fThe psychodynamic approach proposed the tripartite personality: id (pleasure principle), ego

(reality principle) and superego (morality principle).

Freud proposed we use unconscious coping strategies known as defence mechanisms used by
the ego to protect itself from the conflict between the id and the superego.

Karl Popper would argue there is no evidence that defence mechanisms exist.

Psychosexual stages determine our adult personality and we go through them during childhood:

● Oral
● Anal
● Phallic
● Latency
● Genital

Iceberg theory: conscious (aware of), preconscious (semi-aware of) and unconscious (unaware of)
- this is where the hidden fears, wishes and desires are repressed.

The use of psychoanalysis is to uncover the unconscious will allow us to treat anxiety disorders
(phobias), eating disorders, depression and substance abuse.

Defence mechanisms can be used to resolve conflict between the id and the superego or the
unresolved wish/desire could manifest in a dream to release the tension. However, this does not
work long-term.

The libido is a sexual energy which is present in the id and Eros. The id and the superego never
come into contact.

Psychosexual stages of development

A child goes through psychosexual stages which determines our adult personality.

Through each stage the libido (sexual energy) is focused on an erogenous zone.

Under/over stimulation at any stage can result in fixation which can be seen in characteristics
attached to the stage during adult personality. Failure to resolve this fixation can lead to neuroses
in adult life.

Treatment would be in the form of psychoanalysis.

Oral-birth to 18 months- the erogenous zone is your mouth. As a result of fixation, behaviours can
arise in personality, this links to the area of psychology of substance abuse (e.g. smoking and
alcoholism) and anxiety disorders (e.g. nail biting).

Anal-18-36 months- the erogenous zone is your anus. As a result of fixation, behaviours can arise
in personality, e.g. OCD.

There are two types of personality as a result of fixation:

1. Harsh parenting-anal retentive: mean and tight fisted.

2. Lenient parenting-anal receptive: generous.

Phallic- 3 to 6 years- erogenous zone is your genitals.

Fixation could result in masculine characteristics in females (e.g. tomboys) and feminine
characteristics in males (e.g. crossdressing).
Oedipus complex

This affects males aged five, they have a sexual attraction to their mother and fear castration from
their father so to resolve this conflict they identify with the same sex parent (dad). This is through
activities (such as DIY) and they gain their superego and gender.

Males have a stronger bond because they bonded as a result of fear.

Electra complex

This affects females aged five, they have penis envy as a result of hating their mother because
they are incomplete. This converts to penis baby project which is a desire to have a child. To
resolve this conflict they identify with the same sex parent (mam) and this is through activities
(such as cooking) and they gain their superego and gender.

Gilligan argued that this theory was based on Victorian stereotypes of a two person household.

Feminists argued Freud’s theory was weak.

Latency-6 years- the libido is submerged.

Genital-puberty onwards- this is an interest in the opposite sex and sexual pleasure.

Fixation at this stage can result in nymphomaniacs, playboys and rapists.

SLT agrees with Freud’s concept of identification, however, they believe you can identify with any
role model and doesn’t just apply to the same sex parent.

The innate mechanisms are similar to the biological theory (Darwin) with the need to survive.

Defence mechanisms

Defence mechanisms are a short-term measure and so do not resolve the underlying problem.
The only way to achieve a long-term measure would be through psychoanalysis.

Repression is forcing a threatening or distressing memory/feeling out of consciousness, and

making it unconscious. E.g. a five year old child repressing the incestuous desire for the opposite
sex parent.

Denial is failing/refusing to acknowledge/perceive some aspect of reality, e.g. refusing to accept

that your partner has gone off you.

Reaction formation is consciously feeling/thinking the opposite of your true (unconscious)

feelings/thoughts, e.g. being considerate or polite to something you strongly dislike- even going
out of your way to be nice of them.

Wright and Lohr’s investigation into whether homophobia is caused by the defence mechanism
reaction formation

Aim They investigated whether homophobia is associated with homosexual arousal and
whether homophobia is caused by reaction formation.

Method A group of heterosexual men were assessed for their attitudes to homosexuality
using a questionnaire using homophobic and non-homophobic men (control group).
Both groups were shown explicit videos of heterosexual, lesbian and gay sex. The
sexual arousal was measured using a pressure sensitive ring. Each man was asked
to estimate how aroused they were whilst watching each type of sex scene. All the
participants also completed a questionnaire on aggression.
 Results The results showed that there was no difference in the levels of general aggression,
nor was there any difference between the heterosexual and lesbian scenes.
However, there was a large difference in the gay scene. 80% of the homophobic
group as opposed to only 33% of the non-homophobic had erections during the gay
scene. The homophobic group significantly underestimated their levels of arousal in
response to the gay scenes.

Conclusion Homophobia is associated with reaction formation. There is no evidence to suggest

a link between homophobia and general aggression.

Evaluation - Questionnaires may result in socially desirable responses.

- Arousal levels are subjective on a questionnaire.
- It was possibly unethical because there was possible psychological harm.

The behaviourist approach disagrees with Freud’s concept of defence mechanisms because it is
unscientific, unfalsifiable, unobservable and not measured objectively (Karl Popper).

Therapies of psychodynamic approach

Psychoanalysis is a directed therapy where the therapist has all the power to access the
unconscious mind and repressed information. Four methods allow this:

1. Free association (including rorschach ink blots)

2. Dream analysis
3. Hypnosis

Failure to resolve hidden wishes, desires and fears in the unconscious may lead to mental
illnesses, e.g. depression and anxiety disorders.

Free association is known as the ‘talking cure’ where the client can talk about their problems and
the therapist can analyse their recollections.

This only works with patients who are articulate and can reveal the problems. This wouldn’t work
in child abuse cases, schizophrenics and autism.

rorschach ink blots allow the client to respond to a visual stimulus or prop.

Dolls are often used in child abuse cases where they can point and not talk.

Hypnosis is a sleep like altered state of consciousness where a person may perform involuntary
actions and have a distorted memory after a session.

Dream analysis involves the assumption that our hidden wishes, desires and fears are repressed
in our unconscious and manifest in our dreams, e.g. facial neuralgia and Anna O.

There is controversy over how effective psychoanalysis is as a therapy because it is time

consuming, the therapist has the power, subjective and down to interpretation.

The following agencies use psychoanalysis successfully are police agencies, social services,
psychiatric institutions and the medical profession.

Case studies

Little Hans;
Freud became aware of this case studies from Hans’ father, Freud made his diagnosis based on
Hans’ father’s observations. Little Hans had an interest in his penis and his fear of horses when
his phobia improved, he had fantasies where he had a bigger penis fitted and where he had a
child with the father as the granddad and his mum was the mum.

Freud interpreted the fear of horses was a representation of his father and it was supporting
evidence for the Oedipus complex.

- Retrospective evidence to fit an existing theory.

- His phobia of horses may have been a representation of the fact that he had seen a horsing
accident where the horse was killed.
- The father provided the “clues” and so may have been unreliable.
- Case studies use qualitative data which is rich in detail and longitudinal so a large volume
of data was recorded.

Wolf Man;

Wolf Man had depression as a result of the death of his elder sister and father. He went to see
Freud from Russia to Vienna and from dream analysis he found out about a dream that he had as
a child. He had a dream of white wolves outside the window and he feared they were going to eat
them.

Freud interpreted this as a result of witnessing his parents having sex. Freud treated him with
psychoanalysis.

- Wolf Man was still not cured as a result of the dream analysis and psychoanalysis.
- This is a very far-fetched idea of the dream with much simpler reasons for depression and
different ways of treating it.
- The dream may have been distorted because of the time between the dream and revealing
the dream to Freud.
- Case studies are down to interpretation; they are subjective.

Rat Man;

Rat Man had OCD rituals; he went to see Freud as a result. He told Freud that he had obsessive
and fearful thoughts about rats. This is because he had witnessed and was threatened with a
torturing method in the army involving rats which scared him.

Freud interpreted this as a hatred for his father because he wanted to torture his father and so he
felt guilt and fear.

- Rat Man was still not cured after psychoanalysis.

- It doesn’t mention the death of his sister when he was young which probably led to feelings
of abandonment.
- It doesn’t mention his mother who was highly controlling in his younger life and continued to
be in his adult life.

Dora;

Dora was depressed as a result of a previous event that had occurred two years ago. A family
friend had made sexual advances and Dora slapped them in the cheek then ran away.

