edward F. This report contains a good
1935 Uncultivated Native Plants Used historical sketch of work done in
As Sources of Food , University of Bandelier . It summarizes and
New Mexico , Biological Series integrates the work Worman's field
4 (1) . Albuquerq ue . school did at Rainbow House ( LA
(General overview , pertaining to 217 ) with the NPS work there .
ethnobotany . ) Treering dates for Rainbow House
and some of the other monument
Castetter, Edward and Willis M. Bell ruins are given . ( Pajarito
1942 Pima and Papago Indian Plateau , Santa Fe National Forest . )
Agriculture . University ofNew
Mexico Press , Albuquerque . Chapman , Richard C. and Jan V. Biella
(General overview , pertaining to 1977 Archeological Investigations of
ethnobotany . ) Cochiti Reservoir , New Mexico .
Vol. 2 : Excavation and Analysis
Castetter , Edward and M. E. Opler 1975 Season . University of New
1936 The Ethnobiology of the Mexico , Department of Anthro
Chiricahua and Mescalero Apache . pology , Office of Contract
Ethnobiological Studies in the Archeology . Albuquerque .
American Southwest, University of This volume contains an explana
New Mexico Bulletin 297, Biological tion of the sampling strategy .
Series 4 (5 ). Albuquerque . Sites were first stratified by time
(General overview , pertaining to period , then by " type " within
ethnobotany . ) each time period and a sample of
at least 30 percent of each class
Castetter , Edward and Ruth M. Underhill excavated entirely . The report
1935 The Ethnobiology of the Papago also contains the following specific
Indians , Ethnobiological Studies in discussions : ceramic types found ,
the American Southwest, University general problems in Upper Rio
of New Mexico Bulletin 275 , .
Grande prehistory , the results of
Biological Series 4 ( 3) . .
Albuquerque. analysis of lithic wear experiments ,
(General overview , pertaining to the use of Z scores to define
ethnobotany . ) intrasite activity areas based on
149
 artifact distributions rather than Museum of Northern Arizona
architecture ; and a discussion of Ceramic Series 3. Northern Arizona
tem per shifts in Rio Grande Glaze Society of Science and Art ,
ceramics found in the area . Flagstaff.
( Cochiti , Santa Fe National Standard reference manual .
Forest . ) Provides type descriptions .
(General overview . )
Chase , C. A. and Douglas Muir
1923 The Aztec Mine , Baldy New 1960 Black Sand , Albuquerque : The
Mexico , American Institute of Min . University of New Mexico Press .
Met . Trans. 68 : 270-281.
Mining history . Colton , Ray C.
1959 The Civil War in the Western
Territories , Norman : University
Chavez , Fray Angelico
1954a Origins of New Mexico Families , of Oklahoma Press .
HistoricalSociety of New Mexico ,
Santa Fe . Cook , H. S.
Historical treatment of the roots 1927 New Geological and Paleontological
of culturally Hispanic New Evidence Bearing on the Antiquity
Mexicans . of Mankind in America , Natural
History 27 : 240-247 .
1954b Discussion of the Fol som type
" The Penitentes of New Mexico ,
New Mexico Historical Review site .
29 : 97-123 .
Brief introduction to Penitente Cope , E. D.
communities . 1879 Report on the Remains of Popula
tion Observed in Northwestern
1974 My Penitente Land : Reflections New Mexico , United States .
Report Upon United States
on Spanish New Mexico, University
of New Mexico Press , Albuquerque . Geographical Survey West of the
Generally sociological and historical 100th Meridian . Vol. VII, Engineers
Department of the U.S. Army,
approach .
Washington , D.C.
Chenoweth , William L. First published account that
1974 Uranium Occurrences of the includes description of archeologi
Nacimiento - Jemez Region , Sandoval cal remains in the Gallina Cultural
and Rio Arriba Counties , New District .
Mexcio . Pp . 309-313 in New ( Gallina area , Santa Fe National
Mexico Geological Society Forest . )
Guidebook , 25th Field Conference ,
Ghost Ranch . Charles T. Siemers, Cordell , Linda S.
ed . 1972 Settlement Pattern Changes at
Wetherill Mesa , Colorado : A Test
Although not extensive , there are Case for Computer Simulation in
uranium deposits within the study Archeology . ( Unpublished Ph.D.
Dissertation , University of
area ; the generalized geologic map
provided in this report locates California , Santa Barbara . )
these . ( Chama area and Pajarito
Plateau , Carson and Santa Fe 1975 The 1974 Excavations of Tijeras
National Forests . ) Pueblo , Cibola National Forest ,
New Mexico . Archeological Report
Christiansen , Paige W. and Frank E. No. 5 USDA Forest Service ,
Kottlowski , eds . Southwestern Region , Albuquerque .
1963 New Mexico, a Mosaic of Science ( Albuquerque , Cibola National
and History , Socorro : State Forest . )
Bureau of Mines and Mineral
Resources . 1976 The Fol som Site in Retrospect .
Pp . 83-86 in New Mexico Geological
Society Guidebook , 27th Field
Colton , Harold S.
1955 Pottery Types of the Southwest . Conference , Vermejo Park , Rodney

150
 C. Ewing and Barry Kues eds . Cultural Properties Review Committee
( General overview , pertaining to 1971 Historic Preservation A Plan for
PaleoIndian . ) New Mexico, New Mexico State
Planning Office, Santa Fe .
1977a Late Anasazi Farming and Hunting This volume provides inventories
Strategies . One Example of a of historic properties by county
Problem in Congruence . American and by theme and specific short
Antiquity 42 ( 3 ) : 449-461 . range and long -range programs as
Discusses site distribution in well as general recommendations
Tijeras Canyon with reference to for necessary legislation .
excavated material from LA 581 in (General overview , pertaining to
order to delimit the range of Historic sites . )
resources utilized and possible
farming technologies . 1973a The Historic Preservation Program
( Albuquerque, Cibola National for New
New Mexico . New Mexico
Forest . ) State Planning Office, Santa Fe .
This volume provides an excellent,
1977b Report of the
1976 Season at brief, history of New Mexico and
Tijeras Pueblo , Cibola National the history , philosophy , problems
Forest , New Mexico . Archeological solutions and organizations in
Report No. 18 . USDA Forest volved in the development of the
Service , Southwestern Regional State Historic Preservation Program
Offic , Albuquerque .
e for New Mexico .
Final field report of University of (General overview , pertaining to
New Mexico excavations at LA581 . Historic sites . )
Includes tree - ring dates and
summary ceramic analysis, as well 1973b The Historic Preservation Program
as survey results . ( Albuquerque, for New Mexico , Volume 11 The
Cibola National Forest . ) Inventory , New Mexico State
Planning Office, Santa Fe .
Crane , H. R. This volume provides a summary
1955 Antiquity of the Sandia Culture : of themes used in the preparation
Carbon 14 Measurements . Science of the inventory of cultural
122 : 689-690 . properties and an inventory of
(PaleoIndian . ) properties by theme and by
county .
1956 University of Michigan Radiocarbon (General over - view , pertaining to
Dates I. Science 124 : 66-672 . Historic sites . )
(PaleoIndian . )
Current Research
Cully , Anne C. 1970 Current Research in the Southwest :
1977 Paleoclimatic Variability in the New Mexico . American Antiquity
North-Middle Rio Grande , New 35 (4 ) :510 .
Mexico . Pp . 91-104 in Archeological (General overview , pertaining to
Investigations in Cochiti Reservoir , PaleoIndian . )
New Mexico Vol. I. 1. Survey of
Regional Variability. Jan V. Biella Dart , A1
and Richard C. Chapman , eds .
C. 1977 The Santa Fe Community Develop
University of New Mexcio , Office ment Historic Project : Survey
of Contract Archeology , and Monitoring for Cultural
Albuquerque . Resources ( Ms. on file ,
Background correlation of geologi Laboratory of Anthropology ,
cal and palynological reconstruc Museum of New Mexico , Santa
tions relevant to the White Rock Fe) .
Can yon area and the Rio Grande Report provides a list of sites
in general . Presents , in a concise ( and sherd scatters ) within the
fashion work already done . No City of Santa Fe .
new work reported .
( General overview , pertaining to Davis , E. L.
paleoclimatology . ) 1965 Small Pressures and Cultural Drift

151
 as Explanations for Abandonment pp . 108-117 in Contemporary
of the San Juan Area , New Mexico . Archaeology , edited by Mark P.
American Antiquity 30 ( 3 ) : 353-355 . Leone , Carbondale : Southern
Illinois University Press .
Davis , Irvine
1959 Linguistic Clues to Northern Rio Dick , Herbert W.
Grande Prehistory . El Palacio 1965a Bat Cave . School of American
66 : 73-84 . Research, Monograph27 . Santa
Using glottochronology, Davis Fe .
suggests that about 600 years has (General overview . )
elapsed since there was a unified
Tiwa language . This article is 1965b Picuris Pueblo Excavations . No.
important because it is often cited PB -177047 . Springfield , Va . ,
in discussions of Taos area chro Clearinghouse for Federal
nology . ( Taos area and general Scientific and Technical Informa
overview , Carson and Santa Fe tion , U.S. Department of Com
National Forests . ) merce , National Bureau of Stand
ards , Institute for Applied
Dawson , Jerry and W. James Judge Technology .
1969 Paleo - Indian Sites and Topography Report is critical both for the
in the Middle Rio Grande Valley prehistory of Picuris and the
of New Mexico . Plains early Apache groups in the area .
Anthropologist 14 ( 44 part I : Discusses the excavation of old
149-163 . Picuris . ( Taos Area , Carson
In addition to a general discus National Forest . )
sion of the the report
survey ,
n
contains descriptio of the Correo , 1975 Preliminary Report on the Site
Rio Rancho and Los Lunas sites . Survey on Mesa Golondrina . ( Ms.
(General overview PaleoIndian on file , USDA Forest Service ,
and Albuquerque areas . ) Southwestern Regional Office ,
Albuquerque ) .
Dean , Jeffrey S. Most of the in formation in this
1970 Aspects of Tsegi Phase Social report is more fully covered in
Organization : а Trial Smith and Dick 1977 . It should
Reconstruction . Pp . 140-174 in be noted though that a total of 59
Reconstructing Prehistoric Pueblo sites were recorded and a map is
Societies ,William A. Longacre, provided , although the size of the
ed . School of American Research site markers on the map makes
Advanced Seminar Series, interpretation of their locations
Albuquerque : University of New very difficult . ( Gallina area ,
Mexico Press . Santa Fe National Forest . )
Cited for comparative purposes in
the Anasazi assessment section . 1976 Archeological Excavations in the
Llaves Area , Santa Fe National
Dean , Jeffrey S. and William J. Robinson Forest New Mexico , 1972-1974 ,
1977 Dendroclimatic Variability in the Part I Architecture .
American Southwest A.D. 680 to Archeological Report No. 13 .
1970 , Appendix 2 . ( Final Report USDA Forest Service , South
to the National Park Service , western Region , Albuquerque .
Department of Interior . Project This report contains preliminary
Southwest Paleoclimate . Tucson : information on the excavation of 8
Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research , surface houses and 5 pit houses
University of Arizona . ) ( most are on Huerfano Mesa ) and
Comprehensive graphic presenta some in formation about Dick's
tion of deviations from average surveys in the Llaves area . His
tree-ring widths from selected orientation is to explain the
stations throughout the Southwest . mixture of surface structures and
pithouses and why they were
Deetz , James F. burned . He suggests that the
1972 Archaeology as a Social Science, " unique" Gallina single unit house

152
 type may relate to horticultural He does demonstrate that settle
practices . He notes that although ment proceeded from more optimal
pithouses outnumbered surface to more marginal zones ( although
houses ( by a factor of 5 to 1 ) he does not use " biomass " to
located in his survey , almost all measure marginality ) , and that
excavation has concentrated on abandonment more or less followed
unit houses . (Gallina area , Santa the pattern in reverse order . He
Fe National Forest . ) discusses his " site weight index "
which is a good attempt to meas
n.d.a An Archeological Survey of the ure population size ( relatively )
San Pedro Parks Prosposed Wilder given phases of different dura
ness Addition ( New Study Area tions .
# 62 ) , Santa Fe National Forest , ( Santa Fe , Santa Fe National
Cuba Ranger District . Prelimi Forest . )
nary Report . ( Ms , on file USDA
Forest Service , Southwestern 1976 Proposal- Pueblo Settlement Pattern
Regional Office , Albuquerque . ) Stability and Change in the Rio
The area surveyed is very Chama District , New Mexico : A
rugged and no attempt was made Test of Some Hypotheses Using
to cover it entirely, but the more Archeological Surface . ( Ms. on
or less flat areas were surveyed . file USDA Forest Service , South
The only finds were 3 projectile western Regional Office ,
points at elevation of 7,900 feet , Albuquerque ) .
and 8,440 feet. ( Gallina Area , This proposal is for survey work
Santa Fe National Forest . ) in the Chama to test his " model "
of settlement expansion and
n.d.b Preliminary Report of the 1975 contractions developed in the
Excavations on Huer fano Mesa in Arroyo Hondo Project . He also
Llaves Area , Santa Fe National proposes to refine techniques for
Forest , New Mexico . ( Ms. on defining natural districts using
file , USDA Forest Service , South computers but the techniques are
western Regional Office , not specified . His third objective
Albuquerque . ) is to assemble a systematic body
Three structures were discovered of data for the area following
in 1975 : a rock alignment that SARG . ( Actually , this work as
may serve as a water break , and proposed was never carried out
two pits , perhaps serving as due to various difficulties
isolated storage structures . The explained in Dickson's 1977
report also contains a discussion letter /report to the Regional
of a tunnel connecting a burned Office . ) ( Chama Area , Santa Fe
pithouse with an unburned surface National Forest . )
room and the possible prehistoric
dam near Capulin creek . (Gallina Di Peso , Charles C.
Area , Santa Fe National Forest . ) 1974 Casas Grandes , A Fallen Trade
Center of the Gran Chichimeca ,
Dickson , Bruce D. Amerind Foundation Series , No.
1975 Settlement Pattern Stability and 9, Flagstaff .
Change in the Middle Northern
Rio Grande Region , New Mexico . Dittert , Alfred E. Jr.
American Antiquity 40 : 159-171 . 1968 Some Factors A ffecting South
Dickson draws on material from western Populations During the
the Deh Luran Plain ( Iran ) to Period A.D. 900-1540 . Pp . 14-16
develop an " hypothesis " that Contributions to Southwestern
settlement in the Santa Fe area Prehistory, VII INQUA . Cynthia
would show that agriculturalists Irwin -Williams , ed . Boulder and
first used piedmont land where Denver : Eastern New Mexico
rain fall is adequate for agriculture University .
and then shifted to the river for A brief narrative of evidence of
irrigation . He falsi fies this climatic change postulated for the
"hypot hesis " with surve y data , period .

153
 (General overview . ) of Regional Variability
Albuquerque : University of New
Dominguez , Fray Francisco , Mexico , Department of Anthro
translated by Eleanor Adams and Fray pology , Office of Contract
Angelico Chavez Archeology .
1956 The Missions of New Mexico , Remote sensing data were used to
1776 , Albuquerque : University of stratify the area into zones .
New Mexico Press . Report also contains lists of
( General reference for historic edible plants per zone . ( Cochiti ,
missions . ) Santa Fe National Forest . )

Douglass , Andrew E. Duncan , Rosalind

1929 The Secret of the Southwest 1971 The " Cochise Culture : " Analysis
Solved by Talkative Tree - Rings , and Explanation of Archeological
The National Geographic Magazine, Remains , ( Unpublished M.A.
56 ( 2 ) : 736-770 . Thesis , Department of Anthr
opology , University of California ,
Douglass , W. B. Los Angeles ) .
1917 Land of the Small House People . (General overview , relevant to
El Palacio 4 ( 2 ) : 3-23 . both PaleoIndian and Archaic . )
Early descriptive account of
Gallina Phase remains . ( Santa Fe Dutton , Bertha P.
National Forest . ) 1976 Navahos and Apaches: the
Athabascan Peoples Indians of the
Dozier , Edward P. American Southwest , Englewood
1954 The Hopi- Tewa of Arizona , Cliffs , New Jersey : Prentice
University Cali fornia Hall, Inc.
Publications of 쭭 American This volume provides a good
Ethnology 44 , introductory overview of the
Archaeology and
no . 3. Berkeley . Southwestern Athabascans .

1961 Rio Grande Pueblos , In Eddy , Frank W.

Perspectives in American Indian 1966 Prehistory in the Navajo Reservoir
Culture Change , Edward Spicer , District- Northwestern New Mexico ,
editor , University of Chicago Part I and II . Museum of New
Press , Chicago . Mexico Papers in Anthropology
No. 15 , Santa Fe : Museum of New
1969 Peasant Culture & Urbanization : Mexico .
Mexican Americans in the South Although outside the study area ,
west , pp . 140-158 in Philip K. the Navajo Reservoir project
Bock , ed . Peasants in the Modern reports contain significant in for
World , Albuquerque : University mation on the chronology and
of New Mexico Press . settlement patterns of early
Anasazi .
1970 The Pueblo Indians of North (General overview . )
America , New York : Holt ,
Rinehart, and Winston , Inc. Fighmy , Jeffrey L.
Excellent introduction to the 1978 Archeomagnetic Sample Lab
modern Pueblos and Pueblo ethno Report ( Ms. on file , Fort Burgwin
graphy , The book also contains Research Center , Taos . )
an appraisal of Indian - Hispanic
Anglo interactions . Ellis , Florence H.
1964a "Archaeological History of Nambe
Drager , Dwight and Richard W. Loose Pueblo , 14th Century to the
1977 An Ecological Stratification of Present, " American Antiquity
Southern Pajarito Plateau , pp . 30 : 34-42 .
31-39 in Jan V. Biella and Richard
C. Chapman eds . , Archeological 1964b A Reconstruction of the Basic
Investigations in Cochiti Reservoir , Jemez Pattern of Social Organiza
New Mexico : Volume I : A Survey tion , with Comparisons to other

154
 Tanoan Social Structures , David Horr , compiler and
University of New Mexico editor . Garland Publishing
Publications in Anthropology No. Company , New York and London .
Il . Ethnohistoric data on land
utilization .
1964c Comments on Jett's " Pueblo Indian
Migrations . " American Antiquity 1975 Preliminary Report on the Turkey
30 ( 2 ) : 213-215 . Springs Sites . ( Ms. on file ,
USDA Forest Service , Southwest
1967 Where Did the Pueblo People Regional Office , Albuquerque ) .
Come From ? El Palacio 74 ( 3 ) : Description of high altitude Gallina
35-41 . settlement . (Gallina Cultural
(General overview , pertaining to District, Santa Fe National Forest ) .
ethnohistory . )
1976 Introduction to Report on Excava
1974a Anthropological Data Pertaining to tion Studies at Rattlesnake Point ,
1976 by Ghost Ranch . ( Ms. on
the Taos Land Claim , In American
Indian Ethnohistory , Vol . I. file , USDA Forest Service , South
Indians of the Southwest. Pp . western Region , Albuquerque . )
29-150 in David Agee Horr , Her research objectives: examine
compiler and editor . New York the living pattern for an entire
and London : Garland Publishing Gallina home village ; investigate
Company , Inc. the possibility that the Gallina
Report contains a summary of Towers were used for signalling;
and discover the relationship
Ellis' archeological reconnaissance
of the Taos area , her work with between the home villages and the
Brody on Taos cornfield and Taos high altitude summer camps . She
trashmound , and interviews with expects Gallina to have had more
the Taos elders on land utilization heavy dependence on game than
in the Taos region . ( Taos area , other Anasazi groups because of
Carson National Forest . ) the high altitude camps . She is
also concerned with specific
1974b Summary Report of Ghost Ranch features of Gallina phase as these
Field Work . ( Ms. on file , USDA relate to the ethnography of
Forest Service , Southwestern Jemez . ( Gallina area , Santa Fe
Regional Office , Albuquerque ) . National Forest . )
Reports work at LA 10643 and LA
10644 near Dulce Spring ( site n.d. Preliminary Report on the Turkey
maps included ) . LA 10643 consists Springs Sites . ( Ms. on file , USDA
of several " nest - like " basins and Forest Service , Southwestern
" crevice caves . Ceramics consist Regional Office, Albuquerque . )
primarily of Gallina Plainware and This report is not detailed ;
one or two Gallina Black - on - whites . however , Ellis suspects that the
LA 10644 is at an elevation of sites represent the transitional
10,000 feet, comprises five circular period between the Rosa and
pithouses , three of which were Gallina Phases . The sites are
excavated . These contained no located between 8300 and 10,000
pottery or fireplaces. (Gallina feet, contain structures , manos
area , Santa Fe National Forest . ) and metates . Ellis believes they
may represent seasonal " summer "
1974c Anthropology of Laguna Pueblo camps . ( Gallina area , Santa Fe
Land Claims , V. III American National Forest . )
Indians of the Southwest, David
A gee Horr, compiler and editor , Ellis , Florence H. and J. J. Brody
New York and London : Garland 1964 Ceramic Stratigraphy and Tribal
Publishing Company . History at Taos Pueblo . American
Data were used to contrast Laguna Antiquity 29 ( 3 ) : 316-327 .
with Taos land use patterns for Two cuts made : one in Cornfield
this report . Taos ( the ancestral Taos village ) ,
and one in Mound III , the oldest
1974d Pueblo Indians III . Pp . 9-121 trash mound at modern Taos , in

155
 connection with the Indian Land
Patterns in Grand Canyon , PP .
Claims action . They would date 73-85 in Investigations of the
the Taos material in three com Southwestern Anthropological
plexes . Complex I ( 900-1300 ) is Research Group , edited by Robert
characterized by Taos Black - on C. Euler and George J. Gumerman ,
white , Taos Tooled , and Taos
Flagstaff: Museum of Northern
Utility , with occasional Poge , Arizona .
Galisteo , or Wiyo trade sherds .
Complex I includes 21 known
Evans , Glynn L.
sites , Complex II ( 1300-1600 ) 1961 The Friesenhahn Cave , Bulletin
contains Taos- Poge Black - on of the Texas Memorial Museum
white , San Juan Red -on - orange , 2 ( 1) :7-22 , Austin .
Tewa Polychrome ; 10 sites were ( PaleoIndian . )
found . Complex III ( 1600 -present ) . Farwell, Robin E.
Cuts indicate continuous occupa 1977 Report on Archaeological Excava
tion from Corn field Taos to Modern tions of four sites along New
Taos . ( Taos Area , Carson
Mexico State Highway I-40 , Tijeras
National Forest . ) Canyon , New Mexico . ( Ms. on
file , Laboratory of Anthropology ,
Ellis , Richard N. , ed . Museum of New Mexico, Santa Fe ,
1971 New Mexico Past and Present , a
and USDA Forest Service, South
Historical Reader,Albuquerque: western Regional Office ,
University of New Mexico Press . Albuquerque . )
Key historic documents Descriptions of LA 10729 , LA
( excerpted ) relating to the his 12843 , LA 12845 and LA 5227 .
tory of New Mexico.
Farwell suggests that LA 10729 ,
12843 and 12845 are Late
Enloe , James G. , Andrew T. Smith and Basketmaker-Pueblo 1. LA 5227 ,
Stewart L. Peckham
the Tijeras Plaza Site is historic .
1974 An Archaeological Survey of the Ceramic and faunal analyses are
San Juan -to-Ojo 345 KV Trans included . ( Albuquerque , Cibola
mission Line Northwestern New National Forest . )
Mexico . ( Ms. on file USDA
Forest Service , Southwestern
Ferdon , Edwin
Regional Office , Albuquerque , 1946 An Excavation of Hermit's Cave ,
and Laboratory of Anthropology, New Mexico, Monographs of the
Santa Fe ) . School of American Research No.
Sites are categorized as " non 10 , Santa Fe ,
1
ceramic , Rio Grande Anasazi ,
General overview , PaleoIndian . )
and Anasazi of the Gallina Phase .
Of the non-ceramic sites , seven 1955 A Trial Survey of Mexican
are particularly interesting , Southwestern Architectural
because they may be Archaic and Parallels , School of American
the Archaic is not well
Research Monograph 21, Santa Fe .
documented for the Chama area .
The Rio Grande Anasazi sites are Fiero, K.
probably small sites and garden 1976 LA 11850 : A Gallina Phase Village
sites associated with the larger Laboratory of Anthropology Notes.
pueblos in the area ( ie . Abiquiu , No. 1llf. Museum of New Mexico,
T sama and Poshuouinge ) . Nine Santa Fe .
Gallina Phase sites were located . Field report of a late Gallina
(Gallina Area and Chama Area , Phase site . ( Santa Fe National
Carson National Forest . ) Forest . )

Espinosa , J. M. Figgens, Jesse W.