Freud interpreted this as a result of reaction formation which is a defence mechanism; she actually
loved him. She couldn’t speak because the man she was in love with was away. The man said
she loved him, Freud and his wife.

- She was not cured as she committed suicide.

Post-Freudians

Carl Jung

Carl Jung disagreed with Freud in three key areas:

1. Psychic energy
2. Structure of personality
3. Repression

Freud talked about the libido (sexual energy), whereas Jung saw this energy as a general life
force.

Freud identified the tripartite theory of personality: id, ego and superego, however, Jung referred
to the tripartite theory of personality as the consciousness, personal consciousness and the
collective unconscious.

Freud focused on the defence mechanism repression being the result of past childhood
experiences, on the other hand, Jung said we should focus on the past, present and future.

Jung believed consciousness is what we are aware of and that we experience the world in four
different ways:

● Sensing
● Intuition- guessing and predicting
● Feeling-emotions
● Thinking- reasoning and abstract thinking

Jung believed that individual differences and our personality may determine the extent to which we
are influenced by the four ways.

E.g. Jung agrees with Eysenck’s introvert and extrovert, and personality of the conscious.

Personal unconscious- Jung agrees with Freud’s theory of repression and that this information
manifests in our dreams. However, Jung believes we should encourage people to live our lives as
a result of dreams.

Collective unconscious- Jung is completely departed from Freud’s theory. This is made up of
ancestral and racial memories which are inherited and passed down the generations. These
memories are known as ARCHETYPES.

This links with fables and religious stories which have a moral message influencing how we live
our lives.

Carl Jung believed in psychic inheritance that you are born with but never conscious of, usually
linked to intuition and feeling.

Jung also claimed that there are two sides of yourself: the ego and the shadow. This can be
related to the biological theory of Darwin.

● Blood is thicker than water.

● Deja vu.
● Maternal instinct.
● Feminine and masculine parts.
Erik Erikson

Erikson extended and elaborated on Freud’s theory but differs in the following ways:

Freud proposed 5 psychosexual stages during childhood; however, Erikson proposed 8

psychosocial stages that we go through childhood into adulthood.

Freud focused on sexual drives, whereas, Erikson focused on the importance of family and
culture.

Both Freud and Erikson suggested each stage is marked by a crisis/struggle which must be
resolved. Failure to do so will result in mental illness.

Like Freud, Erikson agreed that potential care during these stages is influential.

Erikson believed the psychosocial stages are universal to all cultures.

Age (years) Stage Description

1 Trust vs. mistrust Trust-stable and safe

environment.

Mistrust- insecurity/absent
parents.

2-3 Autonomy vs. shame and guilt Autonomy independence.

Harsh-shame and doubt.

4-5 Initiative vs. guilt Sexual curiosity should be

sympathetically handled by
parents.

6-11 Industry vs. inferiority Knowledge and skills relating

to their culture.

12-18 Identity vs. role confusion Young person searches for

coherent personalities.

20-30 Intimacy vs. isolation Adult seeks deep and lasting

personal relationships with a
partner of the opposite sex.

40-64 Generativity vs. stagnation Individuals seek to be

productive and creative as a
contribution.

65+ Integrity vs. despair Individual reviews what has

been accomplished in life.

Melanie Klein

Klein recognised the importance of infant’s first relationships with their primary caregivers and she
concluded that the early mental processes build up a person’s inner emotional world.
Klein developed the technique of play therapy and this is still used today.

She developed play therapy as a result of the inability to use free association on children.

Klein’s theory is much more child friendly as it allows treatment for children, whereas
psychoanalysis proposed by Freud is not available for children.

Play therapy is used to uncover people’s unconscious motivations as children are able to project
their feelings through play and drawings.

In play therapy, the anxieties of children are shown (ego, superego and sexuality) can lead to
emotional disorders. She showed children’s unconscious could be analysed through non-verbal
behaviour. Klein attempted to relieve children of disabling guilt by having the child direct their
aggressive and Oedipal feelings that could not be expressed to parents.

The paranoid schizoid position- this is shown through projective identification where not only the
impulse but parts of the self and bodily projects were projected into the object. The child is able to
focus the pain onto something else.

Depressive position- this is a realisation that the mother who is hated is also the one they love.
This took place when they would inhibit the need to attack and is repressed into the unconscious.

Object relations- this is when a child does not receive enough good mothering, they are
increasingly retreated into the inner world of fantasy with the need for real objects, which is the
desire for relationships.

Klein argues the development of the superego occurs during infancy, whereas Freud argued that
the superego developed at the age of 5 as a result of the Oedipus or Electra complex.

Klein argued fear and aggressive tendencies were present as a result of deviant development and
not psychosexual development. Freud argued this was a result of the conflict within unresolved
complexes.

Klein argued fear and aggression are important forces in psychological development. This is
contrasted with Freud who focused on sexual energy.

Comparisons to the psychodynamic approach

● Biological:
+ Darwin’s evolution theory with survival of the fittest is similar to Eros and Thanatos.
- Aggression is a result of testosterone or genes (XYY), unlike psychodynamic which
argues aggression is a result of Eros and Thanatos.
● Cognitive:
- Freud’s theory is unscientific as proposed by Karl Popper because it is unfalsifiable as it
can’t be measured, touched or recorded, whereas, the cognitive theory is scientific through
the use of lab experiments.
● Social learning theory:
+ Both believe that identification occurs.
-However, SLT argues that this can occur with any role model and does not only apply to
same sex parents.
- Freud believes aggression is a result of the instinctual drives, whereas, SLT argues it is a
result of the observation of an aggressive role model.
● Humanistic:
- Freud believes that the therapist has all the power (direct), yet the humanistic approach
uses client-centred therapy where the client has all the power (non-direct).
- The psychodynamic adopts a pessimistic view of life as it proposes that we go through life
going through conflicts as a result of the struggle between the id and the superego. This
 differs from the humanistic approach which adopts an optimism that suggests we are
growth seeking individuals striving for self-actualisation.
- Freud’s theory focuses on the idea of determinism that life is determined by the id and
superego. This is contrasted with the humanistic approach that argues that we have free
will: choice and control.

Classical conditioning

Pavlov’s dogs

Ivan Pavlov believed we learned through paired associations.

Stage Stimulus Response

1 Unconditioned stimulus- food Unconditioned response-

salivation

2 Unconditioned stimulus-food Unconditioned response-

salivation
Conditioned stimulus-bell

3 Conditioned stimulus-bell Conditioned response-

salivation

This diagram illustrates classical conditioning.

There are different types of classical conditioning:

● Higher order conditioning/ stimulus discrimination-dog salivates to that particular bell

sound.
● Stimulus generalisation-dog salivates to all bells.
● Extinction-dog forgets the behaviour.
● Spontaneous recovery-even after a long period of time, the dog still salivates.

Watson and Little Albert

Stage Stimulus Response

1 Unconditioned stimulus- loud Unconditioned response-

noise crying

2 Unconditioned stimulus-loud Unconditioned response-crying

noise

Conditioned stimulus-white rat

3 Conditioned stimulus-white rat Conditioned response-crying

This diagram illustrates classical conditioning.

Operant conditioning
Skinner put forward that all behaviour is learnt from the environment which brings about
consequences.

He believes rewards and reinforcement could increase behaviour, whereas, no reward or

punishment could decrease behaviour.

Skinner’s box experiment involved a rat through accidental trial and error to release a food pellet
(reward). Skinner found the lever pressing increased. However, if the pellet was removed, lever
pressing would decrease and if it resulted in an electric shock (punishment) then the behaviour
would be stopped immediately.

Thorndike found similar findings with the cat puzzle box and he concluded that the laws of effect
suggest rewards increase behaviour.

Skinner proposed the ABC model:

a) Antecedent.
b) Behaviour/Action.
c) Consequences.

There is two types of reinforcement:

Positive reinforcement increases behaviour and this can be through primary reinforces (direct-
food, sleep and sex) and secondary reinforces (indirect-exchange-money and praise).

Negative reinforcement increases behaviour to avoid unpleasant consequences, e.g. mother

giving into a tantrum.

Punishment is a negative, unpleasant consequence following bad behaviour, e.g. swearing = slap.

Schedules of reinforcement

1. Continuous reinforcement-e.g. receiving a tip from every customer.

2. Fixed ratios schedule-e.g. commission/bonus for so many sales.
3. Fixed interval schedule-e.g. being paid weekly/monthly.
4. Variable ratios schedule-e.g. gambling: unknown reinforcement.
5. Variable interval schedule-e.g. customer paying for an invoice.

Aversive stimulus; e.g. taking a Paracetamol to relieve a headache.

Treatments: behaviour modification

All behaviour modification techniques are based on the principles of operant and classical
conditioning.

Exposure

Exposure is allowing the client to talk about the stressful event.

This is operant conditioning because talking is beneficial to the patient.

Depressed patients would find this beneficial.

This would not work with schizophrenics or rape victims.

The psychodynamic approach would use rorschach ink blots as a form of treatment.

Systematic desensitation
Systematic desensitation is where the client is able to take small steps to face their fear.

It is classical conditioning where the patient is associating behaviours.

This would work with anxiety disorders, e.g. phobias and OCD.

Flooding

Flooding is the dramatic experience of their feared situation, e.g. phobia of spiders throwing them
in a bath of spiders.

Highly unethical.

They quickly learn that this is going to be the worst it can be.

Aversion therapy

It involves an unpleasant or painful stimulus to change behaviour.

Classical conditioning applied to alcoholics

Stage Stimulus Response

1 Unconditioned stimulus- drug Unconditioned response- sick

2 Unconditioned stimulus-drug Unconditioned response-sick

Conditioned stimulus-alcohol

3 Conditioned stimulus-alcohol Conditioned response-sick

Operant conditioning applied to drug addicts

Cold turkey and the withdrawal of drugs is painful to the addict.

Hypnosis could be used with alcoholics.

Drug addicts could use medication.

Token economy

This involves tokens as reinforcement behaviour which can be exchanged to desirable goods.
It is effective for aggressive offenders, e.g. gym access.

It only works in confined spaces; it is short-term and shouldn’t be used to breach human rights.

Alternatively, you could use an electric Taser to prevent further bad behaviour.

Comparisons to other approaches

● Biological:
+ Both follow a reductionist approach: stimulus and response/genes and hormones.
- Biological treatment requires a physical treatment to cure a disorder.
● Cognitive:
+Both follow a reductionist approach: stimulus and response/information processor.
+They both consider stimulus and response.
+Cognitive approach focuses on computers and behaviourist approach focuses on animals
which can’t be generalised to humans.
● Social learning theory:
+ Vicarious reinforcement is another type that influences behaviour.
 +Both believe behaviour is determined by the environment.
-SLT focuses on observing role models, whereas, behaviorism focuses on stimulus and
response.
● Humanistic:
+Both put forward successful treatments that are still used today.
-Behaviourist uses a reductionist approach, whereas, the humanistic approach focuses on
the idea of holism.
- Client-centred therapy: the client has all the power, whereas, in behaviourist therapy the
therapist has all the power.
-The humanistic approach would argue that we have free will, control and choice, however,
the behaviourist approach argues that our behaviour is determined by the environment.
● Psychodynamic
+Both the therapists have all the power.
+Psychodynamic approach would use rorschach ink blots with patients who find it difficult to
articulate their thoughts.
+Play therapy (adopted by Melanie Klein) would be a useful therapy for children.
-Behaviourist focuses on stimulus and response, however, psychodynamic focuses on the
unconscious.

Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory is the bridge between the behaviourist and cognitive approach.

SLT agrees we should study behaviour using experimental and non-experimental methods.

Like the cognitive approach, it proposes four mediating factors, however, cognitive approach
proposes five mediating factors.

Mediating factors in SLT

1. Attention.
2. Retention.
3. Motor reproduction.
4. Motivation.

Mediating factors in cognitive approach

1. Attention.
2. Perception.
3. Memory.
4. Thinking.
5. Language.

SLT believes we learn through observation and much behaviour are not reinforced as suggested
by the behaviourists, e.g. an unborn child has learnt sucking, smiling and blinking- these are
biological innate behaviours and contradict the SLT approach.

As an adult or child we do learn behaviours through observation, e.g. laughing.

SLT proposes we learn through observation of role models that we like and admire, they are
usually peers or celebrities who are attractive and hold status and power. If we identify with them,
we imitate and copy their behaviour. Once the behaviour is learnt, we are reinforced and this
motivates us to repeat the behaviour.
 Observe the role
model and pay
attention to
them.

If we are Identify with

reinforced, we them through
are motivated to retention of the
do it again. behaviour.

Imitate the
behaviour
through motor
reproduction.

SLT agrees with the psychodynamic approach with the concept of identification, Freud argued it
has to be the same sex parent. However, SLT argues it can be with any role model.

SLT puts forward vicarious reinforcement where we learn through observation of others being
reinforced.

Humanistic approach would argue anorexia is the result of an imbalance of incongruence

between the ideal self and the actual self.

The humanistic approach would agree that we choose our role models through free will because
we have choice and control.

SLT ignores innate biological influence (e.g. aggression as a result of testosterone- Dabbs), e.g.
(XYY- Jacobs) and (e.g. Sheldon and Lombroso.

Biological approaches would explain gender through chromosomes and hormones not through
observation.

Key study: Bandura’s bobo doll

AIM-He investigated aggression and the gender differences in aggression between boys and girls.

METHOD-He showed them a model behaving aggressively to a bobo doll. There were three
versions and the child only saw one: positive commentary, negative commentary and no
commentary.

RESULTS- boys were more aggressive and girls were more affected by negative commentary.

EVALUATION

+ The use of controlled conditions allows cause and effect to be established.

+ Highlights the effects of TV violence and the watershed.

- Lacked ecological validity and doesn’t reflect real life aggression.

SLT can explain that we learn many behaviours through observation.

Comparisons to other approaches

● Biological:
 +Both use scientific experiments.
- There are innate biological behaviours, (e.g. smiling, blinking and sucking) that can’t be
explained through observation.
● Cognitive:
+Both have mediating factors.
+Cognitive approach has five mediating factors: attention, perception, memory, thinking and
language.
● Behaviourist:
+ Both believe in a form of reinforcement that motivates behaviour.
-SLT argues that if we are motivated we are more likely to do it again. However, it does not
necessarily control behaviour and they also include vicarious reinforcement which occurs
as we learn through observation of others being observed.
● Humanistic:
+Both believe humans have free will, choice and control. SLT argues we decide on our role
model dependent if we find them attractive.
- SLT would argue anorexia occurs as a result of vicarious reinforcement. However, the
humanistic approach suggests anorexia is a result of the imbalance between congruence of
the ideal and actual self.
● Psychodynamic
+Both believe in the process of identification.
-However, the psychodynamic approach would argue this only occurs with same-sex
parents.

Cognitive Approach

This emerged through the dissatisfaction with the behaviourist approach which focused on
stimulus and response. Whereas, the cognitive approach believes there are important mental
processes which occur between stimulus and response. They put forward SOR (stimulus-
organism-response).

Within the organism lies cognitive mediating factors which allow us to process information, they
are: attention, perception, thinking, language and memory.

In contrast, SLT proposed four mediation factors: attention, retention, motor reproduction and
motivation.

Cognitive focuses on conscious experiences, whereas, the psychodynamic focuses on

unconscious experiences.

The approach assumes we actively process information, however, the behaviourist assumes we
passively process information.

Cognitive psychologists propose a computer analogy in that we process information like

computers.

The humanistic approach argued we are emotional, irrational and spontaneous beings.

The approach adopts scientific experiments which can establish cause and effect and control
variables.

However, they have created hypothetical models which lacks ecological validity because they
oversimplify the processes of the brain.

However, the information processing model has simplified thought processes to aid
understanding and has triggered similar models to topic areas:

● Attention
 ● Perception
● Thinking
● Language
● Memory

The cognitive approach has developed treatments for depression, e.g. cognitive behavioural
therapy to convert negative thought patterns to positive thought patterns. Whereas, the biological
approach believes depression is the result of chemical imbalances in the brain which can be
treated with physical treatment not psychological treatment.

Information processing model

Input Storage Output

Stimulus Senses process Behaviour Response
Keyboard Brain Monitor
Hard drive

The cognitive approach has explained many topic areas in psychology.

Artificial intelligence- computer programs have been generated to mimic the human brain.

Key study: Watson

AIM-to show that thinking is not entirely logical.