1936 Governer Vargas in Colorado,
Historical Review
1927 The Antiquity of Man in America,
New Mexico
Natural History, 27 : 229-239 .
11 : 179-87 . Discussion of the Fol som type
site .
Euler, Robert C. and Susan M. Chandler
1978 Aspects of Prehistoric Settlement
156
Findley , James S. , Arthur H. Harris, Don Pueblo . His concern is with
E. Wilson and Clyde Jones describing the spatial relationship
1975 Mammals of New Mexico , Albuquer among the three big sites and
que : University of New Mexico some 277 " small buildings , " pos
Press . sible field locations and pre
Standard up to date reference historic foot trails ( which are still
work . Distribution maps are visible ) .He estimates that about
.

given as well as collection and 500 to 625 acres of cultivated land

sighting records . belonged to Unshagi , which had
an estimated population of 500 to
Fisher , Reginald 550 ( his estimate ) , with a popula
1942 Hispanic People of the Rio Grande , tion density of 200 per square
El Palacio , 49 : 157-162 . mile . ( Pajarito Plateau , Santa Fe
National Forest . )
Flannery, Kent V.
1967 The Olmec and the Valley of Flynn , Leo L. and W. James Judge
Оахаса : a Model for Inter 1973 An Archeological Assessment of
Regional Interaction in Formative the Canada de Cochiti Grant .
Times . Pp . 79-110 in Dumbarton ( Ms. Department of Anthropology ,
Oaks Conference on the Olmec, University of New Mexico ,
Elizabeth P. Benson , ed . Albuquerque ) .
Washington : Dumbarton Oaks Report provides a detailed history
Research Collection and Library . of the grant , archeological work
One of Flannery's major theoreti prior to 1973 , and the isolation of
cal contributions . The discussion " patterns" that served as the
involves the use of luxury or basis of the Office of Contract
status items as mechanisms of Archeology Cochiti Project .
affiliation . ( Pajarito Plateau , Santa Fe
Nati onal Forest ) .
1968 Archeological Systems Theory and
Early Mesoamerica , pp . 67-87 in Forbes , Jack D.
B. J. Meggers , ed . , 1960 Apache, Navajo and Spaniard,
Anthropological Archeology in the University of Oklahoma Press ,
Americas, Anthropological Society Norman .
of Washington , D. C. Forbes ' book contains interesting
in formation about the interaction
Discussion of the role of sched of these groups in the historic
uling decisions and their potential period . Some of his interpreta
utility in describing the dynamics tions should be evaluated against
involved in the transition from other works .
hunting and gathering to agricul
ture in Mesoamerica . Ford , R. I.
1968 An Ecological Analysis Involving
1972 The Cultural Evolution of the Population of San Juan
Civilizations . Annual Review of Pueblo , New Mexico . (Unpub
Ecology and Systematics 3 : 399 lished Ph.D. dissertation ,
426 . University of Michigan , Ann
A multi - causal model of cultural Arbor . )
evolution in systemic terms . Especially relevant for archeol
ogists .
Fliedner , Dietrick
1975 Pre-Spanish Pueblos in New 1971 An Analysis of the Floral Materials
Mexico . In Annals of the from LA 34 , LA 272 , and LA 9154 ,
Association of American In David H. Snow , ed . Excava
Geographers 65 ( 3 ) : 363-377 . tions at Cochiti Dame , New Mexico
This article reports field observa 1964-1966 Season , Volume I : L.A.
tions in the Upper Jemez Area , 272 , L.A. 9154 , L.A. 34 ( Museum
centering on the sites of Unshagi , of Anthropology university of
Nanishagi , and Hot Springs Michigan , Ethnobotanical Report ,

157
 435 , Ms. on file , Laboratory of Frisbie, Theodore R.
Anthropology , Museum of New 1967 The Excavation and Interpretation
Mexico , Santa Fe . ) of the Arti fical Leg Basket Maker
III Pueblo I sites near Corrales ,
Ford , Richard I. , Albert H. Schroeder and New Mexico . ( Unpublished M.A.
Stewart L. Peckham Thesis, Department of Anthro
1972 Three Perspectives on Puebloan pology , University of New Mexico ,
Prehistory . Pp . 22-40 in Alfonso Albuquerque ) .
A. Ortiz , editor, New The sites , just west of Corrales
Perspectives on the Pueblos , on land belonging to Rio Rancho
School of American Research Corporation were discovered by
Book , Albuquerque : University F. H. Ellis in 1951 . Frisbie
of New Mexico Press . provides a history of work in the
Three attempts to reconstruct area and detailed description of
migrations and the locations of the sites . There are three sites ,
ancestral Tiwa , Tewa , Towa , consisting of pit house villages .
Hopi , Keresan and Zuni . The In addition , results of a survey
authors do not reach agreement . from Kuaua south for 7 miles are
discussed . The Artificial Leg
Fosberg , Stephen and John Husler sites are important because of
1977 Pedology in the Service of their transitional character and
Archeology : Soil Testing at LA early date . ( Albuquerque , Cibola
13086 ( Ms. on file , Office of National Forest . )
Contract Archeology , University
of New Mexico , Albuquerque . ) Frisbie , T. R. , B. M. Moore and R. H.
A superb discussion of chemical Spielbauer
tests done at a probable field 1970 The Webb Young Ranch
James
house in White Rock Canyon . Survey 1969 A Preliminary Report
The authors suggest that saliniza ( Ms. on file , Office of Contract
tion may have been a problem for Archeology, University of New
Anasazi agriculture. The paper Mexico ) .
also discusses the kinds of data Survey was limited primarily to
which may be obtained through the Rio Chiquito portion of the
proper testing and sophisticated ranch . An overview of the
chemical analysis of soils . prehistoric remains in the area is
given .
Francis , E. K.
1956 " Multiple Intergroup Relations in Frison , George C. , editor
the Upper Rio Grande Region , 1974 The Casper Site : A Hell Gap
American Sociological Review Bison Kill on the High Plains,
21 : 84-87 . Academic Press , New York .
Brief historical overview of ethnic General overview relevant to
groups . PaleoIndian section . Frison's
work combines detailed analysis
Frazer , Robert W. and experimentation in interpreta
1965 Forts of the West, University of tion of the site .
Oklahoma Press , Norman .
Fritts , Harold C.
Fried , Morton H. 1965 Tree - ring Evidence for Climatic
1960 On the Evolution of Social Stratifi Changes in Western North America ,
cation and the State , pp . 713-731 Monthly Weather Review 93 :
in Culture in History, Essays in 421-443 .
Paul Radin , Stanley
Honor of Paul
Diamond , ed . , Columbia Fritts, Harold C. , David G. Smith and
University Press , New York . Marvin A. Stokes
1967 The Evolution of Political Society , 1965 The Biological Model for Paleo
An Essay in Political Anthropology, climatic Interpretation of Mesa
Random House, New York . Verde Tree- Ring Series.

158
 Pp . 101-121 in D. Osborne , ed . , of Indian Affairs ) . ( Ms. on file ,
Contributions of the Wetherill Office of Contract Archeology ,
Mesa Archeological Project , University of New Mexico ,
Memoirs of the Society for Albuquerque . )
American Archaeology, No. 19 . Provides a good annotated bibliog
raphy of Picuris and Taos areas .
Gabin , Vickie L. and Lee E. Lesperance Considerable attention given , in
the report , to agricultural
1977 New Mexico Climatological Data :
Precipitation , Temperature , systems and field features.
Evaporation , and Wind . Monthly ( Taos Area , Carson National
and Annual Means 1850-1975 . Forest . )
Socorro , New Mexico : W. K.
Summers Associates . Glassow , Michael A.
Climatological Data for all 1972a Changes in the Adaptations of
recorded stations from date of the Southwestern Basketmakers :
establishment to 1975 , (General A Systems Perspective . Pp .
overview , pertaining to 289-301 in Contemporary
climatology . ) Archaeology, Mark P. Leone, ed .
Carbondale : Southern Illinois
Galinat, W. and J. H. Gunnerson University Press .
1963 Spread of Eight- rowed Maize from
the Prehistoric Southwest , 1972b The Evolution of Early Agricul
Botanical Museum Leaflet 20 : tural Facilities Systems in the
117-160 , Harvard University , Northern Southwest . ( Unpub
Cambridge . lished PhD dissertation , Depart
ment of Anthropology , University
Gall , Patricia L. and Arthur Saxe of California , Los Angeles ) .
1977 The Ecological Evolution of Culture : Comprehensive treatment of
The State as Predator in Basketmaker II - III transition and
Succession Theory , pp . 255-268 the specific archeology of the
in Exchange Systems in Ponil Drainage. ( Taos area ,
Prehistory , Timothy K. Earle and Carson National Forest . )
Jonathon E. Ericsob , eds . New
York : Academic Press . Gonzalez , Nancie L.
1969 The Spanish - Americans of New
Ganaway , Loomis M. Mexico : A Heritage of Pride,
1944 New Mexico and the Sectional Albuquerque : University of New
Controversy, 1846-1861 , Mexico Press .
Albuquerque: University of New Provides a synthesis of anthro
Mexico Press . pological and historical materials .

Gauthier , Rory P. Gorman , Frederick

1977 1972 The Clovis Hunters : An
An Archeological Survey of Three
Tracts in the Manzano Mountains Alternate View of their Environ
for KNME TV ( Ms. Office of ment and Ecology , Pp . 206-221 in
Contract Archeology , University Mark P. Leone , ed , Contemporary
of New Mexico , Albuquerque ) . Archeology , Carbondale :
One site located and avoidance Southern Illinois University Press .
recommended . The site is appar An interesting attempt to recon
ently Late Developmental ( ca. struct Clovis social organization
A.D. 1100 ) at an elevation of 6030 based on hunting strategies .
feet . ( Albuquerque , Cibola
National Forest . ) Goss , J. A.
1972 Ute Lexical and Phonological
Gauthier , Rory , Patricia A. Prince , and Patterns ( Unpublished PhD Disser
Frances Joan Mathien tation , Department of Anthro
1978 An Archeological Sample Survey
pology , University of Chicago . )
of Proposed Timber Sales Areas
on the Picuris Pueblo Reservation Grady , Mark and E. Pierre Morenon
( report submitted to the Bureau 1977 Conservation Archaeology , Middle

159
 Range Theory , and the Prediction Moorhead , ed . Norman :
of Past Land Uses . ( Paper University Oklahoma Press .
presented at the Society for Gregg's observations of trading
American Archaeology , Annual activities ( and other things ) on
Meetings , Orleans ,
New 1977 . his visits to Santa Fe between 1831
Ms. on file, USDA Forest Service , and 1840. ( General overview and
Southwestern Regional Office , historical, Carson National Forest . )
Albuquerque . )
This paper presents the more Gregg , K. L. , editor
important results of the 1975 and 1952 The Road to Santa Fe : Journals
1976 Fort Burgwin Research in the and Diaries of G. s . Sibley,
Taos area . In addition , the Albuquerque : University of New
authors discuss the problems of Mexico Press .
prediction and explanation , the
need for development of middle Gumerman , George J. , editor
range theory and work within aa 1971 The Distribution of Prehistoric
regional context . ( Taos area , Population Aggregates , Prescott
Carson National Forest . ) College Anthroplogical Reports ,
No. 1 , Prescott College Press ,
Green , Ernestene L. Prescott .
1976 Valdez Phase Occupation Near Report of the First Annual
Taos , New Mexico, Fort Burgwin Meeting of the Southwestern
Research Center . No. 10 . Anthropological Group ( SARG ) .
Southern Methodist University ,
Dallas . 1972 Proceedings of the Second Annual
Contains Meeting of the Southwestern
a
synthesis of Valdez
Phase archeology as of 1963 as Anthropological Research Group ,
well as site report in formation . Prescott College Anthropological
( Taos Area , Carson National Reports No. 3, Prescott College
Forest . ) Press , Prescott.

Green , R. C. Gunnerson , D. A.
1956 A Pithouse of the Gallina Phase . 1974 The Jicarilla Apaches, Dekalb :
American Antiquity 33 ( 2 ) : 149-155 . Northern Illinois Press.
(Gallina Cultural District, Santa Excellent introduction to Jicarilla
Fe National Forest . ) culture and culture history ,
1964 The Carricito Community . El Gunnerson , James H.
Palacio 69 ( 3 ) : 27-39 . 1959 Archaeological Survey in North
(Gallina Cultural District, Santa eastern New Mexico . El Palacio
Fe National Forest ) . 66 ( 5 ) : 1-10 .
Site survey information relevant
Green , R. C. , M. A. Dan felser and to the Cimarron area . ( Taos
G. Vivian Area , Carson National Forest . )
1953 Interpretation of Bg 91 : A
Specialized Largo - Gallina Surface 1960 An Introduction to Plains Apache
Structure . El Palacio 65 ( 2 ) : 42-61 . Archeology : The Dismal River
Report on a " Pueblo - like" struc Aspect , Bureau of American
ture , apparently used as a granary . Ethnology Bulletin 173: 131-260 ,
(Gallina Cultural District , Santa Washington .
Fe National Forest . )
1969 Apache Archaeology in North
Gregg , Andrew K. eastern New Mexico . American
1968 New Mexico In the Nineteenth Antiquity 34 (1 ) : 23-39 .
Century : A Pictorial History, Discussion of Plains / Southwest
Albuquerque : University of New contact area from site survey
Mexico Press . data . ( Taos Area , Carson
National Forest . )
Gregg , Josiah
1954 Commerce of the Prairies . M. L. 1970 Evidence of Apaches at Pecos ,

160
 El Palacio 76 ( 3 ) : 1-16 . and Reservoir in Northeastern
Describes Ocate Micaceous and New Mexico . (Unpublished M.A.
Apache point types . Thesis , Department of Anthro
pology , University of New Mexico ,
1971 Apachean Culture : A Study in Albuquerque ) .
Unity and Diversity , In Apachean Report of Salvage conducted for
Culture History and Ethnology , the Interstate Stream Commission ,
Keith ed . Anthropological
Basso with funds from the Museum of
Papers of University of
the New Mexico, during the summer
Arizona, No. 21 , Tucson . of 1962 . Although outside the
area presently under study , the
Hack , John T. work contains descriptive data
1942 The Changing Physical Environ from LA 5573 , which is important
ment of Hopi Indians of
the because it is a cave site with
Arizona .Papers of the Peabody cultural / components .
temporal
American Archaeology
Museum of The report also contains discus
and Ethnology 35 ( 1) :1-85 . sions of excavated tipi-ring sites ,
Standard reference for Hopi and lithic scatters . The latter
agricultural technology . (General were the most common type of site
overview . ) within the area . ( Taos Area,
Carson National Forest . )
Hackett , C. W.
1937 Historical Documents Relating to 1965 The Lagunitas Highway Salvage
New Mexico , Nueva Viscaya , and Project , Laboratory of
Approaches Thereto, to 1773 , Anthropology Notes No. 33 .
Carnegie Institution of Museum of New Mexico , Santa Fe .
Washington, Publication No. 330 , Excavation of an isolated pithouse
Vol. III, Washington . of the Gallina Phase . ( Santa Fe
National Forest . )
Hackett , C. W. and C. C. Shelby
1942 Revolt of the Pueblo Indians of 1966 The Tunnard Site, Museum of
New Mexico , Albuquerque: New Mexico Research Records ,
University of New Mexico Press . No. 3 , Santa Fe .
Report of a probable Coalition
Hall, Edward T. , Jr. period site near Albuquerque .
1944 Early Stockaded Settlements in No structural remains were
the Gobernador , New Mexico . encountered . Pottery is
Columbia University Studies in described in detail .
Archeology and Ethnology 2 (1).
New Columbia University
York : Hammond , G. P. , ed .
Press .
1949 The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo,
Discussion of the Rosa Phase and February Second, 1848, Berkeley :
its relation to the Gallina District Friends of the Bancroft Library.
and to the San Juan . (Gallina
Area , Santa Fe National Forest . ) Hammond , George P. and Agapito Rey ,
1953 Don Juan de Onate Colonizer of
Hall , Stephen A. New Mexico 2
, vols . Albuquerque:
1975 Stratigraphy and Palynology of University of New Mexico Press .
Quaternary Alluvium at Chaco
Canyon , New Mexico ( Unpublished Fully annotated and edited docu
PhD dissertation , Department of ments of Onate's conquest of New
Geology, University of Michigan ) . Mexico .
Detailed paleoclimatic reconstruc
tion which relies on examination 1966 The Rediscovery of New Mexico,
of alluvium and pollen
pollen spectra . 1580-1594 , Albuquerque:
Pollen were collected from alluvial University of New Mexico Press .
fill . Dating of sediments appears Fully edited and annotated docu
to be a major problem . ments relating to the Chumascado ,
Espejo and Beltran Expeditions
Hammack , Laurens C. into New Mexico .
1964 The Archaeology of the Ute Dam

161
Harlan , Jack Haury , Emil W.
1967 A Wild Wheat Harvest in Turkey , 1950 The Stratigraphy and
Archaeology 20 : 197-201 . Archaeology of Ventana Cave ,
General overview , relates to Arizona, University of New Mexico
assessment of Archaic economies . Press , Albuquerque.
Harlan's experiment indicated that (General overview . )
in area where wild wheat cur
re ly grows , no great time or
nt Haury , Emil W. , W. B. Sayles , and
effort was required to obtain w . W. Wasley
great quantities of the crop , 1959 The Lehner Mammoth Site , South
which indicates that actual domes western Arizona . American
tication probably took place Antiquity 25 (1 ) : 2-30 .
elsewhere . (PaleoIndian . )

Harlow , Francis H. Hawley , Florence M.

1965 Recent Finds of Pajaritan Pottery . 1936 Field Manual of Prehistoric South
El Palacio 72 ( 2 ) : 28-33 . western Pottery Types . The
Report of finds by hikers , during University of New Mexico Bulletin ,
the summer of 1964 , of cached Anthropological Series 1, No. 4.
pottery in unmodi fied basalt University of New Mexico Press ,
" caves " along the west bank of Albuquerque .
the Rio Grande , in White Rock Standard reference , providing
Canyon , below Tsirege . Most of type descriptions. (General
the ceramics are Sankawi Black - on overview . )
cream . ( Pajarito Plateau , Santa
Fe National Forest . ) Hawley , Florence and Donovan Senter
1946 " Group Designed Behavior
Harper , Allan G. , Andrew R. Cordova and Patterns in Two Acculturating
Kalvero Oberg Groups , " Southwestern Journal of
1943 Man and Resources in the Middle Anthropology 2 : 133-151 .
Rio Grande Valley, Inter - American Study of culture and personality
Studies Albuquerque :
II , contrasts between Indian and
University of New Mexico Press . Hispanic groups undergoing
The book is a call for better acculturation .
water management and grazing
limits . It is biased to that extent , Hayes, Alden C.
but the tables provide some 1964 The Archeological Survey of
interesting historical information . Wetherill Mesa , National Park
Service , Archeological Research
Harrington , H. D. Series 7 - A , Washington .
1967 Edible Native Plants of the Rocky Mesa Verde National Park .
Mountains . Albuquerque:
University of New Mexico Press . 1975 A Survey of Chaco Canyon
( General overview , pertaining to Archeology ( Unpublished Ms. No.
ethnobotany . ) 13 , Chaco Center , National Park
Service, University of New Mexico ,
Harrington , J. P. Albuquerque ) .
1916 The Ethnogeography of the Tewa Results of Hayes inventory
Indians . 29th Annual Report of survey of Chaco Canyon National
the Bureau of American Ethnology Monument in connection with the
for 1907-1908 29-619
: . Chaco Project .
Standard reference for the Tewa
and northern Tiwa . ( Some in for Hayes , Alden C. and Thomas C. Windes
mation is apparently inaccurate . ) 1975 An Anasazi Shrine in Chaco
( General overview pertaining to Canyon . Pp . 143-156 in Theodore
ethnogeography . ) R. Frisbie , ed . , Papers in Honor
of Florence Hawley Ellis , Papers
1920 " Old Indian Geographical Names of the Archaeological Society of
around Santa Fe , New Mexico , " New Mexico 2, Santa Fe.
American Anthropologist 22 ( 3 ) :
341-59 .