METHOD-shown participants four cards with a letter on one side and a number on the other side.
Wason says ‘if a card has an A on one side then it has a 3 on the other side’. They were shown
four cards with A, 2, 3 and B. They were asked to turn over only the cards that would have proven
or disproven the rule.

RESULTS-most participants turned over the A card which had a 3 on the side. Few turned over
the 2 cards which would have proven the rule to be false.

CONCLUSION-most people didn’t turn over the A or 2 card over which would have proven or
disproven the rule.

Comparisons to other approaches

● Biological:
+ Input senses into the nervous system.
- Treatment is physical and suggests there is a physical cause. Cognitive behavioural
therapy focuses on the change of the thought patterns.
 ● SLT:
+Both proposed mediating factors.
-SLT proposes attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation. Cognitive proposes
attention, perception, thinking, memory and language.
● Behaviourists:
+ Both can’t be generalised to humans. Behaviourists can’t be generalised to animals.
Cognitive can’t be generalised to computers.
-Cognitive approach argues that we actively process information, whereas, the behaviourist
approach suggests that we passively process information.
● Humanistic:
+Both proposed therapies: client centred therapy and cognitive behavioural therapy.
-We are emotional, irrational, spontaneous beings and should not be generalised to
computers.
● Psychodynamic
+Both proposed therapies and both believe that we learn behaviour from the environment.
-Cognitive focuses on conscious experiences, whereas, psychodynamic focuses on
unconscious experiences.

Humanistic approach

Humanistic approach values the importance of studying unique individuals because it is more
meaningful and enriches the participant’s lives.

It disagrees with the concept of generalising animals to humans (behaviourist) or seeing people
as machines (cognitive).

The humanistic approach believes we have free will, choice and control. We are not determined
by the environment (behaviourist), unconscious (psychodynamic) and genetics (biological).

This theory values individual case studies, the Q-sort technique and self-report methods. It rejects
scientific methods which try to attempt to generalise laws of behaviour (behaviourist).

+ Rich in qualitative data.

-Can’t be generalised and it is time consuming.

The humanistic approach believes we should study the whole person (holism) as opposed to
reducing humans to genes and chromosomes (biological), stimulus and response (behaviourist),
stimulus, organism and response (cognitive), unconscious (psychodynamic) and observation
learning (SLT).

This approach believes in promoting personal growth and we are striving to self-actualisation.

It is more optimistic than the psychodynamic approach which is pessimistic that undergoes
conflicts throughout their life.

The approach puts forward client-centred therapy which aims to be non-directive in that the client
has all the power.

Unlike psychoanalysis where the therapist has all the power.

Unconditional positive regard is when you are accepted without any conditions of worth attached,
e.g. parents.
 Rogers believes we have an ideal self (who we would like to be) and actual self (who we are). An
unrealistic gap would lead to incongruence.

Client-centred therapy aims to reduce incongruence between the ideal and actual self but the
therapist need to show:

● Unconditional positive regard

● Genuineness
● Empathy

Incongruence can lead to psychological illness and the absence of unconditional positive regard
hinders.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Maslow put forward motivational needs which drive behaviour. These were illustrated in the
hierarchy of needs.

Similar to instinctual drives by the psychodynamic approach and ‘survival of the fittest’
(biological).

Maslow proposed there are two kinds of motivation:

● Deficiency motivation- physical wellbeing.

● Growth motivation-psychological well being.

Self-actualisation needs
and self-fulfilment.

Esteem needs.

Love needs.

Safety needs,

Physiological needs.

This hierarchy is based on Western culture which values individuals processes, whereas, other
cultures value family and groups.

Maslow believes that basic needs at the bottom of the hierarchy must be achieved for moving up
to reach self-actualisation. However, life is unpredictable and many factors may alter your position
in the hierarchy. E.g. poverty, redundancy, divorce, bereavement, infertility or arrested for crime.

Self-actualisation comes with the stress of knowing you have reached full potential and the duties
and responsibilities. Some people respond to self-actualisation because they were worried and
this is known as the ‘Jonah complex’.

Part of our ambition and desires comes from what others. This would fit with SLT. Human nature
means we are never satisfied with what we’ve got, a desire to want the object which means very
few people self-actualise and it is difficult to measure.

Maslow’s hierarchy has been applied to the workplace where employees are given incentives to
improve performances.

Key study: John

AIM-to reduce and cure John’s depression.

METHOD-John went to the therapist complaining that he has anxiety, dark moods and difficulty
with connecting others. John wore glasses where he would squint and not give the therapist any
eye contact. John said that his bifocal glasses were the wrong size and wrong magnification which
contributed to his dark moods.

RESULTS-his lack of motivation caused his depression.

Comparisons to other approaches

● Biological:
+ Motivational needs are similar to instinctual drives as proposed by Darwin, e.g. ‘survival of
the fittest’.
- Argues we are determined by genes and chromosomes, we do not have free will.
-It is a reductionist approach because it reduces humans down to genes and hormones.
● SLT:
+Ambitions and desires are observed from humans.
+ We have free will, choice and control over our role models.
- It is a reductionist approach because it reduces humans down to observation learning.
● Behaviourists:
+ Both produce therapies: client-centred therapy (humanistic) and behaviour modification
(behaviourist).
-Cognitive approach argues that we actively process information, whereas, the behaviourist
approach suggests that we passively process information.
● Cognitive:
+Both proposed therapies: client centred therapy (humanistic) and cognitive behavioural
therapy (cognitive).
-We are emotional, irrational, spontaneous beings and should not be generalised to
computers.
-It is a reductionist approach because it reduces humans down to stimulus, organism and
response.
● Psychodynamic:
+Both proposed therapies: psychoanalysis (psychodynamic) and client-centred therapy
(humanistic).
+ Both use case studies as non-scientific methods for qualitative data which is rich in detail.
-The therapist has all the power unlike the humanistic approach where the client has all the
power.
-Pessimistic because it reflects the conflicts of life, whereas, the humanistic approach is
optimistic.

Depression

● There is an unrealistic gap between the ideal and the actual self.
● Incongruences may result in psychological illnesses.

Cognitive approach would argue negative schemas cause depression as the result of negative
thought patterns. Both cognitive and humanistic approaches have put forward therapies: client-
centred therapy (which aims to reduce incongruence) and Beck’s cognitive therapy (which aims to
change negative schemas to positive ones).

The biological approach would argue that depression was a result of genes and a chemical
imbalance in the brain of neurotransmitters: serotonin and noradrenaline. The biological treatment
of depression suggests there is a physical cause and therefore a physical treatment is required.
An example of a biological drug is Prozac which is a selective serotonin reuptake for unipolar
depression and lithium bicarbonate depression.

Crime and deviance

Crimes are committed to rise up the hierarchy:

� Robbery is committed to fulfil physiological needs.

� Rape is committed to fulfil love needs.

The biological approach would argue that crimes occur as a result of physiological (Lombroso and
Sheldon), genes (XYY) and hormones (testosterone).

The psychodynamic approach would argue deviant behaviour occurs as a result of pseudo-
hereditary with the deviant superego.

The behaviourist approach would suggest that crimes are the result of classical and operant
conditioning. Classical conditioning occurs as a result of association, e.g. young child would
associate stealing sweets with excitement. Operant conditioning occurs as a result of
reinforcement: positive reinforcement would be if an offender stole a car and found money in it
then they would be more likely to reoffend. Negative reinforcement would be if an offender was
caught then they would receive punishment (a prison sentence) then offending should cease.

SLT would argue that the offender observes a deviant role model, they would then identify with
their role model if they liked them and then they would imitate their behaviour. E.g. The Yorkshire
ripper’s role model was Jack the ripper (explains copycat killings).

Biological approach

What determines behaviour?

The biological explanation distinguishes between the components of human beings.

PHYSIOLOGICAL MAKEUP-this includes hormones, blood and the nervous system.

GENETIC INHERITANCE-this includes DNA, genes and chromosomes.

The approach also assumes chemicals in the brain are also responsible for functioning, e.g. in
Schizophrenia, the neurotransmitter dopamine is involved and in depression, the
neurotransmitters involved are serotonin and noradrenaline.

Our genetic makeup and chromosome patterns are key to who we are. E.g. gender is the result of
XX (female) and XY (male) chromosome patterns. They demonstrate a clear cause and effect.

This can also be seen in other topics: Lombroso and Sheldon’s inherited facial characteristics and
body types. Jacob’s XYY man.

Our hormones also determine behaviour. E.g. aggression (testosterone), however, according to
SLT, aggression is learnt through observation.

Furthermore, Freud would argue aggression is a result of overriding Thanatos.

Darwin argued in the theory of evolution and proposed the ‘fight or flight response’ (e.g. getting
chased by a bear) which is linked to our nervous system. Natural selection is where we have
adapted our genes known as ‘survival of the fittest’.

According to Darwin we have evolved from apes therefore it makes sense to generalise animals
to humans.
The behaviourists also generalise animals to humans.

Humanistic theory would argue that we are spontaneous, emotional and rational beings.

Some behaviours are learnt innately in order for us to survive which includes aggression and the
rooting reflex.

The biological theory believes in determinism as a result of genes and hormones which means
behaviours such as crime are innate, however, this contradicts environmental determinism
(behaviourist) and psychic determinism (psychodynamic).

The biological theory focuses on reductionism which reduces complex behaviours to genes to
hormones. This is similar to the behaviourist (stimulus and response), SLT (observation learning),
psychodynamic (unconscious) and cognitive (stimulus, organism and response).

The humanistic theory focuses on the whole person (holism).

According to bio psychologists, the main influences of behaviour are genetics, brain structure and
chemicals, hormones and evolution.

Methods used in the biological approach

This approach adopts credible, scientific experiments which establish cause and effect.

Brain scanning techniques (e.g. PET, MRI, CAT and SPECT). They are precise as they examine
the living brain. However, they are invasive (PET involves injecting radioactive glucose) and can’t
establish cause and effect.

Lab experiments. They establish cause and effect and have resulted in drugs and medication to
save lives. On the other hand, they are tested unethically on animals and they have low ecological
validity.

Post mortems and surgical procedures have helped develop treatment programmes. However,
you cannot establish cause and effect with a dead brain.

Observational studies of sleep and aggressive behaviours have also been studied which are high
in ecological validity, yet often they are deceived.

Twin, family and adoption studies help us to compare concordance rates where we can establish
whether a behaviour is due to nature or nurture. E.g. David Rhymer (gender), schizophrenia,
depression, forensics and autism.

Case studies of brain damaged patients have helped us to understand: attention, perception,
thinking language and memory. They are rich in qualitative data but they are time consuming and
can’t be generalised. E.g. HM (motorbike) and Genain quadruplets.

Key study: Buss

AIM-Buss investigated attitudes and behaviours of men and women across 37 different cultures
towards sexual behaviour.

METHOD-Buss asked 10,000 men and women from 37 countries using a questionnaire. They
were asked to consider 18 traits.

RESULTS-they both said the most important trait was mutual attraction: love. They were all
interested in someone who is dependable, emotionally stable, and emotionally mature and a
pleasing disposition. Men were more interested in casual sex, prefer a younger partner and get
more jealous over sexual infidelity on the partner of the woman. By contrast, women prefer older
partners, are less upset by sexual infidelity but more upset by a man becoming emotionally
involved with another woman.

CONCLUSION-Buss attributes these differences to mating preferences that have evolved in

response to the reproductive demands placed on men and women. Generally, women are more
involved in nurturing offspring and men in providing for the family, although this traditional pattern
has changed dramatically in western societies. Evolutionary theory explains the male concern with
sexual infidelity by the female partner as being related to concern over the paternity of the
offspring. Evolutionary psychology presents and, to some extent justifies a traditional male and
female role in the family. It has to be noted that other explanations for the findings of Buss may be
possible, e.g. males control the money and resources.

EVALUATION-+ Universal because of the 37 cultures studied. -Socially desirable responses may
occur. –Response sets may occur.

The nervous system

Nervous system

Central Peripheral

Brain Spinal cord Somatic Autonomic

Cerebellum Cerebum Grey matter White matter Parasympathetic

Hypothalmus Medulla Sympathetic

According to Darwin, our cerebral cortex has evolved from primates.

The brain stem has three main structures known as the limbic system:

● Septal area- linked to motivation, pleasure and pain.

● Amygdala-linked to emotion, especially fear.
● Hippocampus-controls memory and damage would result in memory loss, e.g. HM.

Morris used PET scans and found that people respond quickly to faces of an emotional state,
however, the quickest response were to faces that expressed fear and this links to Darwin’s notion
of ‘fight or flight: we immediately react to danger.

The genetic basis of behaviour

The genetic basis of behaviour has been investigated using twin, family and adoption studies.
+ Twin studies allow us to determine whether a behaviour is nature or nurture.

- High dropout rate, rare, small sample size, shared environment and no one study can find 100%
concordance.

The best investigation would be MZs reared apart as there is no shared

environment and so not learnt.

Question: Distinguish between genotype and phenotype

GENOTYPE-the actual genetic makeup represented in the DNA and

chromosomes.

PHENOTYPE-this is the expression of the genes.

Key study: Otto and Ewald

AIM-To investigate the effect of the environment on the phenotype of people.

METHOD-Two German identical twins were studied who both competed in different events. Otto
trained on long distance events, e.g. 5000m. Whereas, Ewald trained on high-intensity resistance
training, e.g. field events such as discus and shot put.

RESULTS-the phenotypes were varied as a result of differing environmental factors and lifestyle
choices that have affected their physical self.

CONCLUSION-MZ twins have the same genotype; however, they have a differing phenotype
because of the exercise events.

EVALUATION- Cannot be generalised because it is only one sample of two males but also this
cannot be generalised to females.

Dominant and recessive genes

DOMINANT GENE-they will always be expressed and affect the phenotype. Only one gene is
required. E.g. brown eyes, curly hairs and colour vision.

RECESSIVE GENE-only expressed if there are two recessive genes in the phenotype. E.g.
haemophilia, blue eyes and straight hair.

PKU is an illness which is the result of two recessive where a person cannot metabolise amine
which is present in some E numbers. A build-up of this in the blood can cause damage to the
brain. If caught early, an amine free diet can prevent this.

Comparisons to other approaches

● Humanistic:
+ Motivational needs are similar to instinctual drives as proposed by Darwin, e.g. ‘survival of
the fittest’.
+ Both produce therapies: drug treatments (biological) and client centred therapy.
+ Both use case studies as non-scientific methods for qualitative data which is rich in detail.
Biological theory uses it for brain damaged patients, e.g. HM.
- Argues we are determined by genes and chromosomes, we do not have free will.
-We are emotional, irrational, spontaneous beings and should not be generalised to
animals.
-Biological treatment disagrees with client centred therapy because a biological approach
would argue there is a physical cause. Furthermore, concepts such as congruence and
 self-actualisation are subjective and cannot be measured in comparison to hormone levels
and genetic makeup.
-It is a reductionist approach because it reduces humans down to genes and hormones.
● SLT:
+Both reductionist approaches: genes and hormones/observation.
- Aggression is a result of observation and not testosterone.
● Behaviourists:
+ Both produce therapies: drug treatments (biological) and behaviour modification
(behaviourist).
+Both use credible, objective and scientific methods.
+Both generalise animals to humans.
-Cognitive approach argues that we actively process information, whereas, the behaviourist
approach suggests that we passively process information.
-Believe in different types of determinism: environmental and biological.
● Cognitive:
+Both proposed therapies: drug treatments (biological) and cognitive behavioural therapy
(cognitive).
+Both have generalisation issues: computers to humans (cognitive) and apes to humans
(biological).
- Biological treatment disagrees with cognitive behavioural therapy because biological
approach would argue there is a physical cause and cognitive would argue it is a result of
cognitive processes.
● Psychodynamic:
+Both proposed therapies: psychoanalysis (psychodynamic) and drug treatments
(biological).
+Both believe in innate instincts: ‘survival of the fittest’ (biological) and Eros and Thanatos
(psychodynamic).
+ Both use case studies as non-scientific methods for qualitative data which is rich in detail.
Biological theory uses it for brain damaged patients, e.g. HM.
- Concepts such as the unconscious mind are subjective and cannot be measured in
comparison to hormone levels and genetic makeup.

Eclectic approach

The eclectic approach assumes that each approach provides a different explanation of behaviour.
We should see this as complementary not competing because it broadens our understanding.
It does not value one approach over the other, each has its own strength.
An eclectic approach is one that combines the best features of different perspectives.
Question: explain what is meant by the trimodal model?