162
Haynes , C. Vance Jr. 1977d An Archeological Survey of the
1955 Evidence of Early Man in Torrance Alamitos Timber Sale , Penasco
County , New Mexico . Bulletin of District , Carson National Forest .
the Texas Archaeological and ( Ms. on file , USDA Forest Service ,
Paleontological Society . 26 : 144-164 . Southwestern Regional Office ,
(General overview , pertaining to Albuquerque ) .
PaleoIndian . ) Lithics , including a tentatively
dated PaleoIndian Point , found at
Haynes , C. Vance , Jr. and George Agogino high elevations . ( Taos Area ,
1966 Prehistoric Springs and Carson National Forest . )
Geochronology of the Clovis Site ,
New Mexico . American Antiquity Hendron , J. W.
31 ( 6 ) : 812-821 . 1940 Prehistory of El Rito de los
(General overview , pertaining to Frijoles , Bandelier National
PaleoIndian . ) Monument , Southwestern
Monuments Association Technical
Haynes , C. V. Jr. and E. T. Hemmings Series No. 1, Coolid ge .
1968 Mammoth Bone Sha ft Wrench from This is still a classic report of
Murray Springs Arizona . Science survey and excavation in
159 : 186-187 . Bandelier . Relevant to the
(General overview , pertaining to Pajarito Plateau District .
PaleoIndian . )
Herold , Laurence
Henderson , J. and John F. Harrington 1968 An Archeological Geographical
1914 Ethnozoology of the Tewa Indians , Survey of The Rio Grande de
Bureau of American Ethnology, Ranchos . In Herold and
Bulletin 56, Washington , D.C. Luebben . Papers on Taos
Data relevant to the entire Tewa Archaeology , Fort Burgwin
District . Research Center . Report No. 7 .
Work done in June and July of
Henderson , Mark S. 1960 . Study area the immediate
1977a An Archeological Survey of the drainage of the Rio Grande
Jawbone Timber Sale , Tres Piedras Ranchos and its major tributaries .
District , Carson National Forest . ( No systematic coverage . ) Sites
( Ms. on file , USDA Forest Service , unevenly distributed in 3 geo
Southwestern Regional Office , graphic groupings . Major determi
Albuquerque ) . nants of site location are seen to
Contains important historic period be gently sloping
sloping land , good
utilization of the sale area . drainage and deep alluvial soil .
( Taos Area , Carson National The pattern of settlement seems
Forest . ) to be general movement from
ridges to good alluvial land to
1977b An Archeological Survey of the more marginal areas , to site
Upper Ranchos Timber Sale , Taos aggregation ( Pot Creek ) , to
District, Carson National Forest . abandonment . Good historical
( Ms. on file , USDA Forest Service , discussion of archeological work
Southwestern Regional Office , in the area up to that time .
Albuquerque ) . ( Taos Area , ( Taos Area , Carson National
Carson National Forest . ) Forest . )

1977c An Archeological Survey of the Herold , Laurence C. and Ralph A.

Proposed Rincon Timber Sale , Luebben
Taos District , Carson National 1968 Papers on Taos Archaeology Fort
Forest . ( Ms. on file , USDA Burgwin Research Center No. 7 .
Forest Service , Southwestern ( Taos Area , Carson National
Regional Office, Albuquerque . ) Forest . )
Notes lithic debris and a tenta
tively dated PaleoIndian point Hester , James J.
fragment at high elevations . 1962 Early Navajo Migrations and
( Taos Area , Carson National Acculturation in the Southwest ,
Forest . ) Papers in Anthropology, No. 6 .

163
 Museum of New Mexico , Santa Fe . Data are relevant to the Pajarito
Hester discusses evidence support District .
ing a Plains to Southwest Route
for the early Athabascan move 1909b The Excavations at El Rito de los
ments into the Southwest and Frijoles in 1909 . American
subsequent Pueblo - Navajo Anthropologist 11 : 651-671 .
interaction . Data are relevant to the Pajarito
Plateau District .
1972
Blackwater Locality No. 1, Taos :
Fort Burgwin Research Center . 1938 Pajarito Plateau and its Ancient
(General overiew PaleoIndian . ) People , Albuquerque : University
of New Mexico Press .
Hester , J. N. and J. L. Shiner Although much of this is a recapit
1963 Studies at Navajo Period Sites in ulation of the 1905 work , the data
the Navajo Reservoir District , obtained from excavations are
Museum of New Mexico Papers in integrated and chronology more
Anthropology, No. 6 , Santa Fe . fully developed . Relevant to the
Pajarito Plateau District .
Hewett , Edgar L.
1904 Studies in the Extinct Pueblo of Hewett, Edgar Lee , Junius Henderson , and
Pecos , American Anthropologist, Wil fred William Robbins
6 ( 4 ) :426-439 . 1913 The Physiography of the Rio
Early report relevant to the Santa Grande Valley ,
Valley , New Mexico , in
Fe District . Relation to Pueblo Culture .
Bureau of American Ethnology,
1905 A General View of the Archaeology Bulletin 54. Smithsonian
of the Pueblo Region , Annual Institution , Washington , D.C.
Report of the Smithsonian Government Printing Office . 76
Institution for 1904, pp . 583-602 . pages .
This is an early overview and
1906 Antiquities of the Jemez Plateau , quite general , A number of
New Mexico . Bureau of American factors ( absence of algae and
Ethnology , Bulletin 2 Smithsonian aquatic insect larva in the Rito de
Institution , Washington , D. C. los Frijoles and a proponderance
Government Printing Office . 55 of juniper seedlings in ecotones )
pages plus maps and figures. suggest a recent drought ca.
This is an overview of some of 1913 . Henderson notes an expo
the more important ruins among sure of olivine basalt in El Rito
the " vast" numbers Hewett saw . de los Frijoles canyon which might
He discusses the ruins in terms be the source of archeological
of three major geographical areas : " clinking stones . " ( Pajarito
I. The Pajarito Plateau 27 Plateau , Santa Fe National Forest . )
ruins with sketch maps and
details of most ; II . The Chama Hibben , Frank C.
drainage ( the lower 100 miles ) : 12 1936 The Excavation of a pre - Biscuit
major ruins with sketch maps and Ware Ruin in the Chama Valley ,
details ; and III , the Jemez Valley : FI Palacio 41 ( 8 , 9, 10 ) : 48-53 .
9 ruins or groups of ruins with Brief report on the Riana Ruin .
sketch maps and details . ( Pajarito The excavation is covered more
Plateau , Santa Fe National Forest . ) completely in Hibben's 1937 report .

1908 Excavations at Puye in 1907 , 1937 Excavation of the Riana Ruin and
Papers of the School of American Chama Valley Survey , The
Archaeology , No. 4 , Santa Fe. University of New Mexico
Data are relevant to the archae Anthropological Series, Bulletin
ology of the Pajarito District . # 300 Vol . 2 no . 1 .
The survey report contains des
1909a The Excavations at T younyi , New criptive data on kinds of
the kinds
Mexico , in 1908 , American ruins found in the Chama Valley
Anthropologist 11 : 434-455 . area . The excavation of the

164
 Riana Ruin is given in detail , ( Albuquerque , Cibola National
with good data on fauna re Forest . )
covered , architecture , and
ceramics . The reports are rele 1957 Comments following the Johnson
vant for the Carson National 1957 Article .Science 125 : 235 .
Forest . ( Albuquerque , Cibola National
Forest . )
1938 The Gallina Phase . American
Antiquity 14 ( 2 ) : 131-136 . Hickerson , Harold
Distinguishes the Gallina Phase 1965 The Virginia Deer and Intertribal
from Mera's Largo phase and Buffer Zones in the Upper
discusses some of the ruins . Mississippi Valley . Pp . 43-66 in
Relevant to the Santa Fe National Man , Culture , and Animals , The
Forest . Role of Animals in Human
Ecological Adjustments , Anthony
1940 The Gallina Culture of North Leeds and Andrew P. Vayda ,
Central New Mexico . (Unpub eds . , Washington , D.C .:
lished PhD dissertation , Harvard American Association for the
University ) . Advancement of Science .
Provides detailed di scussion of
Gallina Phase architecture and Hill , A. T. and George Metcalf
ceramics . Relevant to the Santa 1941 A Site of the Dismal River Aspect
Fe National Forest . in Chase County Nebraska ,
Nebraska History Vol . 22 , No. 2,
1941 Evidences of Early Occupation in Lincoln .
Sandia Cave , New Mexico and of general relevance to Plains
Other Sites in the Sandia - Manzano Pueblo interaction .
Region . Smithsonian Miscellaneous
Collections 99 (23) : 1-44 . Hill , James N. and Joel Gunn , eds .
TAlbuquerque , Cibola National 1977 The Individual in Prehistory :
Forest . ) Studies of variability in Style in
Prehistoric Technologies . New
1944 The Mystery of the Stone Towers . York : Academic Press .
Saturday Evening Post. December A series of essays on methods of
9 , 1944 : 14-24 , 68-70 . distinguishing the artifacts pro
Popular and misleading account of duced by individuals .
the Gallina ruins . ( Gallina area ,
Santa Fe National Forest . ) Hill , James N. et al .
1978 Preliminary Report of 1977 Survey
1948 The Gallina Architectural Forms, on the Pajarito Plateau , Santa Fe
American Antiquity 14 ( 1 ) : 32-36 . National Forest ( Ms. on file ,
USDA Forest Service , South
1949 The pottery of the Gallina western Regional Office ,
Complex . American Antiquity
Albuquerque ) .
14 ( 3 ) : 194 : 202 . As a preliminary report , there is
(Gallina Cultural District , Santa not a great deal of in formation ;
Fe National Forest . ) however , Hill does say that
Archaic sites were encountered
1951 A Survey of Sites of the during his survey . These were
Paleo Indian in the Middle Rio determined to be Archaic on the
Grande Valley , New Mexico , The basis of diagnostic point types .
Texas Journal of Science , 3:
362-367. Hoijer , Harry
(General overview , PaleoIndian The Chronology of the Athapaskan
1956
period . ) Languages , International Journal
of American Linguistics 22 ( 4 ) :
1955 Specimens from Sandia Cave and 219-232 .
Their Possible Significance , Discusses the approximate dates
Science 122 : 688-689 . for the separation of Athapascan

165
 languages , based on glottochro Honea , Kenneth
nology . 1965 Evolution of Lithic Traditions of
the Southwest . El Palacio 72 ( 4 ) :
Holbrook , Sally 32-36 .
1975 Prehistoric Paleoecology of North Honea suggests that cultural
western New Mexico . ( Unpublished based on projectile
sequences
PhD Dissertation , Department of points alone are inadequate and
Biology , University of California , advocates the approach used first
Berkeley . ) by Francois Bordes in delineating
Her study area centered on lithic changes over time through
Llaves , where she collected in for frequency of other artifiact
mation on modern small rodent categories . Unfortunately he
populations , climate records and does not actually do such a study
faunal material from 14 excavated in this report . ( General
sites ( both pit and unit houses ) . overview . )
Unfortunately , her only dates are
archeomagnetic . Nevertheless , 1969 The Rio Grande Complex and the
she concludes that a substantial Northern Plains . Plains
climatic and environmental change Anthropologist 14-43 : 57-70 .
took place beginning about AD A discussion of the La Bolsa Site
1000 . Early faunas are mesic in the Galisteo Basin , a review of
adapted , intermediate faunas are Renaud's Upper Rio Grande
identical to those in the study Culture , and its possible relation
area today and late faunas are ships to Jay Phase materials .
xeric adapted species . ( Gallina (General overview , Archaic and
Area , Santa Fe . ) Santa Fe Area , Santa Fe National
Forest . )
Holbrook , Sally J. and James C. Mackey
1976 Prehistoric Environmental Change 1971 LA 272 : The Dead Horse Site , in
in Northern New Mexico : David H. Snow ed . , Excavations
Evidence from а Gallina Phase at Cochiti Dam , New Mexico
Archaeological Site , The Kiva 1964-1966 Season , Volume I : LA
41 : 309-317 . 272 , L.A. 9154 , L.A. 34 ( Ms. on
Two occupation units of LA12072 , file , Laboratory of Anthropology ,
a unit house in the Llaves area , Museum of New Mexico , Santa
are examined . ( Gallina Cultural Fe . )
District , Santa Fe National Report of the excavation of three
Forest . ) pithouses and associated surface
structures on the Santa Fe River ,
Holden , Jan which seem to date to about A.D.
1955 A Preliminary Report on 900 .
Arrowhead Ruin , El Palacio 62 ( 4 ) :
102-119 . Houghton , Frank F.
Report of excavation of a 79 room 1959 Climate of New Mexico . United
site on Glorieta Arroyo which States Department of Commercel
dates to ca. late 1300s . Relevant National Oceanic and Atmospheric
for the Santa Fe District . Administration / Environmental Data
Service . Silver Spring , Maryland .
Holschlag , Stephanie L. A brief climatic and geographic
1975 Pot Creek Pueblo and the Question description of New Mexico .
of Prehistoric Northern Tiwa Included are monthly and yearly
Household Configuration . (Unpub averages of temperature and
lished PhD Dissertation , Washington precipitation with frost and solar
State University ) . radiation data where available .
Presents detailed linguistic , Maps include temperature and
ethnographic and archeological precipitation means . (General
data relevant to Tiwa prehistory . overview , pertaining to
( Taos Area , Carson National climatology . )
Forest . )

166
 1960 Red River , New Mexico . United artifact in order to document
States Department of Commerce . activity areas . She noted that
Environmental Science Service every outcrop of basalt is accom
Administration . Climatography of panied by lithic workshop material.
the U. S. No. 21-29-1 . Those above 7400 ' are associated
Climatological summary of Red with campsites which may be
River , New Mexico from 1951-1960 Archaic and those at 7200 with
in monthly averages . ( General pithouses and walled sur face
overview , pertaining to features . ( Taos Area , Carson
climatology . ) National Forest . )

Hume , Valerie Hunt , Charles B.

1973 Significance of Archeological Sites
1967 Physiography of the United
on the Garrapata Ridge to Proposed States, San Francisco and London :
Dissertation Research , ( Ms. on W. H. Freeman and Company .
file , USDA Forest Service, South A recent and general text book .
western Regional Office ,
Albuquerque . ) Huscher , B. H. and H. A. Huscher
Prior research by Hume indicates 1942 " Athapascan Migration Via the
11
that human utilization of Garrapata Intermontane Region , American
Ridge spans a time from ca. 3000 Antiquity 8 ( 1 ) : 80-88 .
B.C. until late prehistoric time . The Huschers postulate a route of
She wants to document changes Athapascan migration into the
and continuity in settlement Southwest through the Rocky
patterns and resource utilization Mountains based on finds of
over time and reconsider area circular masonary houses and
chronology . She is most con pointed bottom pots in the
cerned with limited activity sites Colorado Rockies .
and assumes that these are located
for the exploitation of a single 1943 The Hogan Builders of Colorado .
resource . ( Taos Area , Carson
Gunnison : Colorado Archaeological
National Forest . )
Society .
This reference provides an
1974a Preliminary Report for the 1974 expanded version of the American
Field Season on Garrapata Ridge . Antiquity article cited above .
( Ms. on file , USDA Forest Service ,
Southwestern Regional Office , Husted , Wilfred M.
Albuquerque . ) 1965 Early Occupation of the Colorado
Reports on work done in two Front Range . American Antiquity
transects both in Upper Sonoran 30 ( 4 ) : 494-498 .
zone but contrasted in slope , Report of Paleo - Indian artifacts
altitude , drainage and proximity found in Rocky Mountain National
to a different zonal type . She Park , Colorado . Cody complex ,
provides computer plots of arti fact Colvis points , Jimmy Allen points ,
densites . Her main problem A gate Basin points and Meserve
seems chronological which is points were found at high altitude
reasonable considering that she is sites . (General overview , per
dealing with lithics . ( Taos Area , taining to PaleoIndian . )
.
Carson National Forest )
Irwin , Henry T.
1974b Archeological Survey in the 1971 Developments in Early Man Studies
Carson National Forest , Summer in Western North American ,
1973 . ( Ms. on file , USDA Forest 1960-1970 . Arctic Anthropology
Service , Southwestern Regional 8 ( 2 ) : 42-67 .
Office, Albuquerque . ) (General overview , PaleoIndian . )
Work on archeological material
endangered by the Sewage Lagoon Irwin , Henry T. and H. M. Wormington
Project ( both Carson and Private 1970 Paleo - Indian Tool Types in the
land ) . Her method involved Great Plains , American Antiquity
taking transit readings on every 35 ( 1 ) : 24-34 .

167
 (General overview , PaleoIndian . ) This detailed review article ,
provides paleoen vironmental data ,
Irwin - Williams , Cynthia and a review of cultural sequences
1967a Excavations at La Bajada . ( Ms. from the Late Pleistocene through
on file , USDA Forest Service , the Archaic . Some of the material
Southwestern Regional Office , on the Oshara Tradition has not
Albuquerque . ) yet appeared elsewhere .
This report mentions two sites LA ( General overview , Archaic . )
9500 and LA 9501 which appar
ently are part of the Anasazi Irwin -Williams , Cynthia and C. Vance
Origins project . Un fortunately , Haynes
the report does not mention where 1970 Climatic Change and Early Popula
the sites are and there is no tion Dynamics in South - western
informatio n on them at the United States . Quaternary
Laboratory of Anthropology . Research l : 59-71 .
( Santa Fe National Forest . ) General overview , pertaining to
PaleoIndian ) .
1967b PICOSA : The Elementary South
western Culture , American Irwin -Williams , Cynthia and Henry Irwin
Antiquity 32 ( 4 ) : 441-456 . 1966 Excavations at Magic Mountain :
Discussion of the distinctiveness A Diachronic Study of Plains
of the Southwest as this devel Southwest Relations , Denver
oped during the Archaic , and the Museum of Natural History,
delineation of the northern , Proceedings 12 , Denver .
southern and western tradi traditions (General overview , especially
( Cochise , San Dieguito and Oshara ) . relevant for the Archaic . )
Also discusses the two levels of
analysis necessary to differen Irwin -Williams, Cynthia and S. Tompkins
tiating "functional" from cultural 1968 Excavations at En Medio Shelter ,
historical traits . ( General over New Mexico . Interim Report of
view , Archaic . ) the Anasazi Origins Project of
Eastern New Mexico University .
1973 The Oshara Tradition : Origins Eastern New Mexico University
of Anasazi Culture . Eastern New Contributions in Anthropology
Mexico University Contributions in 1 (2 ) . PaleoIndian Institute ,
Anthropology 5 (1)Eastern
. New Eastern New Mexico University ,
Mexico University , PaleoIndian Portales .
Institute , Portales . En Medio Shelter , on a tributary
Report summarizes results of the of the Rio Puerco , yielded mate
1964 - 1970 Arroyo Cuervo Anasazi rials dating from the Late San
Origins project . This is the Jose Complex through Pueblo IV .
basic synthesis currently available This volume provides detailed
on the northern PICOSA . description of the Late San Jose
(General overview , Archaic . ) through Basketmaker III artifacts,
feature descriptions , C14 dates
1977 A Network Model for the Analysis and comparisons . (General over
of Prehistoric Trade . Pp . 141-152 view , pertaining to Archaic ,
in Exchange Systems in Prehistory , Albuquerque area . )
T. K. Earle and J. E. Ericson ,
eds . New York : Academic Press . Irwin - Williams, C. et al .
1973 Hell Gap : Paleo - Indian Occupation
Provides a theoretic approach to on the High Plains . Plains
trade and exchange systems . Anthropologist 18 ( 59 ) : 40-53 .
(General overview , pertaining to
n.d. Paleo- Indian and Archaic Cultural PaleoIndian . )
Systems in the Southwestern
United States . ( Ms. prepared for James , Harold L.
the Handbook of North American 1966 The Santa Fe Trail . In Guidebook
Indians, Southwest Volume . of Taos Raton C Spanish Peaks
Alfonso A. Ortiz , ed . ) Country : Stuart A. Northrop