Primary mode

This focuses on the biological basis of behaviour, e.g. the biological approach would be a good
example to explain gender: XX (female) and XY (male) chromosome patterns.

Secondary mode

This focuses on the influences of society and the environment. E.g. the behaviourist approach
would argue gender is a result of reinforcement or punishment and SLT would argue it is a result
of observation of a same sex role model.

Tertiary mode
This focuses on choice and control. Humanistic approach advocates free will and gender is a
result of free will.

Evaluation

+ Does not value one approach over the other.

+ Can consider a wide range of behaviours.

+ Greater insight and understanding.

- Can lead to confusion.

- Difficult to judge the value of each perspective.
- Difficult to combine information into a single theory.

Conclusion

No one approach can fully explain all human behaviour. Each approach has its strengths and
limitations. An eclectic approach provides a more complete and global picture.

Methods in psychology

STATISTICAL INFERENCE-probability and level of significant difference

AIM-it is a general statement about what psychological research is about.

● H1 research/alternative/experimental hypothesis.
E.g. there will be a significant difference…
● HO null hypothesis.
E.g. there will be no significant difference… due to chance.

Every hypothesis must have an independent variable and a dependent variable.

An independent variable needs to have two or more conditions, e.g. gender (male/female). The
dependent variable needs to be measured, e.g. the number of words recalled.

PROBABILITY-this is a likelihood or chance of something occurring.

STANDARD DEVIATION-how spread out the data is in comparison to the mean.

OBSERVED VALUE/OBSERVED EFFECT-the result of the study.

CRITICAL VALUE-this is taken from a statistical table when compared with an observed value,
this shows whether the results are significant or not.

‘The results of the test are significant/not significant because the observed value of ____ is
equal to or more/less than the critical value of ____ at the 0.05 level therefore the H1/HO
should be accepted’.

>0.05 Reject the research hypothesis (H1) and accept the HO (null hypothesis).

<0.05 Accept the H1 and reject the H0.

Sometimes there is a requirement of a higher degree of certainty, e.g. drug treatments need to be
99% certain (p<0.01).

HYPOTHESIS TESTING- one-tailed and two-tailed

One-tailed hypothesis

Directional- you have an idea of the way the results are going to go.

You need to use words such as ‘higher/lower/more/less’.

Don’t use better or worse as it isn’t measurable and it is only used if previous research indicates a
difference.

E.g. people with a Northern accent will be more judged to be significantly nicer than people with a
southern accent.

Type I and type II errors

There is still a margin of error even after statistical tests because it is possible to make a mistake,
there can still be errors.

Errors

Fals
e
False neg
ativ
positive e

Type 1- this is where you have

Type II- wrongly accepted the HO
wrongly accepted the H1
hypothesis and rejected the H1
hypothesis and rejected the HO. It
hypothesis. It was because the
was the effect of extraneous
researcher had been too
variables and the researcher was
pessimistic.
too optimistic.

Correlational studies

If it is a correlation study then this means there is a relationship.

A scatter graph is correlational.

POSITIVE CORRELATION (H1)-one variable increases and so does the other.

NEGATIVE CORRELATION (H1)-one variable increases and the other decreases.

ZERO CORRELATION-no association.

● No cause and effect with correlational studies.

Statistical tests

Statistical tests are used to determine whether there is a sufficient difference and this suggests
whether you need to accept the experimental/null hypothesis.

Data Tests of difference Tests of relationship

Types of Unrelated Related Related

measures

Nominal Chi squared test Sign test

 Ordinal Mann-Whitney U Wilcoxon sign Spearman’s rank
test ranks

Interval Unrelated t-test Related t-test Pearson’s product

moment

1. Is it a test of difference or test of correlation?

2. Is it related or unrelated measures?
3. What type of data is it?

Levels of measurement (types of data)

Nominal (mode)

This is people or events in categories.

E.g. number of people who own a car.

Ordinal (median)

This is scored on a numerical scale and can be put into lowest or highest. They are usually based
on opinions; it is subjective data.

E.g. how much you love chocolate on a scale of one to ten.

Interval (mean)

Has an equal or defined scale.

E.g. the time taken to do 10 press ups.

Parametric testing

● It is more accurate than non-parametric testing.

● Some tests have certain rules /parameters about whether they can be used and if one of
the rules is broken then a parametric test cannot be used.
● Alternatively, non-parametric tests would have to be used.
● It can be reduced to ordinal and nominal data from interval data.

Criteria for parametric testing

I. Interval data- equal intervals.

II. Normally distributed population- few extreme scores and the mode, median and mean
are similar.
III. Homogeneity of variance between conditions-the deviation of scores is similar between
conditions A and B.

Issues in research methods

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD- this is where you can examine the effects of a dependent variable,
e.g. Pavlov’s dogs.

FIELD EXPERIMENTS-they have high ecological validity but it is difficult to control extraneous
variables.

� In a lab and field experiment, it allows random allocation of participants which eliminates
bias.

+ Most experiments have strict control over variables.

+ This is so you can replicate the experiment and generalise behaviour (standardised procedure).

+Cause and effect can be established.

- Some behaviours cannot be measured effectively, e.g. methods of child rearing.

- Demand characteristics.
- Low ecological validity.

Non-experimental methods

Interviews

Structured

● Fixed questions in an order.

+ Same experience which allows the procedure to be standardised and replicated.

+Produces quantitative data.

+Large numbers of people can be analysed.

+ Data can be collated and replicated.

- Can’t explore further issues.

- Formal and possibly intimidating.

Unstructured

● General aim but there are no fixed questions.

● Less formal.
● Allows the therapist to produce case study notes.

+Issues can be explored in detail through follow up questions.

+Process is less formal.

+Used in more sensitive issues, e.g. abortion.

- Difficult to analyse.
- Replication is difficult.
- Interview may stray off the point.

Observations

● Usually takes place in a natural environment but can also take part in a controlled
environment.

PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION-this is when the researcher takes part in the observation.

NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION-this is when the researcher does not take part in the
observation.

COVERT-undercover; there is deception.

OVERT- it is not undercover.

+ Natural observations have high ecological validity.

Natural observations are useful for investigating social behaviours.

+Natural observations enable us to understand the behaviour in context.

+ Observations allow an understanding of why the behaviour occurred.

+Non-participant observations allow objective data.

- Extraneous variables may be present.

- Ethical issues; e.g. consent and right to withdraw.
- Observation is subjective and down to the researcher’s interpretation.
+ INTER-OBSERVER RELIABILITY.

Questionnaires

Closed

E.g. Do you agree with capital punishment. Please circle yes or no.

+ Easily analysed.

Open

E.g. How do you feel about capital punishment.

+ Rich in detail.

- Difficult to analyse.

+ Large numbers of people’s responses can be gathered quickly.

+Can explain behaviours and attitudes that can’t be investigated.

- Socially desirable responses.

- Response sets may occur, e.g. tick the questions and don’t read them.

Case studies

● In-depth study over time.

● Can be used in a variety of institutes.
● Can be used in a wide range of circumstances.
● Can be gathered from a wide range of resources.

+Qualitative data: rich in detail.

+Longitudinal study: reliable behaviours.

+High ecological validity.

+ One behaviour can contradict a whole theory.

- Can’t be generalised.
- Retrospective so lacks reliability.
- Difficult to replicate.
- May suffer from bias.
- Ethical issues.

Correlations

● Measure two variables and there is no IV and DV.

● Measures a relationship.
+Assess the strength of the relationship and may lead to further testing.

- Cause and effect cannot be established.

- Possible third variable involved.

Qualitative and quantitative data

Quantitative data

+ Easy to analyse.

+Enables hypothesis testing.

+Scientific.

+Shows cause and effect.

+Objective.

+Enables replication.

- Reductionist.
- Behaviour taken out of context.
- Less meaningful.
- Lacks validity.

Qualitative data

� Qualitative data can be quantified.

+Valid.

+Holistic.

+Meaningful.

+Rich and detailed.

- Subjective.
- Cannot be replicated.
- Cannot be generalised.

Reliability

RELIABILITY-is there consistent behaviour over time?

Ways of assessing reliability

Inter-rater reliability

● Two researchers record separately at the same time.

● Compare it.
● If it is positively correlated then the reliability is reached.

Test-retest reliability

● Test one group and test the same group at a later date.
● If it is positively correlated then the reliability is reached.

Split-half reliability (questionnaires)

 ● Is there consistency between the reliability of questions?
● The researcher randomly selects half of the questionnaire; they work out the score and
compare it with the other half.
● If it is positively correlated then the reliability is reached.

Item analysis (Questionnaires)

● Person’s score for every question is correlated with the rest of the questionnaire.
● Determines what questions are reliable or not.
● Unreliable questions are removed.

Validity

VALIDITY-is the measure measuring what it is supposed to do?

Face validity

Does the test measure what it is supposed to measure?

E.g. is catching a ball with one hand a good measure of spatial coordination?

Content validity

This is a more sophisticated version of face validity and this is where you ask research colleagues
if the test is supposed to measure the right thing.

E.g. use of diet experts to measure the level of eating disorders to ensure the questionnaire is
measuring their anxiety levels correctly.

Concurrent validity

This is where you test a group with the new test and then test them with an established measure.

E.g. use of a new anger scale and using an established measure of anger scores.

Criterion validity

The group should be predictable because of the special characteristics they possess.

E.g. with translating French you would expect French teachers to be good at this.

Predictive validity

This is where performance on a test can be used to predict performance on another measure at a
later date.

E.g. Kohlberg’s dilemma lacks predictive validity as their performance may differ at different
performance times.

External validity

This is focused on the context in which the behaviour is being studied with the sample, e.g.
ecological validity would come under this.

E.g. Bandura’s bobo doll experiment does not reflect real life aggression.

Ethical issues

Respect
The psychologist should respect people as individuals and take into account factors such as
culture, religion and gender.

Integrity

Psychologists should maintain professional boundaries and be honest and accurate. The costs of
participants need to be considered and ensure the benefits of the investigation outweigh this.

Confidentiality

Information should be kept confidential as it is usually in-depth information that is gathered about
participants.

Consent

Participants should be told about the purpose of the investigation. Parental consent should be
gained for children aged below 16 or parental loci must be achieved.

Privacy

Psychologists should respect people’s privacy.

Deception

It should be avoided unless it is absolutely necessary.

Right to withdraw

Participants have the right to withdraw from the study.

Protection from harm

There should be no risk to the participant’s physical health, psychological well-being or dignity.

Debrief

The psychologist should inform the participants of the aims and nature of the research; there
should be no deception.

Competence

The psychologist should be qualified enough.

Research designs

Repeated measures (related)

● Use the same participants in both of the conditions and this would mean you would require
different tasks.
+ Less participants are required than in independent measures or matched pairs.
+ No subject variables.
-ORDER EFFECTS-participants may become bored or may perform better or worse in one
condition because of practice. Counterbalancing is used to reduce order effects often
referred to as ABBA.

Independent measures (unrelated)

● Use different participants in each condition, i.e. one participant who takes place in one
condition will not take place in the other condition.
+ No order effects.
 -May need two tasks.
-Subject variables, e.g. IQ and gender.
-More participants.

Matched pairs design

● Match all subjects on certain variables.

● Usual participants are identical twins.

+No order effects.

+No subject variables.

-Time consuming.

Sampling methods

Random

● Every member has an equal chance of being selected.

E.g. putting every member of the target’s population’s name into a hat.
+ Unbiased representative sample.
-Time consuming and impractical.

Opportunity

● Selecting subjects that are available.

+ Quick and convenient.
-Unrepresentative of the target population.
-Often biased on those who are ‘helpful’.

Stratified

● Target population into categories, e.g. occupations.

● Select a proportion from the subcategory.
+Aims to be representative.
-Time consuming because of allocations to subcategories and working out the population.

Systematic

● Clear selection, e.g. 3rd from the list.

+Quick and convenient.
-Unrepresentative.

● True random samples are rare.

● In longitudinal research, there may be dropouts and so it may be unrepresentative.
● Should reflect the target population.

Debates in psychology

1. Outline the definition of the argument.

2. Examples of the argument.
3. Empirical evidence of topics.
4. Strengths and limitations,
5. Link to approaches.
6. Link to topics.

Psychology and science

 Psychology
Science Biological Behaviourist Cognitive SLT Humanistic Psychodynamic
(common sense)

Principles of the scientific approach

1. Paradigm (Kuhn, 1970)

FOR:

● Agreement of the subject matter through theories and hypotheses.

● There should be empirical and objective methods for data collection.
● A subject can only be called a ‘science’ if there is an agreed ‘global’ common theory or
paradigm (Kuhn, 1970).
● Kuhn argues that psychology is a pre-science because there are too many conflicting
theoretical approaches.

E.g. gender’s conflicting views on how it is acquired, e.g. biological would argue it was a result of
genes and hormones. Cognitive would argue it was a result of appropriate schemas. Whereas, the
psychodynamic approach would argue that gender was acquired as a result of the complexes.

AGAINST:

● Most psychologists agree that the overall subject matter of psychology is the study of mind
and behaviour.
● Palermo argued that psychology has progressed beyond the stage of a science and has
undergone several paradigm shifts.

E.g. behaviourists (1930s) have been replaced by cognitive (since the 1960s).

2. Theory construction

THEORY-this is the explanation of facts and observation using a set of general principles.

● It provides understanding and explanation by organising facts.

● It finds regularities and can be simplified to a general set of principles.
● It is able to generate hypotheses.

HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD-this is testing hypothesis from a theory. If the predictions

are confirmed, the theory will be supported/

What are the principles of a theory?

I. Source of the new hypothesis.

II. Testable.
III. Falsifiable.
IV. Open to reputability- Freud goes against this because you cannot refute as it is
unfalsifiable.
V. PARSIMONOUS-this is accounting for all facts in an economic way.

3. Should attempt to discover general laws/principles

4. Empirical methods are used to gather evidence

 ● Factual.
● Verifiable.
● Objective.
● Refers to methods of direct experience.
● A theory that has not been subjected to empirical evidence which cannot claim to be
scientific.
● Replicable.

Replicability

E.g. Bandura’s bobo doll experiment allowed replication of aggression to real-life situations, e.g.
the introduction of the watershed.

● Validity is supported by replicability.

● It increases the ability to generalise.
● It increases the practical value of theories, i.e. application to topics.

E.g. biological treatments are generalised because the theory assumes that it can be applied to
everyone.

Against

Replication may be harder to achieve in psychology than other sciences because the subject
matter involves human behaviour, e.g. spontaneous behaviour cannot be replicable.

Generalisation

● This is the ability to apply findings to target populations.

● Generalisation requires a representative sample.

E.g. Little Hans is an unrepresentative sample and so therefore cannot be generalised to the
target population (males) or females.

Overt behaviour

● It is open and detectable.

● It can be recorded.
● This can include internal processes.

E.g. biological, behaviourist and cognitive rely on overt behaviour.

Covert behaviour would include unconscious processes, self actualisation and incongruence.

Principles of the common sense approach

1. Beliefs, values, attitudes and morals that are held by a culture or subculture.
2. People regularly use common sense to interpret behaviours, e.g. unconscious (Freud).
3. People should trust intuition and positive regard (humanistic).

Non-empirical methods

Subjective private experience

● Individual, internal and unique.

E.g. The humanistic approach investigates unique, subjective and private experiences of human
beings with the value of human beings.

Peer-reviewing scientific research

 ● Impartial specialists assessing the quality of research.
● Evaluates research proposals.
● Ethics should be considered.

Evaluation

Advantages of adopting a scientific approach

+ Respectable because of its scientific status; it is credible and more believable.

+ Findings are objective and providing findings that are reliable.

+ General laws of behaviour.

E.g. Thorndike’s laws of behaviours/ drug treatments are generalised to the whole population.

+Resulted in applications.

E.g. drugs/watershed/gender.

Disadvantages of adopting a scientific approach

- May involve demand characteristics.

- Not ecologically valid; cannot generalise because it is artificial.
- Ethical restrictions may constrain scientific research, e.g. victims of abuse.
- Cannot control every behaviour so total accurate prediction is not possible.
- Deterministic; it is not down to free will.
- Reductionist; they disagree with human experience.
- Subjects (behaviours) are often unobservable and cannot be measured and inferred.

Free will and determinism

Free will

Free will is the notion that we have choice and control over our behaviour. The idea assumes that
we are not determined by external forces and can make decisions. Therefore, we are responsible
for our behaviour.

This approach does not value the past in that it binds our future but it focuses on our ability to
have choice and control over our lives.