168
 and Charles B. Read , eds . New Jenkins , Myra Ellen
Geological Society Seven 1966 Taos Pueblo and its Neighbors ,
Mexico
teenth Field Conference . New Mexico Historical Review ,
Good , brief historical treatment of 41 (2 ) .
the opening and commerce along
the trail . ( Taos Area , Carson 1967 Guide to the Spanish Archives of
National Forest . ) New Mexico , 1621-1821, Santa Fe :
National Historical Publications
1974 The Way of the Fray : A Pictoral Commission ( SRC ) .
Diary of the Escalante Expedition
through North- Central New Mexico , 1969 Guide to the Mexican Archives of
1776 . Pp . 77-82 in New Mexico New Mexico , 1821-1846 , Santa Fe:
Geological Society Guidebook , 25th National Historical Publications
Field Conference, Ghost Ranch . Commission ( SRC ) .
Charles T. Siemers ed .
A brief narrative of the route of Jenkins, Myra Ellen and Albert H.
the Escalante expedition with a Schroeder
use ful map . (Gallina and Chama 1974 A Brief History of New Mexico,
Area, Carson and Santa Fe Albuquerque: University of New
National Forests . ) Mexico Press .
An official document of the
Jeancon , J. A. Cultural Properties Review
1912 Ruins at Pesedeuinge , Records of Committee of the State Planning
the Past, 11 ( 1) :28-37. Office . Provides an accurate
Very early exploratory account . discussion of New Mexican history
Relevant to the Chama and with thematic treatment of political
Pajarito Districts. and military affairs; commerce and
trade ; ranching and agriculture ;
1919 Preliminary Report of the Excava lumbering and mining ; science
and
tions at Po- Shu- Ouinge Near and engineering ; architecture ;
Abiquiu , Palacio 7 ( 4 ) : 66-69 .
El religion and education .
The site is a large Biscuit ware
site in the Chama District , Jett , Stephen C.
Relevant for the Carson National 1964 Pueblo Indian Migrations : An
Forest . Evaluation of the Physical and
Cultural Determinants . American
1923 Excavations in the Chama Valley , Antiquity 29 ( 3 ) : 291-300 .
Bureau of American Ethnology ,
Bulletin 81, Washington , D. C. Johansen , Sigurd
Report contains detail on the 1948 Rural Organization
Social in a
excavation of Po-Shu -Ouinge and Spanish - American Culture Area ,
describes other archeological sites University of New Mexico
and rock art in the Chama District . Publications in Social Sciences and
Relevant to Carson National Philosophy , No. 1, Albuquerque ,
Forest . Based on field work in Dona Ana
County .
1929 Archeological Investigations in
the Taos Valley , New Mexico , Jones , Oakah L. , Jr.
During 1920 . Smithsonian 1966 Pueblo and Spanish
Warriors
Miscellaneous Collections 81 ( 12 ) . Conquest, Norman : University of
Smithsonian Institution , Oklahoma Press .
Washington , D.C. Useful discussion of the role of
Jeacon notes a number of ruins Pueblo Indians as military troops
he saw in the area including low and the general underestimation
" towers " . He also discusses some of the importance of war fare
of his work and observations at among the Rio Grande Pueblos .
" the Bagley Ranch
Ranch ,, "' Pot Creek ,
and the Llano Ruin . ( Taos Area , Jorde , Lynn B.
Carson National Forest . ) 1977 Precipitation Cycles and Cultural

169
 Buffering in the Prehistoric An Interpretative Summary of the
Southwest . Pp . 385-396 in For PaleoIndian Occupation of the
Plains and Southwest . ( Ms.
Theory Building in Archaeology : submitted to the Handbook of
Essays onFaunal Remains,Aquatic
Resources, Spatial Analysis , and North American Indian , William C.
Systemic Modeling, Lewis R. Sturtevant , ed . for Volume 3. )
Bin ford, ed . New York : Academic (General overview , PaleoIndian . )
Press .
Jorde uses the mathematical Judge, W. James and Jerry Dawson
device spectral analysis to
of 1972 PaleoIndian Settlement Technology
in New Mexico . Science 176 : 1210
examine tree - ring series . He is
1216 .
there fore able to measure changes
in the periodicity in rain fall . ( Albuquerque Area, PaleoIndian . )

Judd , Neil M. Kaplan , Lawrence

Archaeological Investigations at 1963 Archeoethnobotany of Cordova
1922
Cave , New Mexico , Economic
Pueblo Bonito, Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 72 (15 ) : Botany 17 ( 4 ) : 350-359.
106-117 . (General overview , pertaining to
ethnobotany . )
Judge , W. James
1970 Systems Analysis and the Folsom Kayser, D. W. and G. H. Ewing
Midland Question , Southwestern 1971 Salvage Archaeology in the Galisteo
Journal of Anthropology 26 (1) : Dam and Reservoir Area , New
40-51 . Mexico (Ms. Laboratory of Anthro
( General overview , PaleoIndian . ) pology, Museum of New Mexico ,
Santa Fe ) .
1973 The Paleo Indian Occupation of the Reports include LA 9142 The
Central Rio Grande Valley, New Signal Site ( Historic ) , LA 6860 -
The Wheeler Site ( Classic ) , LA
Mexico . Albuquerque:University
of New Mexico Press . 9147 The Waldo Site (Coalition ) ,
( Albuquerque , PaleoIndian . ) LA 356 - La Bolsa Site (Archaic )
and a report on the pollen by
Schoenwetter . There are also
1974 The Excavation of Tijeras Pueblo
1971-1973 : Preliminary Report notes on the ceramics by H.
Cibola National Forest , New Mexico . Warren .
Archeological Report No. 3 , USDA
Forest Service , Southwestern Kearney , Thomas H. , Robert H. Peebles
Region , Albuquerque , N.m. and collaborators
1951 Arizona Flora . Berkeley :
Discusses the research design and University
first three seasons of excavation of Cali fornia Press .
of the University of New Mexico (General overview , botany) .
Field School work at LA 581 .
( Albuquerque , Cibola National Keleher, William A.
Forest . ) 1952 Turmoil in New Mexico : 1846-1868 ,
Santa Fe ? Rydal
Press.
1976 The Development of a Complex
Cultural Ecosystem in the Chaco Kenner, Charles L.
Basin , New Mexico ( Ms. Paper 1969 A History of New Mexican - Plains
Submitted to the First Con ference Indians Relations, Norman :
on ScientificResearch in the University of Oklahoma Press .
National Parks , 9-13 November Provides discussion of the impor
1976 , New Orleans , Louisiana . ) tance of the " Kiowa trade " in
An excellent review of new in for bringing U.s. goods to Spanish
mation on Canyon and
Chaco New Mexico and how the opening
of legal trade with the U.S.
environs ; includes paleoenviron
mental data and a re - interpretation during the Mexican period created
of the Chaco phenonenon . the climate for increased raiding
by Plains groups because a source
n.d. Early Man : Plains and Southwest : of their livelihood was disrupted .

170
Kidder , Alfred V. 1958 Pecos , New Mexico :
1915 Pottery of the Pajarito Plateau Archaeological Notes , Papers of
and of Some Adjacent Regions in Robert S. Peabody Foundation for
New Mexico , Memoir of the Archaeology, No. 5 , Andover .
American Anthropological
Association , V 2, pp . 407-462 . 1974 ( reprint )
Pottery of the Pajarito Plateau .
1916 The Pueblo of Pecos , Notes that Biscuit wares have a
Archaeological Institute of America , more northern distribution than
Papers of the School of American Redwares ( Glazes ) but that Biscuit
Research , No. 33 , Santa Fe . predominates at the larger sites
Relevant to the Santa Fe of the Pajarito at Otowi, Tsakowi
District . ) and Tschirege and Redware at
1917 The old North Pueblo of Pecos , Puye , T younyi and Yapashi .
the Condition of the Main Pecos Suggests possible explanations :
Ruin , Archaeological Institute of I. mixing of two groups of
America , Papers of the School of peoples ; II . di fferent centers of
American Research , No. 38 , Santa production with pots distributed
Fe . by trade ; III . one ware played
some special role in the ceremonial
1924 An Introduction to the Study of or mortuary religious life and was
Southwestern Archaeology , with a more conservative ;; IV . diver
Preliminary Account of the Exca gent evolution from a common
vations at Pecos , Papers of the earlier form .
Phillips Academy Southwestern ( Pajarito Plateau , Santa Fe
Expedition , No. 1. New Haven . National Forest . )
This work constitutes an impor
tant historical reference to the Kidder , A. V. and A. O. Shepard
research interests of the pioneers 1936 The Pottery of Pecos , Vol . II :
of Southwestern archeology , as The Glaze - paint , Culinary , and
other Wares , Papers of the
well as important data on Pecos .
Southwest Expedition , No. 7 ,
1925 Pecos Exlorations in 1924 , Phillips Academy, Andover , Yale
Archaeological Institute of America , University Press .
Papers of the School of American Profusely illustrated classic
Research , new series No. ll, reference .
Santa Fe .
Kirkpatrick , David T.
1926a Early Pecos Ruins in the Forked 1976a The Prehistory of Northeastern
Archaeological New Mexico . Pp . 77-82 , New
Lightning Ranch ,
Institute of America , Papers of Mexico Geological Society 27th
the School of American Research Field Conference , Vermejo Park .
new series , No. 16 , Santa Fe . Rodney C. Ewing and Barry S.
Contains description of the Forked Kues , eds .
Lightning Ruin and other , appar Brief but fine discussion of work
ently , Coalition sites in the done in the Cimmarron area and a
vicinity of Pecos Pueblo . (Rele synthesis of the prehistory .
vant the Santa Fe District . ) ( Taos Area , Carson National
Forest . )
1926b The Excavations at Pecos in 1925 ,
Archaeological Institute of America , 1976b Archaeological Investigations in
Papers of the School of American the Cimarron District , North
Research , new series , No. 14 , eastern New Mexico : 1929-1975 .
Santa Fe AWANYU 4 ( 3 ) : 6-15 .
Article provides a complete archeo
1927 Southwestern Archaeological logical history of the Cimarron
Con ference , Science 68 : 489-491 . district as well as a summary of
Report on the first Pecos con in formation by culture and time
ference . Includes the basis of period . ( Taos Area , Carson
developmental schemes , National Forest . )

171
 1977 Preliminary Archaeological Survey and Social and Economic Problems
of Ponil Park , New Mexico ( Ms. of Northern New Mexico , New
submitted to Mr. Robert U. Mexico Business 17 ( 9 ) : 15-22 .
Haslanger, Vermejo Park , Raton , Analysis of program failures in
New Mexico ) . several communities.
Archival research and site survey
on historic structures associated Koczan , Steven
with logging operations at Ponil 1978 Archeological Investigations , New
Park , Contains excellent in for Mexico State Highway Department
mation about the organization of 1-040-3 ( 55 ) 171 , Tijeras Canyon ,
labor at logging camps , the New Mexico ,
Excavation of LA
architecture of early 20th century 13812 . of New Mexico
Museum
logging camps , etc. Research Papers . Santa Fe .
TAlbuquerque, Cibola National
Kirkpatrick , David T. and Richard I. Ford Forest . )
1977 Basketmaker Food Plants from the
Cimarron District, Northeastern Kroeber , A. L.
New Mexico . The Kiva 42 ( 3-4 ) : 1916 Zuni Potsherds , Anthropological
257-269 . Papers of the American Museum of
Good discussion of plant material Natural History, Vol. 18 , pt. 1. ,
recovered from dated Basketmaker New York ,
III sites by flotation . ( Taos The classic study of the applica
Area , Carson National Forest . ) tion of the direct historical
approach in Southwestern
Klaenhammer , Anita M. archeology .
1975 Public Service Company San Juan
to Ojo Transmission Line Project : Lahren , L. and R. Bonnichsen
Archeological exploration and 1974 Bone Foreshafts From a Clovis
Salvage at LA 11836 , Rio Arriba Burial in Southwestern Montana .
County , New Mexico, Laboratory Science 186 : 147-150 .
of Anthropology Notes No. llla , ( PaleoIndian . )
Museum of New Mexico , Santa Fe .
A quarrying and manufacturing Lambert, Marjorie
area near Youngsville . 1954 Paa- ko . School for America
Research Monographs 19. Santa
Klausner , Stephanie Fe .
1977 A Cultural Assessment of the Discussion of excavation of pre
Area Proposed for the Future historic and historic components
City of Santa Fe Wastewater
of this large , Pueblo III - Pueblo
Treatment Site ( Ms. on file , IV site . ( Albuquerque , Santa
Laboratory of Anthropology , Fe areas . )
Museum of New Mexico , Santa
Fe ) . Lang , Richard W.
Report contains a list of sites 1976 An Archaeological Survey of
known through a literature search Certain Lands Adjacent to the
and includes a plan for a remote Galisteo Dam , New Mexico .
sensing survey of the area within School of American Research ,
the city of Santa Fe . Santa Fe ,
( Santa Fe , Santa Fe National
Kluckhohn , C. , W. W. Hill and L. W. Forest . )
Kluckhohn
1971 Navaho Material Culture, 1977a Archaeological Survey of the
Cambridge: The Belknap Press Upper San Cristobal Arroyo
of Harvard University Press . Drainage , Galisteo Basin , Santa
Reference contains excellent Fe County , New Mexico , The
photographs in addition to descrip School of American Research
tions . Good for the variability in Contract Program , Santa Fe .
Navajo items and house types . Lang provides extensive discus
sion of sites located and inter
Knowlton , Clark S. pretations in terms of Galisteo
1964 One Approach to the Economic Basin prehistory in general . His

172
 interpretations are heavily influ 6461 , the Red Snake Hill Site
enced by paleoclimatological recon ( Late Kwahele Period pithouses )
structions . There is a good deal the North Bank Site LA 6462
of in formation on rock art incor (multi - component site consisting
porated in the report . of Kwahele pithouses and Santa
Fe period sur face structures ) ,
1977b The Prehistoric Pueblo Cultural and LA 6455 , the Alfred Herrara
Sequence in the Northern Rio Site ( multi - component site con
Grande . ( Paper delivered at the sist ing of pithouses , pit rooms
50th Pecos Conference , Pecos , and surface rooms ) .
New Mexico ) .
An overview presented as the Lange , C. H. and Carrol Riley , eds .
introductory paper to the Rio 1966 The Southwestern Journals of
Grande symposium . Adolf Bandelier 1880-1882 ,
( General overview ) . Albuquerque : University of New
1977c An Archaeological Survey of Mexico Press .
Certain State Lands within the
Drainages of Arroyo de la Vega Laumback , K. W. , T. Sudar-Murphy ,
de los Tanos and Arroyo Tonque B. J. Naylor , S. A. Rorex
Sandoval County , New Mexico , 1977 Description of Five Sites in White
The School of American Research Rock Canyon : LA 5013 , LA 5014 ,
Contract Archaeology Program , LA 12511 , LA 12512 and LA 12522 ,
Santa Fe. pp.29-82 In Archeological
Report of seven sites within the Investigations in Cochiti Reservoir ,
drainage of Arroyo de la Vega de New Mexico , Volume 2 : Excavation
los Tanos , on state trust land . and Analysis 1975 Season , Richard
Sites are described on the C. Chapman and V. Biella ,
Jan V.
basis of survey only . A brief eds . , University of New Mexico ,
archeological sequence of known Department of Anthropology ,
sites in the area is given . Office of Contract Archeology ,
Albuquerque .
Lange , Charles H. Jr.
1941 The Evans Site : A Contribution Laurie , Karen Pillmore
to the Archeology of the Gallina 1976 History of Vermejo Park . Pp .
Region , Northern New Mexico . 87-92 in New Mexico Geological
( Unpublished MA thesis , University Society Guid gebook , 27th Field
of New Mexico , Albuquerque . ) Con ference , Vermejo Park .
Provides discussion linking Gallina Rodney C. Ewing and Barry S.
remains with the Jemez . Relevant Kues , eds .
to the Santa Fe National Forest . Briefs discussion of both gold
mining and
and logging activity at
1956 The Evans Site and the Archeology Vermejo Park and surrounding
of the Gallina Region of New area . ( Taos Area , Carson
Mexico . El Palacio 63 ( 3 ) : 72-92 . National Forest . )
A distillation of Lange's 1941 MA
thesis . ( Gallina Area , Santa Fe Lee , Richard B.
National Forest . ) 1968 What Hunters do for a living , or
How to make out on Scarce
1959 Cochiti , a New Mexico Pueblo , Resources . Pp . 30-48 , in R. B.
Past and Present, Austin : Lee and I. Devore , eds . Man the
University of Texas Press . Hunter , Chicago : Aldine .
Descriptive ethnography . Based on field data from the
! Kung , Lee observes a consider
Lange , Charles H. , assembler able amount of " leisure time . "
1968 The Cochiti Dam Archaeological 1969 ! Kung Bushman Subsistence ; Pp .
Salvage Project , Part 1 : Report 47-79 in A. P. Vayda , ed .
on the 1963 Season , Museum of Environment and Cultural Behavior ,
New Mexico Research Records , Garden City : Natural History
No. 6 , Santa Fe . Press .
Reports on the excavations of LA

173
Lent , Stephen C. and Randall Schalk presence of Red Mesa Black - on
1977 An Archeological Survey of a 13.5 white and similarities between
Mile Power Line Right - of -Way on these sites and those reported in
Santa Clara Pueblo Lands and the Navajo Reservoir area . One
BLM Lands ( Ms. on file , Office of archeomag netic date of A.D. 1120
Contract Archeology , University + 25 years obtained from LA 9205
of New Mexico , Albuquerque ) . was from a surface structure and
Survey for Public Service not a pithouse . ( Taos Area ,
Company of New Mexico recorded Carson National Forest . )
7 Archaic sites , 2 PI - PII sites
and 2 Historic sites . A voidance Lopez , Larry
was recommended . The report 1975 Taos Valley : A Historical Survey,
contains a good background Boulder : Western Interstate
statement of Anasazi prehistory . Commission for Higher Education .
General history of the Taos
Leonard , Olen E. Valley . There are biases in the
1970 The Role of the Land Grant in presentation but some very good
the Social Organization and Social in formation as well .
Processes of a Spanish - American
Village in New Mexico , Luebben , Ralph A.
Albuquerque : Calvin Horn , 1953 Leaf Water Site , In Salvage
( reprint of 1943 Ph.D Archaeology in the Chama Valley ,
Dissertation , Louisiana State New Mexico , Fred Wendorf, ed .
University . ) Monographs of the School of
Pertains specifically to El Cerrito . American Research , No. 17 , Santa
Fe .
Lister , Robert H. Discussion of the Leaf Water Site
1948 Notes on the Archaeology of the (LA300 ) a " Wiyo " ruin in the
Watrous Valley , New Mexico . El Chama Valley .
Palacio 55 : 35-41 .
Brief report on mention of the 1968 Site TA 32 : A Deep Pit House
area from description by and Surface Mani festation in
Bandelier , Moorehead , Mason , North Central New Mexico . In
Holden and Renaud and a brief Herold and Luebben , Papers on
discussion of the excavation of Taos Archaeology . Fort Burgwin
one room at the Lymam site which Research Center Report No. 7.
Lister carried out . ( Taos Area . ) Reports the results of the first
Grinnell College field Program in
1966 Contributions to Mesa Verde Archeology ( July 1960 ) . Despite
Archaeology : III , Site 866 , and the recovery of much wood the
the Cultural Sequence at Four dates are based on the absence of
Villages in the Far View Group , other than Taos Black - on - white ,
Mesa Verde National Park , dating the pithouse at A.D.
Colorado . University of Colorado 900-1200 . Numerous points sug
Studies, Series in Anthropology, gest hunting as the major activity ,
No. 12 , Boulder . but corn ( Cutler analysed it as
being closer to Pima - Papago than
Loose , Ann A. modern Eastern Pueblo corn ) , a
1974 Archeological Excavations Near possible bean seed , and a whole
Arroyo Hondo , Carson National turkey were found . ( Taos Area ,
Forest . Archeological Report No. Carson National Forest . )
4. USDA Forest Service , South
western Region , Albuquerque . Lummis, Charles
This is a discussion of 8 Valdez 1900 Fray Zarate Salermon's Relacion ,
Phase sites excavated by Land of Sunshine 12 : 39-48 ,
University of New Mexico field 104-113 , 180-187 .
school between 1965 and 1967 .
Basically she thinks these sites Luomala , Katherine
are earlier than other published 1938 Navaho Life of Yesterday and
Valdez Phase sites because of the Today Berkeley : Western Museum

174
 Laboratories , U. S. Department of Synthesis of evidence from micro
Interior , National Park Service . fauna , corn , pollen and geological
Provides useful in formation on studies indicating increasing
locations of various types of dessication in the Gallina Cultural
Navajo sites , site function and an District after A.D. 1250 . ( Santa
overview of Navajo history . Fe National Forest . )

Lutes , Eugene MacNeish , Richard S.

1959 A Marginal Prehistoric Culture of 1971 Speculation about How and Why
Northwestern New Mexico . El Food Production and Village Life
Palacio 66 : 59-68 . Developed in the Tehuacan Valley ,
Mexico , Archaeology 24 ( 4 ) :
Report deals with excavation at
Philmont Boy Scout Ranch . A 307-315 .

slab house and a jacal structure

were excavated . Comparisons are Madirosian , Charles A.
made with the Taos area and 1971 Mining Districts and Mineral
Herbert Dick's work near Deposits of New Mexico . Salt
Trinidad , Colorado . A suggested Lake City .
Data used to compile map and
chronology is given . ( Taos Area ,
table of mining districts and
Carson National Forest . )
materials mined .
Lyckman , Ernest
1976 Railroads in the Taos Area . Martin , Paul Schultz
( Transcribed from Tapes 2 & 3. , 1963 The Last 10,000 Years, Tucson :
University of Arizona Press .
Radio Station KKIT , December 15 ,
1976 ) . A very general overview of paleo
An in formative account of the climatic changes using pollen

impact of railroads on the Taos spectra .

area from 1878 to 1941 . ( Taos
Area , Carson National Forest . ) 1973 The Discovery of America , Science
179 : 969-974 .
Lyons, Thomas R. Computer simulation of Pleistocene
1969 A Study of Paleo - Indian and kill rates and peopling of the New
Desert Culture Complexes of the World .
Estancia Valley Area , New Mexico . Martin , Paul Schultz and H. E. Wright ,
editors
( Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation ,
Department of Anthropology , 1967 Pleistocene Extinctions : The
University of New Mexico , Search for Cause , New Haven :
Cause,
Albuquerque . ) Yale University Press .
(General overview , pertaining to ( General overview pertaining to
PaleoIndian . ) PaleoIndian . )

Lyons, Thomas R. and Robert K. Martin , Paul S. and John B. Rinaldo

Hitchcock 1950 Turkey Foot Ridge Site : A
1977 Remote Sensing Interpretation of Mogollon Village Pine Lawn Valley ,
Anasazi Land Route System . Pp . Western New Mexico , Fiel diana :
111-134 in Aerial Remote Sensing Anthropology 38 ( 2 ) . Chicago
Natural History Museum .
Techniques in Archeology , T. R.
Lyons and R. K. Hitchcock , eds .
Albuquerque : Reports of the Martin , Paul S. , John B. Rinaldo , Elaine
Chaco Center 2 . National Park Bluhm , Hugh Cutler and Roger Grange Jr.
Service and the University of New 1952 Mogollon Culture Continuity and
Mexico . Change : the Stratigraphic
Good discussion of the Chacoan Analysis of Tularosa and Cordova
road system , with maps . Caves Fiel diana : Anthropology
40 . Chicago Natural History
Mackey , James C. and Sally J. Holbrook Museum , Chicago .
1978 Environmental Reconstruction and ( General overview . )
the Abandonment of the Largo
Gallina Area . Journal of Field Maxon , James C.
Archaeology 5 (1) : 29-49. 1969 A Study of Two Prehistoric

175
 Pueblo Sites on the Pajarito 1935 Ceramic Clues to the Prehistory
Plateau New Mexico ( Unpublished of North Central New Mexico .
M.A. thesis , Department of Laboratory of Anthropology
Anthropology , University of Technical Series , Bulletin 8.
Wisconsin ) . Museum of New Mexico , Santa Fe .
Reports consists of a summary of ( General overview , pertaining to
LA 8681 and LA 170 . The former Anasazi ) .
is a 21 room masonry pueblo dated
to ca. 1200 to 1300 . The latter 1938 Some Aspects of the Largo
consists of cavate rooms and talus Cultural Phase , Northern New
houses on Tshirege Mesa . Exca Mexico . American Antiquity 3 ( 3 ) :
vated rooms seem to date from the 236-242 .
Coalition Period into the Classic . Relevant to the Gallina Cultural
( Santa Fe National Forest . ) District and the Gobernador area .
( Santa Fe National Forest . )
McGehee , Ralph M.
1963 Weather : Complex Causes of 1940 Population Changes in the Rio
Aridity ; In Carl Hodge and Peter Grande Glaze Paint Area .
Laboratory of Anthropology
c. Duisberg, eds . , Aridity and
Man - The Challange of the Arid Technical Series 9. Santa Fe .
Lands in the United States . (General overview , pertaining to
Washington : Publication 74 Anasazi . )
American Association for the
Advancement of Science . n.d. Report on Excavations at LA 653
and LA 641 . ( Ms. on file ,
McNutt , Charles H. Laboratory of Anthropology ,
1969 Early Puebloan Occupation at Museum of New Mexico Santa Fe . )
Tesuque By - Pass and in the Report on the excavation of two
Upper Rio Grande Valley . isolated Gallina structures .
Anthropological Papers of the ( Relevant to the Santa Fe National
University of Michigan 40 . Forest . )
University of Michigan , Ann
Arbor . Miller , John P. , Arthur Montgomery , and
Monograph discussion of
provides Patrick K. Sutherland
the excavation and interpretation 1963 Geology of Part of the Southern
of LA 3294 , as well as a re Sangre de Cristo Mountains , New
evaluation of upper middle Rio Mexico . Stratigraphy , Structure
Grande Prehistory which differs and Petrology of the Tesuque
from that of Wendorf and Reed Velarde - Tres Ritos- Cowles Thirty
( 1955 ) . Minute Quadrangle . Memoir 11,
State Bureau of Mining and
Mehringer , P. J. Technology Campus Station ,
1967 Pollen Analysis and the Alluvial Socorro .
Chronology , The Kiva 32 : 96-101 . Standard current geological
reference . ( Taos Area , Carson
Meinig , D. W. and Santa Fe National Forests . )
1971 Southwest : Three Peoples in
Geographical Change, 1600-1970 , Mohr , Albert and L. L. Sample
New York : Oxford University 1972 Archaeological Excavation at Site
Press . No. LA 102 Rio Arriba County ,
New Mexico 1972 . Laboratory of
Mera , H. P. Anthropology Notes No. 83 .
1933 A Proposed Revision of the Rio Museum of New Mexico , Santa Fe .
Grande Glaze - paint Sequence , Report of the excavation of
Laboratory of Anthropology " Pueblo - like " structures which
Technical Series, Bulletin 5, seem to have served largely as
Santa Fe . storage facilities . (Gallina
A long with Kidder's scheme, Cultural District , Santa Fe
provides a classic reference to National Forest . )
the glazes .

176
Montgomery , C. M. to vary from one drainage to
1964 Rock Lake Shelter , El Palacio another . ( Taos Area , Carson
71 ( 5-14 ) . National Forest . )

Moorhead , M. L. Morenon , E. Pierre, Mark Henderson and

1958 New Mexico's Royal Road . Jeff Nielson
Norman : University of Oklahoma 1976 The Development of Conservation
Press . Techniques and a Land Use Study
Account of the Santa Fe to Conducted Near Ranchos de Taos ,
Chihuahua road and trade . New Mexico . ( Ms. on file , USDA
(General overview , pertaining to Forest Service , Southwestern
Historic . ) Regional Office , Albuquerque ) .
Presents an evaluation of non
Morenon , E. Pierre pickup survey in of terms
1975 A Proposal for the Development efficiency , evaluation of 11
and
of Conservation Techniques and " propositions " which relate
An Evaluation of Land Use in the expected artifact densities and
Ranchos de Taos Region . (Ms. on characteristics of the environ
file , USDA Forest Service, South ment , and general archeological
western Regional Office , considerations . ( Taos Area ,
Albuquerque . ) Carson National Forest . )
His basic questions
research
derive from the SARG conferences Morenon , E. Pierre and Kathleen H. Quinn
and concern the way in which 1977 The Evaluation of Predictive
land sur faces have been used Models and In ferences about
through time . This proposal Human Behavior . (Ms. on file
contains his field manual and USDA Forest Service , South
survey area maps . ( Taos Area , western Regional Office,
Carson National Forest . ) Albuquerque . )
This reports the result of work
1976 An Introduction to Excavations at designed to test notions about :
" Sagebrush Pueblo " . ( TA 30 : TA I. the utility (in terms of infor
500 ) : 1976 , ( Ms. on file , Fort mation gained ) of recording
Burgwin Research Center , artifact densities ( rather than
Ranchos de Taos , New Mexico ) . sites ) ; II . variability in human
This paper was prepared for behavior from one drainage to
participants in the Southern another and III . contrasts in
Methodist University summer in formation obtained when con
archeology field school . sidering prehistoric and modern
Background to the previous work land use . They find a general
at TA : 30 and the 1976 research arti fact (rather than site )
orientation . ( Taos Area, Carson approach useful. They think
National Forest . ) specific models using elevation
and slope are more appropriate
1977 A Proposal for the Development than drainage specific ones . In
and Evaluation of Artifact and contrast to prehistoric data ,
Site Predictive Model in an Area modern data indicate that the
Near Ranchos de Taos . ( Ms. on number of behavioral acts repre
file USDA Forest Service South sented in functional types do
western Regional Office , contribute to the density of
Albuquerque . ) arti facts . ( Taos Area , Carson
Suggests using predictive linear National Forest . )
regression model for non-site ( ie .
artifact) densities . The model is Morris , Earl H.
based on elevation , slope, dis 1921 The House of the Great Kiva at
tance from water and applied to the Aztec Ruin , American Museum
an area in Kit Carson Forest . He of Natural History Anthropological
suggests , that the model should Papers, Vol 26 , pt. 2 , New York .
be drainage specific and that past
human behavior could be expected 1939 Archaeological Studies in the

177
 La Plata District , Southwestern Pueblos in the Thirteenth Century ,
Colorado Northwestern New
and pp . 153-158 . In Indian Tribes of
Mexico . Carnegie Institution of Aboriginal America Selected
Washington , Publication 519 . XXIXth International
Papers of the
Washington . Congress of Americanists, Sol
Tax , ed . Chicago : University of
Morris , Earl H. and Robert F. Burgh Chicago Press .
1954 Basket Maker II Sites Near
Durango, Colorado , Carnegie Ortiz , Alfonso A.
Institution of Washington 1969 The Tewa Vorld , Chicago :
Publication 604, Washington . University of Chicago Press .
Detailed structural analysis of
Nelson , Nels C. Tewa cosmology , ritual, and social
1914 Pueblo Ruins of the Galisteo organization .
Basin , New Mexico ,
Anthropological Papers of the Ortiz , Alfonso A. , editor
American Museum of Natural 1972 New Perspectives on the Pueblos ,
History 15 , pt. 1. Albuquerque : University of New
Nelson's classic work involved Mexico Press ( School of American
survey and testing of the Galisteo Research ) .
ruins , Report contains excellent Selection of contemporary anthro
descriptions of the sites and pological work ranging from
chronological in ferences . Minor ecology and ethnohistory to ritual
archeological features are des and ethnomusicology .
cribed ( i.e. shrines , garden plots
etc. ) . Ottaway , Harold Nelson
1976 The Penitente Moradas of the
Northrop , Stuart A. Taos , New Mexico , Area .
1975 Turquoise and Spanish Mines in ( Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation ,
New Mexico , Albuquerque : Department of Anthropology ,
University of New Mexico Press . University of Oklahoma, Norman . )
An excellent concise history of ( Taos Area , Carson National
early mining , extensively docu Forest . )
mented , with a good bibliography .
Parsons , Elsie C.
Oaks , Yvonne Roye 1925 The Pueblo of Jemez ,
1977 Testing of a Predictive Model for Southwestern Expedition Paper
Paleo - Indian Site Location . ( Ms. No. 3 , PhillipsAcademy Depart
on file , Department of ment of Archaeology , Yale
Anthropology , University of New University Press , New Haven .
Mexico , Albuquerque ) .
( General overview , pertaining to 1936 Taos Pueblo . Santa Fe :
PaleoIndian . ) Laboratory of Anthropology.
Descriptive ethnography .
1978 Excavations at Dead -Man's Curve
Tijeras Canyon , New Mexico : New Parsons , Francis B.
Mexico State Highway Department 1975 Early 17th Century Missions of
Projects 1-040-3 ( 55 ) 171 and the Southwest , With Historical
1-040-3 ( 36 ) 169 . ( Ms. on file , Introduction , Tucson : Dale
Laboratory of Anthropology , Stuart King, Publisher .
Museum of New Mexico , Santa Written from an architect's point
Fe ) . of view , contains useful in for
Report on the Big Boulder Site , mation and is profusely
Dinosaur Rock and two smaller illustrated .
sites in Tijeras Canyon . Includes
complete faunal, ceramic and lithic Pattison , Natalie B.
analysis. ( Albuquerque , Cibola 1968 Nogales Cliff House : A Largo
National Forest . ) Gallina ( Unpublished MA
Site .
thesis, University of New Mexico ,
O'Bryan , Deric Albuquerque ) .
1952 The Abandonment of the Northern

178
 Report contains descriptive in for County , New Mexico . ( Revised
mation on 11 unit house and sur report ) ( Ms. on file , U.S.D.A.
face structures excavated by the Forest Service , Southwestern
University of New Mexico above Regional Office , Albuquerque ,
Llegua Canyon . (Gallina Cultural and Laboratory of Anthropology ,
District , Santa Fe National Museum of New Mexico , Santa
Forest . ) Fe . )
Revised report of the 1958 excava
Peckham , Stewart L. tion of LA 3505 . Pertains to the
1954 A Pueblo I Site near San Felipe, Chama District and the Carson
New Mexico . Highway Salvage National Forest . The report
contains some comparisons with
Archaeology 1 ( 4 ) : 41-51 .
Excavation of a jacal structure , the Riana Ruin and Leaf Water
kiva and pithouse with Lino Gray Pueblo .
and " Red Mesa (?) " sherds .
( Albuquerque and Santa Fe Peckham , Stewart and Frik K. Reed
Areas ) . 1963 Three Sites Near Ranchos de
Taos , New Mexico , Highway
1957 Three Pithouse Sites Near Salvage Archaeology 4 ( 3 ) : 1-30 .
Albuquerque , New Mexico . LA 3643 was a pithouse, LA 3569 ,
Highway Salvage Archeology a four room jacal structure and
3 ( 12 ) . Santa
Fe . LA 3570 a subterranean room of
( Albuquerque , Cibola National " unknown " function , Most of the
Forest ) . report is a discussion of ceramics .
Relevant to the Taos District .
1966 The Transitional Period . Pp .
10-13 In Contributions to Pettit , R. F. Jr.
Southwestern Prehistory , VII 1966 History of Mining in Col fax
INQUA . Eastern New Mexico County . Pp . 69-75 in New Mexico
University , Cynthia Irwin - Williams, Geological Society Guidebook ,
ed . Boulder and Denver . 17th Field Con ference Taos - Raton
A brief narrative summary of Spanish Peaks Country , New
major prehistoric " trends " between Mexico and Colorado . Stuart A.
500 A.D. and 1500 . (General Northrop and Charles B. Read ,
overview . ) eds .
History of mining activity from
1974a Report of Archeological Activities , the early 1860's . Of special
Museum of New Mexico for the interest is the discussion of the
Year 1974 , ( Ms. on file , USDA construction of the " Big Ditch "
Forest Service , Southwest ern and reservoirs on Baldy Mountain .
Regional Office , Albuquerque and ( Taos Area , Carson National
Laboratory of Anthropology , Forest . )
Museum of New Mexico , Santa
Fe . ) Plog , Fred
Explains that the emphasis of the 1974a The Study of Prehistoric Change.
Laboratory of Anthropology's New York : Academic Press .
work has been toward preserva
tion of resources , because in 1974b Settlement Patterns and Social
surveying rights -of- way there is History , pp . 68-91 in Frontiers in
little opportunity to conduct the Anthropology, Murray Leaf, ed .
kinds of broad area surveys New York : Van Nostrand .
which would contribute substan
tially to the fields of archeology Plog , Fred et al.
and history . (Gallina and Chama 1968 SARG : Future Research
Areas , Santa Fe National Forest . ) Directions , pp . 177-186 in
Investigations of the Southwestern
1974b The Palisade Ruin La 3505 . Anthropological Research Group ,
Archaeological Salvage Excavations The Proceedings of the 1976
Near the Abiquiu Dam , Rio Arriba Con ference , Robert C. Euler and

179
 George J. Gumerman , eds . , of the Valdez Phase because of
Flagstaff: Museum of Northern lack of Santa Fe Black - on - white .
Arizona . Notes that dental attrition is less
than that of burials from Pot
Powell , Nena Creek . ( Taos Area , Carson
1977 An Archaeological Clearance National Forest . )
Survey of a Proposed Powerline
from Taos to Ojo Caliente , New Reed , Erik K.
Mexico . ( Ms. on file , New Mexico 1943 The Southern Tewa Pueblos in
State University , No. 125 , Las the Historic Period , El Palacio
Cruces ) . 50 : 254-264 .
Survey includes Carson National
Forest lands and Bureau of Land 1949 Sources of Upper Rio Grande
Management lands . Four sites are Pueblo Culture and Population , El
" Archiac or possible Basketmaker Palacio 56 : 163-184 .
or Early Anasazi . " Two of the Attempt to reconstruct migration
sites are Historic . ( Taos Area , routes .
Carson National Forest . )
Reeve , Frank D.
Powell, W. J. 1964 New Mexico, a Short Illustrated
1958 Groundwater Resources of the History Denver : Sage Books.
San Luis Valley , Colorado , USGS
Survey Water -Supply Paper 1379, Reichard , G. A.
1-24 . Washington . 1928 Social Life of the Navaho Indians ,
Relevant information on the Upper Columbia University Contributions
Rio Grande River Valley . to Anthropology, Vol. VII, New
York .
Powers , W. E. Exceptionally useful reference but
1939 Basin and Shore Features of the difficult to find .
Extinct Lake San Agustin , New
Mexico . Journal of Geomorphology Reinhart , Theodore R.
2 : 345-56 . 1967a The Rio Rancho Phase : A Prelimi
Geological reconstruction of lake nary Report on Early Basketmaker
levels in the Pleistocene- Recent Culture in the Middle Rio Grande
lake in the San Agustin Basin . Valley , New Mexico . American
( General overview ,, pertaining to Antiquity 32 ( 4 ) : 458-470 .
Paleoclimatology . ) Discussion of early Basketmaker
( Basketmaker II sites ) on the
Purtyman , William D. and Steven Johansen west mesa of Albuquerque .
1974 General Geohydrology of the (General overview , pertaining to
Pajarito Plateau . New Mexico
Archaic , Albuquerque Area . )
Geological Society Guidebook, 25th
Field Conference, Ghost Ranch .. 1967b The Alameda Phase : An Early
Charles T. Siemers , ed . Basketmaker III Culture in the
This is a use ful discussion of the Middle Rio Grande Valley , New
geohydrology of a complex area . Mexico . Southwestern Lore
( Pajarito Plateau , Santa Fe 33 (1 ) : 24-32 .
National Forest . ) ( Albuquerque , Cibola National
Forest . )
Quinn , Kathleen
1976 Excavation of a Burial at Site 1968 Late Archaic Cultures of the
AR - 03-02-05-87 , Carson National Middle Rio Grande Valley , New
Forest , Near Ranchos de Taos , Mexico : A Study of the Process
Arroyo Miranda . ( Ms. on file
of Culture Change . ( Unpublished
USDA Forest Service, South Ph.D. Dissertation , University of
western Region Albuquerque ) . New Mexico, Albuquerque) .
The burial eroded out of a road Doctoral dissertation on the Rio
cut , apparently associated with Rancho and Alameda Phase sites
pithouses and 2 trash areas . She west of Albuquerque .
suggests a date to the early part

180
 ( Albuquerque , Cibola National the Lindenmeier Site in Northern
Forest . ) Colorado . Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections 95 ( 10 ) .
Reiter , Paul (PaleoIndian . )
1938 The Jemez Pueblo of Unshagi ,
New Mexico with notes on the 1936b A Survey of Southwestern
Earlier Excavations at Archaeology , Smithsonian Annual
" Amoxiumqua " and Giusewa , Report for 1935 , pp . 507-533 .
University of New Mexico Bulletin Washington .
326 , Monograph Series Vol 1, No. Report contains Robert's revised
5 , Albuquerque . developmental scheme for the
Discussion of the excavations in Anasazi .
the ancestral Jemez pueblos .
Tree - ring data contr ibute d by 1937 New Developments in the Problem
Stallings and notes on the ceramic of the Folsom Complex : Explora
technology by Anna Shepard . tions and Field Work at the
Smithsonian in 1936. Smithsonian
Renaud , E. B. Publications 3407 : 69-74 .
1942 Reconnaissance Work in the ( PaleoIndian . )
Upper Rio Grande Valley ,
Colorado and New Mexico , 1942 Archeological and Geological
Department of Anthropology, Investigations in the San Jon
University of Denver, District , Eastern New Mexico ,
Archaeological Series , Third Smithsonian Miscellaneous
Paper , Denver . Collections 103 ( 4 ) .
Discussion of Rio Grande Culture (General overview , pertaining to
arti facts , that is , various lithic PaleoIndian . )
sites and artifacts .
Robinson , William J. , John W. Hannah and
1946 Archeologyof the Upper Rio Bruce G. Harrill
Grande Basin in Southern Colorado 1972 Tree - Ring Dates from New Mexico ,
and Northern New Mexico , I, O , U Central Rio Grande,
Department of Anthropology , Laboratory of Tree - Ring Research ,
University of Denver , Tucson : The University of
Archaeological Series , Sixth Arizona .
Paper , Denver . Basic reference . Contains all
More on " Rio Grande Culture . " available tree- ring dates as of
( General overview PaleoIndian and 1972 from the Santa Fe District,
Archaic . ) Pajarito Plateau and Jemez areas .