James (1890) talked about self-determining behaviour that determines who we are.

The humanistic approach advocates free will in that it believes we are unique individuals which
have choice and control. This is emphasised in client-centred therapy which is non-directive and
the client has all the power.

Whereas, psychoanalysis is very direct and the therapist has all the power.

Cognitive theory and SLT is classed as soft determinism in that we do choose what we want to
pay attention to.

Rotter suggested that people who believe their life is controlled by outside factors suffer more
stress and depression.

Brehm also argued that people react if their freedom is threatened. You would not do this if you
didn’t have free will.
Libet claims that our brain processes movement before we choose to move.

According to the behaviourists, free will is an illusion, behaviour such as the rooting reflex,
blinking and sucking are innate.

Determinism

Determinism implies relationships in that all behaviour is determined outside of the individual’s
control:

● Environmental determinism: behaviourist.

● Evolutionary determinism: Darwin.
● Genetic determinism: biological.
● Psychic determinism: psychodynamic.

Determinism is positive in that we can establish causal plans predicting future behaviours, e.g.
Thorndike’s laws of behaviour.

Humanistic argues we are emotional, spontaneous, irrational, predictable beings.

Biological theory would argue aggression is a result of high levels of testosterone in the blood;
this is an example of genetic determinism.

If we had free will then people suffering mental disorders (e.g. schizophrenia, OCD and
depression) then they should be able to control their behaviour. This is evidence for determinism.
However, if criminals are pre-determined and have no free will, we should not punish criminals for
their crimes. Humanism argues we have free will, choice and control and responsible for crimes.

Some criminals plead the ‘insanity plea’ suggesting their behaviour is predetermined. However,
Peter Sutcliffe pretended to be schizophrenic in order to receive a reduced sentence and moved to
a mental institute.

Topics in psychology this applies to;

1. Gender
2. Aggression
3. Forensic psychology
4. Depression
5. Eating disorders

Idiographic and nomothetic

Idiographic is based on the assumption that we should study humans as unique individuals
adopting non-scientific methods, e.g. case studies.

Case studies provide rich, meaningful information to enrich human’s lives.

However, with the case study method you cannot adopt generalised laws which cannot be applied
to everyone.

In contrast, the nomothetic approach studies large groups of people and adopts scientific
methods.

This allows us to establish cause and effect and create generalised laws which can be applied to
everyone, e.g. Thorndike’s laws of behaviour.

This method does generate quantitative behaviour but sometimes a measure or score tells us
very little.
E.g. the general population has a 1% chance of being schizophrenic, however, it tells us very little
of the causes of the behaviour.

The behaviourist approach is a good example of nomothetic because it adopts scientific

experiments to investigate classical and operant conditioning on animals which have been
generalised to humans.

Any method using questionnaires or tests is classed as nomothetic:

● Eysenck’s EPI (personality)

● IQ
● Memory tests
● DSM- mental disorders: autism, depression, schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, OCD and
phobias.

In contrast, idiographic approaches such as the psychodynamic approach with the case study of
Little Hans- you can’t generalise one boy to the Oedipus complex.

The humanistic approach adopts idiographic methods: case studies, Q sort and self-report studies
which are unscientific.

Biological focuses on nomothetic methods (lab) but can use idiographic methods (case studies).

Some approaches (e.g. biological) have used idiographic methods, e.g. case studies of brain
damaged patients. They have also used nomothetic methods to create medication to advance our
lives.

Topics in psychology this relates to;

Depression could be explained through idiographic or nomothetic methods:

● Biological- depression is a result of the chemical imbalance of serotonin and noradrenaline.

● Humanistic- depression is a result of incongruence between the ideal and actual self.

Phobias could also be explained through idiographic or nomothetic methods:

● Psychodynamic- traumatic childhood experiences.

● Behaviourist-classical conditioning (Little Albert).

Crimes could be explained through idiographic or nomothetic methods:

● Humanistic- incompletion of Maslow’s hierarchy or incongurency between the ideal and

actual self.
● Biological- XYY man, Lombroso and Sheldon.

Gender could be explained through idiographic or nomothetic methods:

● Biological-XX/XY chromosomes or hormones.

● Humanistic- incongruence between the ideal and actual self.
● SLT-observation of a liked role model.

Conclusion

Murray concluded that if we were all exactly the same the world would be boring. However, if we
were all completely different then we wouldn’t be able to understand behaviour. A healthy balance
between the two methods is needed if all the aims of psychology are to be met.

Holism and reductionism

Reductionism

Reductionism assumes that behaviour is reduced to its simplest form providing a low level of
explanation.

There is two forms of reductionism:

● Physiological reductionism- biological: genes, chromosomes and hormones.

● Environmental reductionism- behaviourist: stimulus and response and learning occur
through classical and operant conditioning. This is shown through experiments: Thorndike,
Skinner, Pavlov and Watson.

Wadeley suggests reductionist explanations provide credible prediction of cause and effect
because they adopt scientific methods. E.g. the biological experiments have been investigated to
study the following topics: gender (XX/XY chromosomes and chromosomal abnormalities shown
through Kleinfelter’s and Turner’s); aggression (testosterone); criminal behaviour (Jacobs XYY
super male, innate bodily features introduced by Lombroso and Sheldon, testosterone levels as
shown by Dabbs); schizophrenia (high levels of dopamine); depression (noradrenaline and
serotonin); autism (HOXA1 gene and brain abnormalities).

However, the above explanations fail to consider environmental factors. E.g. schizophrenia may
be a result of high expressed emotion. Depression may be a result of stressful life events.
Bettlehein suggested ‘cold parenting’ may be a cause for autism.

The behaviourist also advocates reductionist learning through stimulus and response, e.g.
criminal behaviour has been reduced to operant conditioning: reinforcement or punishment.

Depression is also learnt; Seligman proposed ‘learned helplessness’.

Gender is also learnt through gender appropriate behaviour and gender inappropriate behaviour.

Social Learning Theory reduces learning to observation, e.g. Bandura’s bobo doll experiment can
explain aggression. Phobias can be explained through Little Albert.

Holism

This is opposed to the holism approach which provides higher rich in detail information.

Holism provides a more complete picture with a higher level explanation which is detailed.

Holism believes the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

The humanistic approach advocates holism because it looks at humans as a whole person and its
client-centred therapy which provides a higher levelled information for their behaviour.

Some approaches such as the psychodynamic sit in the middle of this debate:

● Childhood experiences (holism)

● Unconscious mind (reductionism)

Holistic explanations lack the predictive power of reductionism.

Criminal behaviour: poverty, childhood, demographic, education and religion.

Depression: divorce, bereavement and redundancy.

Gender: incongruence between the ideal and actual self.

Moral: religion, culture, childhood, upbringing and location.

Eating disorders: incongruence between the ideal and actual self.

Nature vs. nurture

Nature implies that all behaviour is the result of genetic inheritance we are born with.

For example, the biological approach advocates nature in focus on genes, chromosomes and
hormones.

Similarly, the psychodynamic approach argues we have innate instinctual drives known as Eros
and Thanatos which we are born with.

In contrast, the nurture debate argues the importance of the environment in influencing behaviour.
E.g. family and culture.

The behaviourists believe we are born as tabular rasa (blank slates), according to John Locke.
John Locke argued you can train anyone to be anything.

Similarly, SLT supports nurture because it believes we learn through observations of role models
in our environment.

The methods used to investigate nature resulting in explaining behaviour includes:

● Twin, family and adoption studies can compare concordance rates, however, there is a high
dropout rate, shared environment and no one study has found 100% concordance.
● Genetic mapping has allowed early identification of PKU which can lead to better lives. Yet
there are ethical implications because it could lead to mass screening/termination.
● Brain scans: PET/SPECT/CAT/MRI are very precise in locating brain damage so you can
treat it. Whereas, it is invasive because it often includes injecting radioactive glucose.
● Drugs, medication and surgical procedures can enhance life expectancy but they have side
effects.

The methods used to investigate nurture resulting in explaining behaviour includes:

● Classical and operant conditioning experiments have been used to modify behaviour. E.g.
Skinner’s rats/ Thorndike’s cats/ Pavlov’s dogs and little Watson.
● Social Learning Theory used controlled observations.

Both nature and nurture can be classed as reductionist, biological approach breaks behaviours
down into genes, chromosomes and hormones. The behaviourist approach reduces behaviour
down to stimulus and response.