Rippy , J.F. Robinson , William J. , Bruce G. Harrill , and

1926 The United States and Mexico . Richard L. Warren
New York : Knopf. 1973 Tree - Ring Dates from New Mexico
J - K , P , V Santa Fe, Pecos -Lincoln
Rittenhouse , Jack D. Area , Laboratory of Tree - Ring
1971 The Santa Fe Trail, A Historical Research , Tucson : The University
Bibliography , Albuquerque : of Arizona .
University of New Mexico Press . Standard reference work con
taining available tree- ring dates
Roberts , Frank H. H. Jr. as of 1973 . Data relevant for the
1935 A Folsom Complex : Preliminary Santa Fe and Galisteo Basin
Report on Investigations at the areas .
Lindenmeier Site in Northern
Colorado . Smithsonian 1974 Tree - Ring Dates from New Mexico
Miscellaneous Collections 94 (4 ) . B, Chaco -Gobernador Area ,
( PaleoIndian . ) Tucson : Laboratory of Tree -Ring
Research , University of Arizona .
1936a Additional In formation on the
Folsom Complex : Report on the Rogers , M. J. et al.
Second Season's Investigations at 1966 Ancient Hunters of the Far West ,,

181
 San Diego : Union Tribune and two students between 8/2 and
Publishing Co. 8/4 1973 . The site is on the first
contour above the Hondo , on a
Discussion of San Dieguito mate
rials ; not found within the study basalt out - crop . This report is
area but relevant ot the Archaic meant to serve as a comparison
in general. for later analysis of Valerie
Hume's material . ( Taos Area ,
Rohn , Arthur H. Carson National Forest . )
1963 Prehistoric Soil and Water Conser
vation on Chapin Mesa , South Sahlins , Marshall
western Colorado , American 1972 Stone Age Economics. Chicago &
Antiquity 28 ( 4 ) : 441-455 . New York : Aldine Atherton , Inc.
A general work in economic and
1977 Cultural Change and Continuity political anthropology . Sahlin's
Mesa , Lawrence : The
on Chapin views are provocative but many
Regents Press University of are not generally accepted .
Kansas .
Sanchez , George I.
Roosa , William B. 1967 Forgotten People : a Study of
New Mexicans Albuquerque :
1956a Preliminary Report on the Lucy
Site . El Palacio 63 : 36-49 . Calvin Horn , (reprint of 1940
(General overview , pertaining to University of New Mexico Press
PaleoIndian . ) volume) .
Saunders , Lyle A
1956b The Lucy Site in
in Central New 1944 A Guide to Materials Bearing on
Mexico . American Antiquity Cultural Relations in New Mexico ,
21 ( 3 ) : 310 . Inter - American Bibliographies III,
(General overview , pertaining to Albuquerque : University of New
PaleoIndian . ) Mexico Press .
Annotated and indexed bibliog
1968 Data Early Sites in Central raphy of 5335 entries.
New Mexico and Michigan . (Unpub
lished PhD Dissertation , University Schaafsma , Curtis F.
of Michigan , Ann Arbor ) . 1968 Archaeological Salvage Investiga
(General overview , pertaining to tions along New Mexico Highway
PaleoIndian . ) . 44 Near Bernalillo , New Mexico .
Laboratory of Anthropology Notes
Roye , Yvonne 5 (49 ) . Museum of New Mexico ,
Santa Fe .
1976 An Archeological Clearance Investi
gation for the Exxon Company , Preliminary report of LA 326
Rio Arriba County, New Mexico , ( Puaray Cemetery) and LA 8991
Lab Notes 126A , Laboratory of ( Loma Barron ) . Fifteen burials
Anthropology , Museum of New
were excavated from LA 326. LA
Mexico , Santa Fe . 8991 is considered an Archaic
Report notes that on the West site . Report does not contain
Chama portion of the project , two analytical results . ( Albuquerque ,
partial obsid ian points of Late
obsidian Cibola National Forest . )
Archaic or Early Basketmaker
affiliation were encountered within 1975a Archaeological Survey and Excava
a lithic scatter . tions at Abiquiu Reservoir, Rio
Arriba County , New Mexico ,
Rule, Pam School of American Research ,
1973 Site 54 : A Lithic Workshop Near Santa Fe .
Valdez , New Mexico . ( Ms. on file , Continuing work as reported in
USDA Forest Service, South Schaafsma 1976 . ( Chama Area,
western Regional Office , Santa Fe National Forest . )
Albuquerque . )
Intensive analysis of lithic mate 1975b Archaeological Clearance Survey
rials collected from corporately for Duval Corporation on Gallina
held private land by Gary Hume Peak , Taos County , New Mexico .

182
 ( Ms. on file , School of American Jornada Mogollon . Data are rock
Research , Santa Fe , and USDA art and kiva murals .
Forest Service , Southwestern
Regional Office , Albuquerque . ) Schilling , John H.
Although no cultural materials 1960 Mineral Resources of Taos County ,
were found , the report contains a New Mexico . Bulletin 71 State
good summary of Taos archeology Bureau of Mines and Mineral
up to 1975 and specific discussion Resources . Socorro : New Mexico
of models for the Archaic . ( Taos Institute of Mining and
Area , Carson National Forest . ) Technology , Campus Station .
In addition to the description of
1976 ArchaeologicalSurvey of Maximum mineral deposits , the report
Pool and Navajo Excavations at contains discussion of the history
Abiquiu Reservoir Rio Arriba of mining activity at Amizette ,
County , New Mexico . School of Twining , La Belle , Anchor ,
American Research , Santa Fe . Midnight , Bitter Creek , Harding ,
Discussion of the Archaic material and Questa Molybdenum , ( Taos
from the Abiquiu Reservoir Area , Carson National Forest . )
District , and Schaafsma's " model "
of archaic annual subsistence Schoenwetter , James
patterns ( derived from the Owens 1962 Pollen Analysis from Eighteen
Valley Paiute ) . ( Chama Area , Archeological Sites in Arizona and
Carson National Forest . ) New Mexico . Fiel diana :
Anthropology 53 : 168-235 .
1977 A Road and Drill Pad Survey for A synthesis of pollen data from
the Questa Molybdenum Company , some 17 archeological sites .
Carson National Forest . In Schoenwetter's major emphasis is
Archeological Report No. 15 : 1-12 . on shifts in seasonality of rain fall,
Miscellaneous Papers , USDA not on variability in amount.
Forest Service Southwestern Pertains primarily to post
Regional Office, Albuquerque . Basketmaker times . (General
One arti fact, a flake tool ( maybe overview , pertianing to Paleo
Archaic ) was found at an eleva climatology . )
tion of 10,080 feet on a south
facing slope . It is fine grained 1966 A Re - evaluation of the Navajo
basalt . ( Taos Area , Carson Reservoir Pollen Chronology . El
National Forest . ) Palacio 73 ( 1 ) : 19-26 .
The revision reflects : I. new
Schaafsma, Polly dating based on continued arche
1972 Rock Art in New Mexico . Santa ological analysis and II . corre
Fe : New Mexico State Planning spondence of the Navajo Reservoir
Office . with other areas of the southwest
This is а state wide survey of from which there are paleo
rock art sites , and although only ecological data . Data are drawn
a small fraction of these sites is primarily from the Navajo
covered , the goal was to obtain a Reservoir , Snow flake - Mesa Redondo
representative sample of rock art area Arizona , the Chuska area ,
sites . A regional approach is Southwestern Utah , Sapawe ,
used . Picuris , Cochiti and the Galisteo
(General overview , pertaining to Basin . There are still acknowl
rock art . ) edged discrepancies and some
data gaps .
Schaafsma, Polly and Curtis F. Schaafsma (General overview . )
1974 Evidence for the Origins of the
Pueblo Katchina Cult as Suggested Schoen wetter , James and Alfred E.
by Southwestern Rock Art . Dittert , Jr.
American Antiquity 39 ( 4 ) Pt . 1968 An Ecological Interpretation of
1 :535-545 . Anasazi Settlement Patterns , pp .
Discussion of the possible origins 41-66 in Anthropological
of the Katchina cult via the Archeology in the Americas, Betty

183
 J. Meg gers, ed . , Washington , Southwestern Prehistory , VII
D.C .: The Anthropological INQUA . Eastern New Mexico
Society of Washington . University , Cynthia Irwin - Williams,
ed . Boulder and Denver .
Scholes, France V. This paper provides good a

1930 " The Supply Service of the New survey of historic referenc es to
Mexico Missions in the 17th past climate in the Southwest , in
Century , " New Mexico Historical addition to a brief review of
Review #5 . historic rebellions , revolts and
General relevance to the historic raiding of various Indian groups .
mission period . (General overview . )

1937 Church and State in New Mexico, 1973a " The Mescalero Apaches, " pp .
1610-1650 , New Mexico Historical 123-144 in Technical Manual, 1973
Society Publications in History , Survey of the Tularosa Basin ,
Vol. 7 . Human Systems Research , Inc.,
General relevance to the historic New Mexico .
mission period . Schroeder provides Spanish
1942
chronicle and other early historic
Troublous Times in New Mexico , references to the Apache groups
1659-1670 , Historical Society of of eastern New Mexico .
New Mexico , Publications in
History, Vol. XI , No. 2 . 1973b The Changing Ways of
Southwestern Indians. Glorieta ,
Schorsch , Russell L. N.M .: Rio Grande Press .
1962 A Basket Maker III Pit House
Near Albuquerque . ΕΙ Palacio Schroeder , Albert H. and Dan S.
69 ( 2 ) : 114-118 . Matson , eds .
Report of the St. Joseph site , 1965 A Colony on the Move : Gaspar
salvaged after having eroded from Castano de Sosa's Journal , Santa
the unpaved State Highway 448 on Fe : School of American Research .
the west mesa of Albuquerque . Accounts relevant to the Galisteo
Excavation was completed in April Pueblos , eastern Apache groups ,
1956 ( site revisited during the etc.
summer ) by the University of New
Mexico Anthropology Club . It is Schultz , C. B. and Larry D. Martin
the first reported pit house with 1970 Quaternary Mammalian Sequence
antechamber this far east in New in the Central Great Plains , pp .
Mexico . ( Albuquerque , Cibola 341-354 in W. Dort, Jr. and J. K.
National Forest . ) Jones, eds . Pleistocene and
Recent Environments of the
Schroeder , Albert H. Central Great Plains, Lawrence :
1953 Brief History of the Chama The University Press of Kansas .
Basin , In Salvage Archaeology in (General overview , pertaining to
the ChamaValley , New Mexico , PaleoIndian . )
Fred Wendorf , ed .
Fe : Santa
Mongoraphs of the School of Schwartz , D. W. and R. W. Lang
American Research No. 17 . 1972 Archaeological Investigations at
Brief discussion of documents the Arroyo Hondo Site Third Field
relating to the first Spanish Report 1972 , School of American
expeditions into the Chama , the Research , Santa Fe .
founding of San Gabriel , the In addition to containing a chro
beginning of Ute trade and the nology of the building phases at
Chama as a " natural trade and Arroyo Hondo , this report inte
travel route . " grates the survey results obtained
by Dickson .
1966 Tentative Ecological and Cultural
Forces and Their Effects on Seaman , Timothy J.
Southwestern Indian Farmers . 1976 Archeological Investigations on
Pp . 17-20 in Contributions to the San Juan -to- Ojo 345KV

184
 Transmission Line for Public Shepard , Anna 0 .
Service Company of New Mexico . 1942 Rio Grande Glaze Paint Ware :
Excavation of LA11843 : An Early Contributions to American
Stockaded Settlement of the Anthropology and History, No.
Gallina Phase . ( Ms. on file , 39 , Carnegie Institute of
Laboratory of Anthropology , Washington , publication 528 ,
Museum of New Mexico , Santa Fe , Washington .
and USDA Forest Service , South Classic reference to the study of
western Regional Office , trade via petragraphic analysis of
Albuquerque . ) glaze ceramics ,
The research design ( developed
by David Snow ) focused on func Sherman , James E. and Barbara H.
tional interpretation of Gallina Sherman
architectural and material vari 1975 Ghost Towns and Mining Camps
ability and the relationship of of New Mexico . Norman :
variability to site emplacement . University of Oklahoma Press .
This report is an excellent Data used to prepare map of
example of the kind of work that ghost towns and mining camps .
can be done . The site consists
of a large pit house , 2 surface Shoemaker , John W. and William L. Hiss
structures , 16 hearths and a 1974 Humate Mining in Northwestern
stockade . It dates to shortly New Mexico : pp . 333-336 in New
after A.D. 1100 ( tree - ring dates ) . Mexico Geological Society
The report contains an excellent Guidebook , 25th Field Conference ,
history of Gallina area archeology Ghost Ranch . Charles T. Siemers ,
and recommendations for future ed .
research , Importantly, Seaman Commercial production of humates ,
sees Gallina as a local develop as a soil conditioner , is carried
ment out of Rosa with variability out mostly in the San Juan Basin
largely due to function ( that is in New Mexico ; however , in the
dependence on more or less Jemez area , there are strip mining
agriculture , hunting etc. ) perhaps operations near La Ventana , San
conditioned by climatic change . Y sidro and Cuba . (Chama Area
(Gallina area , Santa Fe National and Pajarito Plateau , Santa Fe
Forest . ) National Forest . )

Sellards , E. H. Siegel, Bernard J.

1940 Early Man in America : Index to 1959 " Some Structural Implications for
Localities , and Selected Change in Pueblo and Spanish
Bibliography . Bulletin Geological New Mexico , " pp . 37-44 . In
Society of America 51: 373-432 . Intermediate Societies , Social
General overview ) . Mobility and Communication :
Proceedings of the 1959 Annual
1952 Early Man in America : a Study Spring Meeting of the American
in Prehistory, Austin : University Ethnological Society, V.F. Ray ,
of Texas Press . editor Seattle : University of
(General overview , PaleoIndian . ) Washington Press .

Service , Elman R. Simmons , Marc

1971 Primitive Social Organization , An 1968 Spanish Government in New
Evolutionary Perspective, Second Mexico , Albuquerque : University
Edition , New York : Random of New Mexico Press .
House . Good historical reference .

Shelton , Wilma L. 1969 Settlement Patterns and Village

1954 Checklist of New Mexico Plans in Colonial New Mexico ,
Publications, 1850-1953 , Journal of the West 8 : 7-21 .
Albuquerque: University of New Simmons contrasts the hacienda
Mexico Press ,
pattern of the 17th century with

185
 the small land holdings and in Carol A. Smith , editor ,
dispersed communities of the 18th Regional Analysis : Volume I
century . Economic Systems , New York :
Academic Press .
Skinner , S. Alan
1965a Lizard Cave : A Rock Shelter in Smith , Landon D. and Herbert W. Dick
Northeastern New Mexico . El 1977 A Preliminary Analysis of Three
Palacio 72 ( 1 ) : 5-24 . Sample Surveys in the Golondrino
The site is a small rock shelter in Mesa Area , Santa Fe National
north Ponil Canyon first explored Forest , New Mexico . Archeological
by Eugen Lutes and John Harrison Report No. 15 , USDA Forest
in 1956. Skinner's work was done Service Miscellaneous Papers Nos .
between July 16 and 28th of 1962 . 1-12 . Southwestern Region ,
The rock shelter apparently Albuquerque , New Mexico .
contained two components : a Site densities for the Golondrino -
Puebloan occupation and a Gallina area are 20 / square mile ,
Jicarilla occupation or use . All Poso area 10 / square mile . Types
excavated material is well of sites are stone surface struc
described . ( Taos Area , Carson tures , adobe structures and
National Forest . ) pithouses . The paper contains a
table of " Significant Dependent
1965b The Sedillo Site : A Pit House Relationships by Time Period for
Village in Albuquerque . El Palacio All Research Areas . " The vari
72 (1 ) : 5-24 . ables examined are drawn from
Report of the excavation of LA 3122 , the SARG design ie . site type vs.
on private land on the first regional land form , arable land ,
terrace of the Rio Grande west of vegetation etc. The highest level
the river . The work was done of significance is between Site
between February 1963 and Type / Regional Land Form , Site
November 1963 by the University Type / Arable Land from 1200-1300
of New Mexico Anthropology Club . A.D. , and Site Type /Arable Land
Ten pithouses , bell - shaped for 1100-1199 A.D. It also appears
storage pits , etc. described . On that relationships become more
the basis of ceramics Skinner significant through time . ( Gallina
dates the site to Pueblo II . Area , Santa Fe National Forest . )
( Albuquerque , Cibola National
Forest . ) Snow , David H.
1972 Archeological Survey , New Mexico
1965b А Survey of Field Houses at State Highway Project Tijeras
Sapawe , North Central New Canyon 1-040-3 ( 18 ) 169 . ( Ms. on
Mexico , Southwestern Lore file , Laboratory of Anthropology ,
31 ( 1 ) : 18-24 . Museum of New Mexico , Santa
Skinner's survey was conducted Fe . ) ( Albuquerque , Cibola
within one square mile of Sapawe . National Forest . )
He recorded 20 small structures
which he suggests are field 1973a Cochiti Dam Salvage Project :
houses associated with the large Archeological Investigations at LA
Biscuit ruin . 8720 Cochiti Dam , New Mexico
1971 . Museum of New Mexico ,
Smith , Anne M. Santa Fe .
1966 New Mexico Indians : Economic , Brief discussion of a multicom
Educational and Social Problems , ponent site ,, one componen of
Museum of New Mexico Research which is Archaic . ( Cochiti , Santa
Records, No. 1 , Santa Fe. Fe National Forest . )

Smith , Carol A. 1973b Cochiti Dam Salvage Project :

1976 Regional Economic Systems : Archeological Excavation at the
Linking Geographical Models and Torreon Site LA 6178 , Cochiti
Socioeconomic Problems , pp . 3-63 Dam , New Mexico , Museum of New

186
 ‫قناة‬
Mexico , Laboratory of Mexico, Santa Fe , and USDA
Anthropology Notes , No. Forest Service , Southwest Region ,
Santa Fe . Albuquerque . ) ( Albuquerque ,
The Torreon site is multi Cibola National Forest ) .
component with an 18th century
site superimposed above a possible South , Stanley
jacal structure of unknown 1977 Method and Theory in Historical
temporal position but possibly Archeology , New York : Academic
used during the Pueblo Revolt . Press .
Later use of the site during the Good introduction to South's work
19th and 20th century occurred as and current directions in historical
well . archeology .
1973c Cochiti Dam Salvage Project : 1978 Pattern Recognition in Historical
Archeological Excavation of the Archaeology , American Antiquity
Las Majadas Site LA 591 , Cochiti 43 ( 2 ) : 223-230 .
Dam , New Mexico , Laboratory of An overview article of recent
Anthropology Notes No. 75 , Santa studies in historical archaeology
Fe . and results of South's research .
Site contained a prehistoric compo
nent and a 16th century colonial South , Stanley , editor
settlement and a later historic 1977 Research Strategies in Historical
component. Archeology ,, New York : Academic
Press ,
1974 The Excavation of Saltbush Papers reflect the current inter
Pueblo , Bandelier National ests of historic archeology as
Monument , New Mexico , 1971 , field .
Laboratory of Anthropology Notes
No. 97 , Santa Fe . Speth, John D.
Report of the excavation of a 1973 Arroyo Las Lagunitas Nonceramic
small Coalition Period site in Site :Preliminary Survey Report
Frijoles Canyon , notable for its ( Ms. on file Laboratory of
" keyhole" shaped kiva . Anthropology , Museum of New
Mexico , Santa Fe . )
1975 Archaeological Survey and Preliminary report on LA -10998 , aa
Assessment Espanola - Rio Chama lithic site on the east bank of the
Watershed Santa Fe and Rio El Rito River , based on surface
Arriba Counties , New Mexico observations . Some flakes show
conducted for the U.s. Soil thermal crazing . No " diagnostic "
Conservation Service, Museum of point types were observed .
New Mexico , Laboratory of
Anthropology Notes , No. 115 , Spicer , Edward H.
Santa Fe . 1962 Cycles of Conquest, Tucson :
Seven archeological sites were University of Arizona Press .
located during survey and Treatment of acculturation of
described . These include 2 lithic northern Mexican and South
scatters , an historic windbrake , aa western Indian societies in terms
Pueblo shrine , and a small of changing Spanish administra
masonry room . tive policies and later Mexican
and U.S. policies .
1976 Cultural Resources Investigation
and Recommended Program for Spooner , Brian , editor
Alleviation of Direct and Indirect 1972 Population Growth :
Impact on Archeological Sites in Anthropological Implications,
Cibola National Forest , New Cambridge M: IT Press .
Mexico . New Mexico State Highway Collection of essays inspired by
Department Project 1-040-3 ( 55 ) Boserup's model .
171 , Tijeras Canyon , New Mexico .
( Ms. on file , Laboratory of Spuhler, J. H.
Anthropology , Museum of New n.d. Genetic Distances , Trees, and

187
 Maps of North American Indians . Stevens , Dominique E. and George A.
( Ms. prepared for Vol . I, Agogino
Handbook of North American 1975 Sandia Cave : A Study in
Indians) . Controversy . Eastern New Mexico
Chapter presents analysis in the University Contributions in
variation in blood group gene Anthropology 7 (1) . Eastern New
encie s betwe en sampl es of 50 Mexico University , PaleoIndian
frequ
North American Indian populations Institute , Portales . ( Albuquerque ,
and comparisons to linguistic and Cibola National Forest . )
culture area affiliations. Of note
are the groups in the Southwest ; Stevenson , Matilda Coxe
HopiTewa , Jemez , Isleta , Laguna , 1915 Ethnobotany of the Zuni Indians.
Zuni , Western and Eastern Navajo , Pp . 31-102 in Thirtieth Annual
Mescalero and Chiricahua Apache . Report of the Bureau of American
(General overview , pertaining to Ethnology, 1908-1909 . Washington ,
genetics . ) D.C.
(General overview , pertaining to
Steen , Charles R. ethnobotany . )
1955 The Pigeon Cliffs Site . A prelimi
nary report , El Palacio 62 : 174-180 . Steward , Julian H.
1955 Theory of Culture Change ,
1977 Pajarito Plateau Archaeological Urbana : University of Illinois
Survey and Excavation . Los Press .
Alamos Scientific Laboratories,
Los Alamos . Stewart , Omer C.
This report provides a use ful 1971 Ethnohistorical Bibliography of
summary of the kinds of sites the Ute Indians of Colorado ,
found on the Pajarito Plateau . University of Colorado Studies
Basically , the Archaic is repre Series in Anthropology , No. 18 ,
sented by points as isolated Boulder .
arti facts and not sites . Steen Valuable reference for Ute Indians
believes the Plateau was utilized in New Mexico as well as Colorado .
but not inhabited until late in the
13th century . There is an abun 1977 Ethnography of the Eastern Ute
dance of small sites , then an ( Ms. , University of Colorado ,
apparant population aggregation Boulder ) Valuable in formation with
at the large , well - known sites respect to Ute - Apache interaction ,
( ie . Otowi, T shirigi, Tsankawi ) , Ute material culture and
and final abandonment . Sites settlement .
which are large , are listed which
have been nominated for the Stice , Randy and Michael Wendorf
National Register . ( Pajarito 1973 TA 600 . ( Ms. on file , USDA
Plateau , Santa Fe National Forest Service , Southwestern
t
Fores . ) Region Albuquerque, and at Fort
Burgwin Research Center , Ranchos
Stein , John R. de Taos , New Mexico . )
1976 An Archeological Survey of the The site is St. Vrain's Mill , a mid
Tetilla Peak Recreation Area . 19th century structure . Built in
( Ms. on file , Office of Contract 1848 and burned in 1864 . It
Archeology , University of New apparently was reused in 1892 .
Mexico , Albuquerque ) . The buildings were finally aban
Most remains discussed are Pueblo doned ca. 1903 . It is a good
IV ; however , some discussion of a descriptive report . ( Taos Area ,
possible Archaic lithic site is Carson National Forest . )
given . Report contains a good
discussion of agricultural features Stuart , David
and apparent field houses in the 1978 Topographic Variability and Site
White Rock Canyon area . Placement : Developing a Strategy
( Cochiti , Santa Fe National for Maximizing Small Project
Forest . ) Survey Data . Paper presented at

188
 the Society for American Biology , University of New Mexico ,
Archaeology annual meeting in Albuquerque ) .
Tucson . (General overview , pertaining to
ethnobotany . )
Stubbs , S. A. and W. S. Stallings , Jr.
1953 The Excavation of Pindi Pueblo , Terrel , James and Sally Kleiner
New Mexico , Monographs of the 1977 Archeological Salvage at ENM
School of American Research , No. 10636 Carson National Forest , New
18 , Santa Fe . Mexico , pp 1-17 , in Miscellaneous
Pindi Pueblo , in the village of Papers , Nos . 1-12 , Archeological
Agua Fria , below Santa Fe dates Report No. 15 , USDA Forest
to the A. D. 1300's . Like Forked Service, Southwestern Regional
Lightning Pueblo ( near Pecos ) it Office , Albuquerque .
is a fairly large Coalition site . Report of a burial exposed by a
The report is a standard , classic road grader on the route to El
reference for the period . Paso Natural Gas Well 28-4 #6
( Jicarilla District ) Carson . The
Swadesh , Francis Leon burial is probably Rosa phase
1973 20,000 Years of History : A New ( ceramics ) although there was
Mexico Bibliography, Santa Fe : considerable ceramic variability
Sunstone Press . and one late Zia sherd . The
Annotated and indexed bibliog burial is probably associated with
raphy with 813 entries . archeological site AR -03-02-03-78 .
( Taos Area , Carson National
1974 Los Primeros Pobladores : Hispanic Forest . )
Americans of the Ute Frontier ,
Notre Dame and London : Terrell, John
University of Notre Dame Press . 1972 Apache Chronicle , New York :
An excellent anthropological T. Y. Crowell Co.
approach to the history of Hispanic
settlement in the San Juan Basin Thomas, Alfred Barnaby
primarily , although material on 1935 After Coronado , Spanish
the Chama is abundant as well . Exploration Northeast of New
Contemporary settlement , social Mexico 1869-1727 . Norman :
and political characteristics of University of Oklahoma Press .
rural Hispanic communities
provided . Thoms , Alston
1976 Review of Northeastern New
1976 Archeology , Ethnohistory and the Mexico Archeology . AWANYU
First Plaza of Carnuel , 4 ( 1 ) : 8-35 .
Ethnohistory 23 (1) : 31-44 . The area discussed includes the
In addition to providing full western plains margins and the
documentation for the location and Sangre de Cristos . The literature
settlement of Carnuel ( Tijeras is reviewed by culture and time
Canyon ), the paper provides a period . ( Taos Area , Carson and
good discussion of the benefits of Santa Fe National Forests . )
interaction between archival
research and archeology . Thornbury , William D.
1965 Regional Geomorphology of the
Swadesh , Frances Leon , J. W. Vigil and United States, New York : John
M. B. Ochoa & Sons .
Wiley
1976 The Lands of New Mexico , A standard text book that has
Bilingual Teacher Training Unit , some detailed in formation .
Research , Planning and Innovation
Division , Santa Fe . Tierney Gail D. with the assistance of
Lisa A. Jones
Swank , George R. 1977 A Vegetative Survey of White
1932 The Ethnobotany of the Acoma Rock Canyon : 5280-5400 Foot
and Laguna . ( Unpublished ( 1610-1646 Meter ) Elevations pp .
Master's Thesis , Department of 39-67 in Jan V. Biella and Richard

189
 c. Chapman , eds . Archeological Traylor , Diane et al.
Investigations in Cochiti Reservoir , 1977 Bandelier : Excavations in the
New Mexico Volume I : A Survey Flood Pool of Cochiti Lake , New
of Variability, Mexico ( Ms. on file Southwest
Regional
Albuquerque : University of New Cultural Resource Center , National
Mexico Department of Park Service , Santa Fe . )
Anthropology, Office of Contract Report of survey and excavation ,
Archeology . including detailed analysis of
Detailed vegetative survey in material culture , carried out by
connection with the Cochiti NPS in the Alamo section of
Project. Bandelier National Monument .
( Pajarito Plateau District . )
Tichy , Marjorie F.
1939 The Archaeology of Puaray . ΕΙ Trimmer , Maurice
Palacio 46 ( 7 ) : 145-162 . 1974 The Story of New Mexico , Fenton ,
The only available report on the Michigan : American Geographic .
1934 excavations at Bandelier's
Puaray . Brief description of 400 Tringham , Ruth , editor
rooms , kiva and possible mission . 1979 Lithic Analysis in Archeology ,
Important mention of 2 pithouses New York : Academic Press .
southeast of the village which
would seem to date ca. 1275-1300 Provides general productive
on the basis of ceramics . directions for research in lithic
( Albuquerque . ) analysis . Of note are Tringham's
own work which combines
Titiev , Mischa Semenov's approach with experi
1944 Old Oraibi : a Study of the Hopi mentation and Gould's paper on
Indians of Third Mesa , Papers of ethnoarcheological approaches .
the Peabody Museum of American
Archaeology and Ethnology , Tuan , Yi - Fu , Cyril E. Everard , Jerold G.
Harvard University Vol. 22 , No. Widdison , and Iven Bennett
1, Cambridge . 1973 The Climate of New Mexico .
Santa Fe : New Mexico State
Trager , George L. Planning Office .
1967 " The Tanoan Settlement of the This is a good and detailed
Rio Grande Area : a Possible climatic summary of New Mexico
Chronology , " In Dell Hymes and broken into sub - regions . There
W. E. Bittle , editors , Studies in is also a comprehensive study of
Southwestern Linguistics , The variability in temperature and
Hague : Mouton . rain fall where available . Climatic
Based on linguistic analysis . records were reported
reported to 1850 .
Accompanying graphics and maps
Trainer , Frank W. are excellent ,
1974 Ground water in the Southwestern (General overview , pertaining to
Part of the Jemez Mountains climatology . )
Volcanic Region . Pp . 337-345 in
New Mexico Geological Society Turner , Christy G. II
Guidebook , 25th Field Conference 1977 Field Report presented at the
Ghost Ranch , Charles T. Siemers , 50th Pecos Con ference , Pecos ,
ed . New Mexico .
This paper provides a good Suggests that molar morphology of
discussion of the differential the Trinidad Lake , Colorado
permeability of rocks in the skeletons indicates Athabascan
southwestern Jemez mountains , affinities . The skeletal series
the major conditioning agents of dates to the 12th century .
surface water and the probable
agents responsible for the thermal Tirney , John Francis
springs . A map is included . 1943 Analysis of material taken from a
( Pajarito Plateau , Santa Fe Section of Group M of the Cliffs ,
National Forest . ) Frijoles Canyon , Bandelier National

190
 Monument , New Mexico (Unpub Climatological data for Albuquerque ,
lished M.A. thesis, Department of New Mexico 1893-1946 .
Anthropology, University of New (General overview , pertaining to
Mexico, Albuquerque . ) climatology . )
The Group M sites consist of
cavate , Pueblo IV sites in Frijoles 1952 Climatic Summary of the United
Canyon . There are tree - ring States Supplement for1931
-

dates from some of the sites and through 1952 : New Mexico .
this report provides what little All recorded climatological data
description of the excavated for New Mexico in monthly aver
material is available . (Pajarito ages from 1931-1952 .
Plateau and the Santa Fe National (General overview , pertaining to
Forest . ) climatology . )
Twitchell, Ralph Emerson 1970 Local Climatological Data Annual
1911 Leading Facts of New
Mexican Summary with Comparative Data :
History . Rapids, Iowa :
Cedar Albuquerque, New Mexico . NOAA
The Torch Press , Five Vols . Environmental Data Service.
Standard historical reference , Climatological Summary for
Volume I covers the period to Albuquerque , New Mexico .
1822 . Volume II deals with the Monthly averages for precipita
Mexican and United States periods. tion , temperature , frost and solar
( General overview , pertaining to radiation from 1931-1970 .
Historic . ) ( General overview , pertaining to
climatology . )
Ungnade , Herbert E.
1963 Archaeological Finds in the 1973 Local Climatological Data Annual
Sangre de Cristo Mountains of Summary with Comparative Data :
New Mexico . El Palacio 70 ( 4 ) : Albuquerque , New Mexico . NOAA
15-25 . Environmental Data Service .
Report of lithics picked up on Climatological summary for
various trips between 1948 and Albuquerque , New Mexico .
1955 within what is now the Pecos Monthly averages for precipita
Wilderness and adjacent areas of tion , temperature , frost and solar
the Santa Fe Forest . Report radiation from 1934-1973 .
supplements Wendorf and Miller . ( General overview ,, pertaining to
( Taos Area , Carson and Santa Fe climatology . )
National Forests . )
1976a Climate of Bernalillo , New Mexico .
Ucko , Peter . R. Tringham and G. W. Climatography of the U.S. No.
Dimbleby, editors 20 .
1972 Man , Settlement and Urbanism , Climatological summary of Bernalillo ,
London : Gerald Duckworth and New Mexico in monthly averages
Co. , LTD . from 1951-1974 .
(General overview , pertaining to
United States Department of Agriculture climatology . )
1930 Climatic Summary of the United
States : Northwestern New Mexico . 1976b Climate of Los Alamos, New
Climatological summary in monthly Mexico . Climatography of the
averages for northwestern New U.S. No. 20 .
Mexico from establishment of Climatological summary of Los
stations to 1930 . Alamos New Mexico 1951-1974 in
(General overview , pertaining to monthly averages .
climatology .) (General overview , pertaining to
climatology . )
United States Department of Commerce
1946 Annual Meteorological Summary 1976c Climate of Santa Fe , New Mexico .
with Comparative Data, Climatography of the United
Albuquerque, New Mexico . States No. 20 .
Climatological summary in monthly

191
 averages of Santa Fe, New Mexico , Vivian , R. Gwinn
1951-1971 . 1970 An Inquiry into Prehistoric Social
(General overview , pertaining to Organization in Chaco Canyon ,
climatology .) pp . 59-83 in William A. Longacre,
ed . , Reconstructing Prehistoric
Vestal, Paul A. Pueblo Societies (School of
1952 Ethnobotany of the Ramah Navaho . American Research Book ) ,
Papers of the Peabody Museum of Albuquerque : University of New
American Archaeology and Mexico Press .
Ethnology XL 74) . Reports of the Discussion of the differences
Ramah Project No. 4. , Harvard between Hosta Butte and Bonito
University , Cambridge . sites and the water control system
(General overview , pertaining to at Chaco .
ethnobotany . )
1974 Conservation and Diversion :
Vickery , Lucretia D. Water - Control Systems in the
1969 Excavations at TA -26 A Small
Anasazi Southwest , pp . 95-112 in
Pueblo Site Near Taos , New Theodore E. Downing and McGuire
Mexico . ( Unpublished M.A. , Gibson , eds . , Irrigation's Impact
Wichita State University ) . on Society , Anthropological Papers
TA -26 is important because it is of the University of Arizona, No.
Late Valdez Phase , showing some 25 , Tucson .
elements transitional to the Pot Excellent discussion of the classes
Creek Phase . The report contains of water control systems found in
some paleo - environmental data and the Anasazi area and the implica
faunal in formation . ( Taos Area , tions of these for the degree of
Carson National Forest . ) organization needed to maintain
them , as well as a detailed discus
Vivian , Gordon sion of the water control features
1934 The Excavation of Bandelier's at Chaco Canyon .
Puaray , El Palacio , 37 (19-20 ) :
153-159 . Vivian , R. Gwinn and Nancy Wilkinson
Clendenen
So little has been published on 1965 The Denison Site : Four Pit
this site , every note is important . Houses near Isleta , New Mexico,.
( Albuquerque District . ) El Palacio 72 ( 2 ) : 5-26 .
Site is eight miles southwest of
1959 The Hubbard Site and other Albuquerque . In ad di tion to
Tri- wall Structures in New Mexico discussing the pithouse excava
and Colorado , National Park tions, Vivian and Clendenen
Service Archeological Research provide suggested " diagnostic "
Series , No. 5 , Washington . criteria for pithouse chronology .
( Albuquerque . )
Vivian , Gordon and Tom W. Mathews
1965 Kin Kletso , a Pueblo III Community Von Eschen , G. F.
in Chaco Canyon , New Mexico, 1960a Climate of Chama, New Mexico .
Southwestern Monuments U.S. Department of
Commerce,
Association , Technical Series 6 , Weather Bureau .
Globe . Climatological summary of Chama
New Mexico in monthly averages
Vivian , Gordon and Paul Reiter from 1925-1960 .
1965 The Great Kivas of Chaco Canyon (General overview , pertaining to
and Their Relationships , The climatology . )
School of American Research ,
Monograph No. 22 , Santa Fe . 1960b Climate of Espanola, New Mexico.
Vivian and Reiter take the " narrow U.S. Department of Commerce,
11
view of Great Kivas , that is Weather Bureau .
emphasizing the special architec Climatological summary of
tural features associated with Espanola , New Mexico, 1913-1960 in
Chacoan Great Kivas ather than monthly averages .
size .

192
 (General overview , pertaining to for determining the dates of
climatology . ) historic sites .

1960c Climate of Taos , New Mexico . Warren , A. H.

U.S. Department of Commerce , 1969 The Nambe Project Archaeological
Weather Bureau , Salvage at Nambe Pueblo , Santa
Climatological Summary of Taos , Fe County, New Mexico, Notes on
New Mexico from 1931-1960 in Ceramics and Lithics of the Nambe
monthly averages . Pueblo , Laboratory of Anthropology
(General overview , pertaining to Notes 100, Santa Fe .
climatology . ) Discussion of geological source
material for lithics and temper .
Vytlacil, Natalie and J. J. Brody
1958 Two Pit Houses Near Zia Pueblo . 1970 Centers of Manufacture and
El Palacio 65 ( 5 ) : 174-184 . Trade of Rio Grande Glazes ( Ms.
Reports work of the 1956 on file , Laboratory of
University of New Mexico Field Anthropology , Museum of New
Session . Sites are on the Zia Mexico , Santa Fe ) .
Reservation , Pit House I is Late Report provides dates for the
Basketmaker -Pueblo I , Pit House various glaze types and suggested
2 is Pueblo II . ( Albuquerque . ) manu facturing and trade centers
based on petragraphic analysis of
Waddell, Eric sherds .
1975 How the Enga Cope with Frost :
Responses to Climatic Perturbations 1975 The Ancient Mineral Industries of
in the Central Highlands of New Cerro Pedernal , Rio Arriba
Guinea . Human Ecology 3 ( 4 ) : County , New Mexico. Pp . 87-93
249-274 . in New Mexico Geological Society
Guidebook , 25th Field Conference ,
Walsh , Michael R. , Janet D. Orcutt and Ghost Ranch , Charles T. Siemers,
James N. Hill ed .
1978 Preliminary Report on the 1977-78 Report contains a good brief
Pajarito Archaeological Research history of exploration of the
Project : An Archaeological Survey quarries of the area , Specific
in the Santa Fe National Forest discussion of sites includes
( Ms. on file , USDA Forest Service, Tsiping Pueblo and camp sites
Southeast Regional Office , along the Cancito Seco . The
Albuquerque) . specific quarry localities of Cerro
Report contains Hill's research Pedernal are discussed . ( Chama
design and a discussion of his Area , Carson National Forest . )
sampling procedure. Site data
are not included . (Pajarito 1977a Geology and Mineral Resources :
Plateau and the Santa Fe National White Rock Canyon , Sandoval
Forest . ) County , New Mexico , pp . 15-30 In
Archeological Investigations in
Ward , A. E. , E. K. Abbink and J. R. Cochiti Reservoir , New Mexico
Stein Volume 1 : A Surveyof Regional
1977 Ethnohistorical and Chronological Variability, Jan V. Biella and
Basis of the Navajo Material Richard Chapman ,
C. eds .
Culture , pp . 217-278 in Charles University of New Mexico , Depart
A. Reher , editor, Settlement and ment of Anthropology , Office of
Subsistence Along the Lower Contract Archeology , Albuquerque .
Chaco River : The CGP Survey , In addition to general descriptive
Albuquerque : The University of geology , the paper discusses
New Mexico Press . geologic and mineral resources in
An excellent example of the way terms of building material, temper ,
in which historic materials may be clays , pigments , sources of stone
used to examine questions of tools .
general anthropological importance .
Chapter also contains key artifacts 1977b Prehistoric and Historic Ceramic

193
 averages of Santa Fe , New Mexico , Vivian , R. Gwinn
1951-1971 . 1970 An Inquiry into Prehistoric Social
(General overview , pertaining to Organization in Chaco Canyon ,
climatology . ) pp . 59-83 in William A. Longacre ,
ed . , Reconstructing Prehistoric
Vestal, Paul A. Pueblo Societies (School of
1952 Ethnobotany of the Ramah Navaho . American Research Book ) ,
Papers of the Peabody Museum of Albuquerque : University of New
American Archaeology and Mexico Press .
Ethnology XL ( 4 ) . Reports of the Discussion of the di fferences
Ramah Project No. 4. , Harvard between Hosta Butte and Bonito
University , Cambridge . sites and the water control system
(General overview , pertaining to at Chaco .
ethnobotany . )
1974 Conservation and Diversion :
Vickery , Lucretia D. Water - Control Systems in the
1969 Excavations at TA -26 А Small Anasazi Southwest , pp . 95-112 in
Pueblo Site Near Taos , New Theodore E. Downing and McGuire
Mexico , ( Unpublished M.A. , Gibson , eds . , Irrigation's Impact
Wichita State University ) . on Society, Anthropological Papers
TA -26 is important because it is of the University of Arizona , No.
Late Valdez Phase , showing some 25 , Tucson .
elements transitional to the Pot Excellent discussion of the classes
Creek Phase . The report contains of water control systems found in
some paleo - environmental data and the Anasazi area and the implica
faunal in formation . ( Taos Area , tions of these for the degree of
Carson National Forest . ) organization needed
needed to maintain
them , as well as a detailed discus
Vivian , Gordon sion of the water control features
1934 The Excavation of Bandelier's at Chaco Can yon .
Puaray , ΕΙ Palacio , 37 (19-20 ) :
153-159 . Vivian , R. Gwinn and Nancy Wilkinson
Clendenen
So little has been published on 1965 The Denison Site : Four Pit
this site , every note is important . Hou es near Isleta , New Mexico.
( Albuquerque District . ) El Palacio 72 ( 2 ) : 5-26 .
Site is eight miles southwest of
1959 The Hubbard Site and other Albuquerque . In ad dition to
Tri - wall Structures in New Mexico discussing the pithouse excava
and Colorado , National Park tions , Vivian and Clendenen
Service Archeological Research provide suggested " diagnostic "
Series , No. 5 , Washington . criteria for pithouse chronology .
( Albuquerque . )
Vivian , Gordon and Tom W. Mathews
1965 Kin Kletso , a Pueblo III Community Von Eschen , G. F.
in Chaco Canyon , New Mexico , 1960a Climate of Chama, New Mexico .
Southwestern Monuments U.S. Department of Commerce ,
Association , Technical Series 6 , Weather Bureau .
Globe . Climatological summary of Chama
New Mexico in monthly averages
Vivian , Gordon and Paul Reiter from 1925-1960 .
1965 The Great Kivas of Chaco Canyon (General overview , pertaining to
and Their Relationships , The climatology . )
School of American Research ,
Monograph No. 22 , Santa Fe. 1960b Climate of Espanola, New Mexico.
Vivian and Reiter take the " narrow U.S. of Commerce ,
Department of
11
view of Great Kivas , that is Weather Bureau .
emphasizing the special architec Climatological summary of
tural features associated with Espanola , New Mexico, 1913-1960 in
Chacoan Great Kivas rather than monthly averages .
size .

192
 པཎཝ ཏ༔ the dates of

Cereres
Proves Archaeological
sa Nibe Pueblo , Santa
in New Mexico , Notes on
* Sithics of the Nambe
Perat ory of Anthropology
trance to ‫ ܐ‬. ‫ܨܶܝܨ‬ ;. S ;? ‫ ܕ‬: ‫ ܨ‬.
of geological Nource
Tac , Tazenii Tip ir lithics and temper ,

2
zac Manufacture and
Peces of Rio Grande Glazen ( Mo.
Hle . Laboratory
Sess hropology , Muneum of
New
Verica Santa Fe ) .
Basie zares
::Deux Rent provides dates
ecco
vartous glaze types and sufogrgeth
st
e
: manufacturing and trade centers
Waice . Sic based on petragraphic analysis of
sherds ,
ses en Cece ins ::
es coses Sans Personages
The Ancient Mineral Industries of
e ceza a elev Cerro Pedernal,
Sce . Rio
Arriba
County , New Mexico ,
in New Mexico ( nologiCeoalrporanJudy
Käse , Sesse , aze : S. Create and Guidebook , 250) Field ea,
Janes . Ghost Ranch , Charles T. veitin
! Preisart Bepert oc they
Pazine Presseciegier Resin Report contains
Project : An Archaeological Survey history of exploration of
in the Santa Fe National Forest quarries of the aran ,
( Ms. on sile , USDA Forest Service discussion
Southeast Regional Office , Telping Pueblo and Immig wilne
Albuquerque) . along theCan
Canalt
ello, Soci
Report contains lis research speciale quarry locaolities aolf Carrie
Pedernal are dhe e all ,
design and a discussion of his
sampling procedure . Site data Area, Carson
are not included . Pajarito Mineralwer
Plateau and the Santa (Nation al Fe 1977a Geology and niani
Forest . ) White Roch
County, New Marleen, ergo 19:01
Ward, A. E. , E. K. Abbink and J. R. Archeologica
Stein Cochii Deslarror ,
1977 Ethnohistorical and Chronological Volume li "F 101 ]
Basis of the Navajo Material i
Variability, iÀnto rmlaig wel te neem.
Culture , pp . 217-278 in Charles Richard
Vill 1
A. Reher , editor , Settlement and University of flexCoVmarejnotan Po nila ,
Anthryn ny n mpoall
Sy tence Along the Lower ment of one of
River : The CGP Surver, Contract Arih milliy Albani
a
erque: The iniversity of In addition to para low pillonn
exico Press . geology ,
xcellent exa
of the way
nich histori
als may be
goolople wi8o.comto re
terms of powtarial, " mat
to exam estions of in Rio
clays, pigan.e1,4a , mirian air logy of
eral anthro importan , tools .
apter also ce
key artifacts Prehistor
19776 ic

193
 averages of Santa Fe , New Mexico , Vivian , R. Gwinn
1951-1971 . 1970 An Inquiry into Prehistoric Social
(General overview , pertaining to Organization in Chaco Canyon ,
climatology . ) pp . 59-83 in William A. Longacre ,
ed . , Reconstructing Prehistoric
Vestal, Paul A. Pueblo Societies ( School of
1952 Ethnobotany of the Ramah Navaho . American Research Book ) ,
Papers of the Peabody Museum of Albuquerque : University of New
American Archaeology and Mexico Press .
Ethnology XL 74 ) . Reports of the Discussion of the di fferences
Ramah Project No. 4. , Harvard between HoHosta
sta Butte and Bonito
University , Cambridge . sites and the water control system
(General overview , pertaining to at Chaco .
ethnobotany . )
1974 Conservation and Diversion :
Vickery , Lucretia D. Water - Control Systems in the
1969 Excavations at TA -26 A Small Anasazi Southwest , pp . 95-112 in
Pueblo Site Near Taos , New Theodore E. Downing and McGuire
Mexico . ( Unpublished M.A. , Gibson , eds . , Irrigation's Impact
Wichita State University ) . on Society, Anthropological Papers
TA -26 is important because it is of the University of Arizona, No.
Late Valdez Phase , showing some 25 , Tucson .
elements transitional to the Pot Excellent discussion of the classes
Creek Phase . The report contains of water control systems found in
some paleo - environmental data and the Anasazi area and the implica
faunal in formation . ( Taos Area , tions of these for the degree of
Carson National Forest . ) organization needed to maintain
them , as well as a detailed discus
Vivian , Gordon sion of the water control features
1934 The Excavation of Bandelier's at Chaco Canyon .
Puaray , El Palacio , 37 (19-20 ) :
153-159 . Vivian, R. Gwinn and Nancy Wilkinson
Clendenen
So little has been published on 1965 The Denison Site : Four Pit
this site , every note is important . Houses near Isleta , New Mexico.
( Albuquerque District . ) El Palacio 72 ( 2 ) : 5-26 .
Site is eight miles southwest of
1959 The Hubbard Site and other Albuquerque . In addition to
Tri - wall Structures in New Mexico discussing the pithouse excava
and Colorado , National Park tions , Vivian and Clendenen
Service Archeological Research provide suggested " diagnostic "
Series , No. 5 , Washington . criteria for pithouse chronology.
( Albuquerque . )
Vivian , Gordon and Tom W. Mathews
1965 Kin Kletso , a Pueblo III Community Von Eschen , G. F.
in Chaco Canyon , New Mexico , 1960a Climate of Chama, New Mexico ,.
Southwestern Monuments U.S. Department ofCommerce,
Association , Technical Series 6 , Weather Bureau .
Globe . Climatological summary of Chama
New Mexico in monthly averages
Vivian , Gordon and Paul Reiter from 1925-1960 .
1965 The Great Kivas of Chaco Canyon (General overview , pertaining to
and Their Relationships, The climatology . )
School of American Research ,
Monograph No. 22 , Santa Fe . 1960b Climate of Espanola, New Mexico.
Vivian and Reiter take the " narrow U.S. Department of Commerce,
11
view of Great Kivas , that is Weather Bureau .
emphasizing the special architec Climatological summary of
tural features associated with Espanola , New Mexico, 1913–1960 in
Chacoan Great Kivas athe than monthly averages .
size .

192
 (General overview , pertaining to for determining the dates of
climatology .) historic sites .

1960c Climate of Taos , New Mexico . Warren , A. H.

U.S. Department of Commerce, 1969 The Nambe Project Archaeological
Weather Bureau . Salvage at Nambe Pueblo , Santa
Climatological Summary of Taos , Fe County, New Mexico, Notes on
New Mexico from 1931-1960 in Ceramics and Lithics of the Nambe
monthly averages . Pueblo , Laboratory of Anthropology
( General overview , pertaining to Notes 100 , Santa Fe .
climatology . ) Discussion of geological source
material for lithics and temper .
Vytlacil, Natalie and J. J. Brody
1958 Two Pit Houses Near Zia Pueblo . 1970 Centers of Manufacture and
El Palacio 65 ( 5 ) : 174-184 . Trade of Rio Grande Glazes ( Ms.
Reports work of the 1956 on file , Laboratory of
University of New Mexico Field Anthropology , Museum of New
Session . Sites are on the Zia Mexico , Santa Fe ) .
Reservation . Pit House I is Late Report provides dates for the
Basketmaker -Pueblo I , Pit House various glaze types and suggested
2 is Pueblo II . ( Albuquerque . ) manufacturing and trade centers
based on petragraphic analysis of
Waddell , Eric sherds .
1975 How the Enga Cope with Frost :
Responses to Climatic Perturbations 1975 The Ancient Mineral Industries of
in the Central Highlands of New Cerro Pedernal , Rio Arriba
Guinea . Human Ecology 3 (4 ) : County , New Mexico . Pp . 87-93
249-274 . in New Mexico Geological Society
Guidebook , 25th Field Conference,
Walsh , Michael R. , Janet D. Orcutt and
. Ghost Ranch , Charles T. Siemers,
James N. Hill ed .
1978 Preliminary Report on the 1977-78 Report contains a good brief
Pajarito Archaeological Research history of exploration of the
Project: An Archaeological Survey quarries of the area . Specific
in the Santa Fe National Forest discussion of sites includes
( Ms. on file , USDA Forest Service , Tsiping Pueblo and camp sites
Southeast Regional Office , along the Cancito Seco . The
Albuquerque ) . specific quarry localities of Cerro
Report contains Hill's research Pedernal are discussed . ( Chama
design and a discussion of his Area , Carson National Forest . )
sampling procedure . Site data
are not included . ( Pajarito 1977a Geology and Mineral Resources :
Plateau and the Santa Fe National White Rock Canyon , Sandoval
Forest . ) County , New Mexico , pp . 15-30 In
Archeological Investigations in
Ward , A. E. , E. K. Abbink and J. R. Cochiti Reservoir , New Mexico
Stein Volume 1 : A Survey of Regional
1977 Ethnohistorical and Chronological Variability
y, Jan V. Biella and
Basis of the Navajo Material Richard C. Chapman , eds .
Culture , pp . 217-278 in Charles University of New Mexico, Depart
A. Reher ,
editor ,, Settlement and ment of Anthropology , Office of
Subsistence Along the Lower Contract Archeology , Albuquerque .
Chaco River : The CGP Survey , In addition to general descriptive
Albuquerque: The University of geology , the paper discusses
New Mexico Press . geologic and mineral resources in
An excellent example of the way terms of building material , temper ,
in which historic materials may be clays , pigments , sources of stone
used to examine questions of tools .
general anthropological importance .
Chapter also contains key artifacts 1977b Prehistoric and Historic Ceramic

193
 Analysis , pp . 97-101 In T. K. Earle and J. E. Ericson ,
Archeological Investigations in eds . New York : Academic Press .
Cochiti Reservoir , New Mexico , Currently up to date account of
Volume 2Excavation and Analysis the difficulties of determining
1975 Season , Richard C. Chapman turquoise source locations . The
and Jan V : Biella , eds . methods must , at this point , be
University of New Mexico , Depart considered in the early stages of
ment of Anthropology , Office of development .
Contract Archeology , Albuquerque .
Report provides type descriptions Weigle , Marta
for prehistoric and historic mineral 1976a Brothers of Light, Brothers of
and carbon painted wares and Rio Blood , Albuquerque : University
Grande Glazes found in the of New Mexico Press .
Cochiti area . Type characteris Detailed historic account of the
tics include identified temper Penitentes of the Southwest .
classes .
1976b A Penitente Bibliography ,
1977c Appendix 1. New Dimensions in Albuquer que : University of New
the Study of Prehistoric Pottery , Mexico Press .
pp . 363-374 In Archeological Definitive bibliography as of 1976 .
Investigations in Cochiti Contains 1,233 entries . Books and
Reservoir , New Mexico, Volume 2 : articles are annotated .
Excavation and Analysis 1975
Season , Richard C. Chapman and Weigle , Marta , editor
Jan V. Biella , eds . , University of 1975 Hispanic Villages of Northern New
New Mexico , Department of Mexico A Reprint ofVolume II of
Anthropology , Office of Contract the 1935 Tewa Basin Study, with
Archeology , Albuquerque . Fe :
Supplementary Materials , Santa
Paper discusses temper analysis The Lightning Tree .
and its implications for the loca Volume is designed to provide a
tion of production and trade basic research tool by including
centers for the Rio Grande Glazes . documents from the original Tewa
Temper as an aid to microseriation Basin study of the 1930's with
is also discussed , as well as its materials from the Soil Conserva
utility or monitoring population tion Service's Human Dependency
movements . Refinements of Survey . The book contains a
Shepard's original work are valuable indexed bibliography ,
discussed . which is also available separately .
Data on 32 Hispanic villages
Weber , David , editor include population , farming and
1973 Foreigners in their Native Land : livestock , wagework , handcrafts,
Historical Roots of the Mexican land condition , land ownership
Americans, Albuquerque: etc.
University of New Mexico Press .
Wendorf, Fred , assembler
Weber , Robert H. and G. A. A gogino 1953 Salvage Archaeology in the
1968 Mockingbird Gap Paleo - Indian Chama Valley , New Mexico ,
Site : Excavations in 1967.
1967 . ( Ms. Monographs of the School of
Paper presented at the 33rd American Research No. 17 , Santa
Annual Meetings , Society for Fe .
American Archeology , Santa Fe . ) Report contains a brief overview
(General overview , pertaining to of the geology and vegetation of
PaleoIndian . ) the Chama , an historical sketch of
the area ( by Schroeder ) , the
Weigand , Phil C. , Garman Harbottle , and report of the excavation of the
Edward V. Sayre Leaf Water Pueblo ( by Luebben ) ,
1977 Turquoise Sources and Source a detailed report of the excava
Analysis : Mesoamerican and the tions at Telewi ( by Wendorf) , and
Southwestern U.S.A. Pp . 15-34 in a concluding discussion of the
Exchange Systems in Prehistory, in formation gained in excavating

194
 these two sites with repsect to ranging in elevation from 7,500
the prehistory of the Chama area . feet to 12,000 feet . They seem to
represent Archaic camps . ( Santa
Wendorf, Fred Fe , Santa Fe and Carson National
1953 Excavations at Telewi, Pp . 34-100 Forests . )
in Fred Wendorf , assembler ,
Salvage Archaeology in the Chama Wendorf, Fred and Erik Reed
Valley , New Mexico , Monographs 1955 An Alternative Reconstruction of
of the School of American Northern Rio Grande Prehistory ..
Research No. 17 , Santa Fe . El Palacio 62 : 131-173 .
Telewi was one of the larger Wiyo This is still the standard reference
sites on the Chama . for basic cultural synthesis of the
Rio Grande .
1954 A Reconstruction of Northern Rio (General overview . )
Grande Prehistory . American
Anthropologist 56 ( 2 ) : 200-227 . Wetherington , Ronald K.
A basic synthesis of prehistory in 1964 Early Occupation in the Taos
the study area . Partially super District in the Context of
seded by Wendorf and Reed 1955 . Northern Rio Grande Culture
(General overview . ) History . (Unpublished Ph.D.
Dissertation , University of
1960 The Archaeology of Northeastern Michigan, Ann Arbor . )
New Mexico . El Palacio 67 : 55-65 . This is the basic comprehensive
Archeological summary of the area work on Taos Valley archeology
in terms of " erash" of human as of 1964 . It is based on the
occupancy , viz . : Early Hunters Pot Creek excavations and the
of the Late Pleistocene , Inter survey work of Fort Burgwin and
mediate Hunters & Gatherers the Taos Archeological Society .
( Archaic ) , Puebloan and Panhandle ( Taos Area , Carson National
Aspect Farmers and Hunters , and Forest . )
Historic Nomads . Provides a
literature summary of work up 1966 A Rare Feature of Pueblo Archi
until ca 1960 . ( Taos Area , Carson tecture in Taos , New Mexico . ΕΙ
and Santa Fe National Forests . ) Palacio 73 : 19-25 .
Wetherington discusses both the
Wendorf, Fred , editor function and distribution of
1961 Paleoecology of the LLano central roof support posts in
Estacado . Fort Burgwin Research rooms at Pot Creek and roof
Paper 1. Museum of New Mexcio support posts in general. ( Taos
Press , Santa Fe . Area , Carson National Forest . )
(General overview , pertaining to
PaleoIndian . ) 1968 Excavations at Pot Creek Pueblo .
Fort Burgwin Research Center
Wendorf, Fred and James Hester Report No. 6 . Fort Burgwin
1962 Early Man's Utilization of the Research Center , Taos .
Great Plains Environment . In addition to containing the
American Antiquity 28 ( 2 ) : 159-171 . results of the Southern Methodist
General overview , pertaining to University field school research
PaleoIndian . ) carried out in 1960 , 65 , and 67
and prior work at Pot Creek
Wendorf, Fred and John P. Miller sponsored by the Museum of New
1959 Arti facts from High Mountain Mexico and Sc the hool for
Sites in the Sangre de Cristo American Research , this report
Range , New Mexico . El Palacio also contains a definition of the
66 : 37-52 . Taos District and its relationship
This report describes artifacts to the rest of the Northern Rio
collected during geologic investiga Grande Area , and a chronology of
tions of the southern portion of phases , based on seemingly
the Sangre de Cristos during exhaustive ceramic analysis .
1955-57 . Eight sites are discussed ,

195
 ( Taos Area , Carson National Wilmsen , Edwin N.
Forest . ) 1965 An Outline of Early Man Studies
in the United States , American
Wheat , Joe Ben Antiquity 31 : 172-192 .
1972 The Olsen - Chubbock Site : A Historical review of Paleolndian
PaleoIndian Bison Kill . Society research .
for American Archeology , Memoir 1970 Lithic Analysis and Cultural
26 . In ferences : A PaleoIndian Case ,
( PaleoIndian . ) University of Arizona
No. 16 ,
Anthropological Papers,
White , Leslie A. Tucson .
1932 The Pueblo of San Felipe , Memoirs ( PaleoIndian .)
of the American Anthropological
Association , No. 38 . 1974 Lindenmeier : A Pleistocene
Hunting Society . New York :
1935 The Pueblo of Santo Domingo , Harper and Row .
New Mexico , Memoirs of the (General overview , PaleoIndian . )
American Anthropological
Association , No. 43 . Wilson , L. L. W.
1916 Excavations at Otowi , El Palacio
1960 The World of the Keresan Pueblo 3 ( 2 ) : 28-36 .
Indians , In Stanley Diamond , Large Pueblo IV site within
editor Culture in History , Essays Bandelier National Monument .
in Honor of Paul Radin , Columbia
University Press , New York . 1918 Three Year's Work at Otowi, El
Palacio 5 : 290-294 .
White , Peter J. and David H. Thomas Pajarito Plateau within Bandelier
1972 Ethno - taxonomic Models and National Monument .
Archaeological Interpretations in
the New Guinea Highlands : What Wimberly , Mark
Mean These Stones ? pp . 275-308 1972 Training Bulletin for the Tularosa
in David L. Clarke , editor Models Valley Project , ( Ms. Human
in Archaeology . London : Methuen Systems Research Corporation ,
& Co. , Ltd. New Mexico . )
Ethnoarcheological study of stone Data are relevant to Fresnel Rock
tool manufacture and subsequent Shelter and the Tularosa Basin
analysis of the artifacts . Project . Of interest to the Archa
ic in general , but does not pertain
Whiteaker , R. J. specifically to the study area .
1976 Excavation of LA 11841. Laboratory
of Anthropology Notes No. IIId, Wiseman , Regge N.
Museum of New Mexico, Santa Fe . 1974 An Archaeological Clearance
LA 11841 consisted of an isolated Investigation and Impact Statement
pithouse and refuse area with a for the San Y sidro Southern
considerable amount of lithics . Union Gas Company Storage
( Gallina Cultural District , Santa Facility near San Ysidro , New
Fe National Forest . ) Mexico . Laboratory of New
Mexico , Santa Fe .
Whiting , Alfred F. Records nine sites ( LA 12134-12142 ) .
1939 Ethnobotany of the Hopi. Museum Suggested dates based on sur ficial
of Northern Arizona , Bulletin 15 . ceramics . Most sites date after
Northern Arizona Society for A.D 1110-1150 based on the presence
Science and Art , Flagstaff. of Santa Fe Black - on - white .
(General overview , pertaining to ( Alb uqu erque , Cibola National
ethnobotany . ) Forest . )

Whitman , William 1975 An Archaeological Clearance

1947 The Pueblo Indians of San Investigation for the World
Ildefonso , Columbia University Humates Ltd. Mine Near San
Contributions to Anthropology, Ysidro , New Mexico . ( Ms. on
Vol. 34 , New York . file , Laboratory of Anthropology ,

196
 Museum of New Mexico , Santa Notes # 22 , Laboratory of
Fe . ) Anthropology, Museum of New
Report to the Bureau of Land Mexico , Santa Fe .
Management . Twelve sites ( LA Discussion of the excavation of
11876-11887 ) recorded . Time four " farming structures " which
span on the basis of ceramics apparantly were associated with
present may be A.D. 900 to 1850 . Pecos Pueblo and date to ca 1500
( Albuquerque and Jemez Areas . ) to 1600 .

1976 An Archaeological Impact Statement Woodward , Lee A.

and Mitigation Proposal for New 1974 Tectonics of Central - Northern
Mexico . Laboratory of New Mexico . Pp . 120-129 in New
Anthropology Notes
125 . No. Mexico Geological Society
Museum of New Mexico , Santa Fe . Guidebook , 25th Field Conference ,
Eight sites were found adjacent to Ghost Ranch , Charles T. Siemers ,
the project area . LA 12527 , ed .
12528 and 12530 are rock shelter This report provides a succinct
or shrine sites . LA 12529 and discussion of the San Juan Basin ,
12531 seem to be commercial bath the Gallina - Archuleta Arch , the
houses associated with mineral Chama basin ( all parts of the
springs . The rock shelter sites Colorado Plateau ) , and the Brazos
seem to have been utilized from and Naciemento uplifts (of the
ca 800 B.C. to the Late southern Rocky Mountains) and
Prehistoric - Historic periods . The the Rio Grande Rift . A good
only available reference to generalized tectonic map is
LA 4955 , near Bernalillo , which included . ( Chama and Pajarito
consists of a "Mogollon " pit house Plateau Areas , Carson and Santa
excavated by David Kayser, Fe National Forests . )
appears in this report .
( Albuquerque , Cibola National Worman , Frederick C. V.
Forest . ) 1959 1957 Archaeological Salvage Excava
tions at Los Alamos , New Mexico :
Witter, Dan C. a Preliminary Report , El Palacio
1975 Content and Structure of Vegeta 66 (1 ) .
tive Zones and Communities :
Botanical Study , pp . 31-22 in Wormington , H. M.
Jan V. Biella and Richard 1957 Ancient Man in North America .
Chapman , eds . , An Assessment of 4th ed . DenverMuseum of
Natural
Cultural Resources in Cochiti History , Popular Series 4.
Reservoir , Albuquerque ; Denver .
University of New Mexico , Office (General overview , PaleoIndian . )
of Contract Archeology .
Presents the results of field work Wyman , Leland C. and Stuart K Harris
designed to monitor the vegetative 1951 The Ethnobotany of the Kayenta
diversity and the vegetative Navajo . University of New Mexico
structure of White Rock Canyon . Publications in Biology, No. 5 ,
University of New Mexico Press,
Wobst . Martin Albuquerque .
1977 Stylistic Behavior and Information (General overview , ethnobotany . )
Exchange . Pp . 317-342 in Papers
for the Director : Research Zubrow , Ezra B. W.
Essays in Honor of James B. 1971 Carrying Capacity and Dynamic
Griffin , edited by Charles Cleland. Equilibrium in the Prehistoric
Anthropological Papers University Southwest , American Antiquity
of Michigan , Museum of 36 ( 2 ) : 127-138 .
Anthropology , No. 46 . Data from the Hay Hallow Valley,
Arizona , but Zubrow's model
Wood, Gerald L. relates to population expansion
1963 Archaeological Salvage Excavations into marginal zones as population
Near Rowe , New Mexico , Lab . grows and with climatic

197
 dessication , retreat from more Study uses demographic , ecologi
marginal zones . cal and spatial characteristics of
1974 Population , Contact and Climate New Mexican Pueblos to test
in the New Mexican Pueblos , relationships between climate and
Anthropological Papers of the population size from ca. 1540 to

University of Arizona, the present .

No. 24 ,
Tucson .

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 dessication , retreat from more Study uses demographic , ecologi
marginal zones . cal and spatial characteristics of
1974 New Mexican Pueblos to test
Population , Contact and Climate
in the New Mexican Pueblos, relationships between climate and
Anthropological Papers of the population size from ca. 1540 to
University of Arizona, No. 24 , the present .
Tucson .

YX 001 SLS 327

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ALDERMAN LIBRARY

DUE DUE

9489

☆ U.S. Government Printing Office : 1979 680-663

198
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