PSYC 221:

Introduction to
General Psychology

▪ Prof. Kwaku Oppong Asante

Email: koppongasante@ug.edu.gh

▪ Dr. Joana Larry-Afutu

Email: jolarry-afutu@ug.edu.gh

▪ Dr. Emmanuel Nii-Boye Quarshie

Email: enquarshie@ug.edu.gh
 PSYC 221:
Introduction to
General Psychology

Topic 4
Human Development
Across the Lifespan
 1) Defining Human Development

2) Why Study Human Development?

3) Domains of Human Development:

Lecture Outline i]. Physical domain

and ii]. Cognitive domain
Objectives iii]. Socio-emotional or
Psychosocial domain
 Defining Human Development

• Human development (Developmental

Psychology) is the study of the changes
that occur in people as they get older
(Morris, 1993).
−It is the study of how people change over time,
from birth through old age.
• Development is a pattern of change that begins
at conception and continues through the life
span (Santrock, 2001).
Development across the life span
 Why Study (the Psychology of)
Human Development?
• Curiosity: Studies in human development is
interesting in its own field. This makes individuals to
venture into this field of study to satisfy their
curiosity as to how we change with age.

• Altruistic interest: Knowledge of the human

development can be applied in every area to lead to
a better life throughout their lifespan
Why Study Human Development?
(conti…)
• Personal benefit: Most people get married and often raise
children thereby giving them a better understanding of
children and adolescent. To a great extent, it makes them
appreciate the problems and potential of children.

• Prevention & Treatment: Our understanding of the

developmental process, will enable us to learn how
abnormal or atypical development such as disabilities,
mental retardation occurs and how to create some
treatment programmes that will remedy such deficiencies
 Domains of Human Development

• Developmental changes occur in 3 major domains:

Physical
Domain

Psychosocial /
Social-emotional
Domain
Cognitive
Domain
We will focus on:
Human
Development

Psychosocial / Socio-
Physical Cognitive
emotional

Developmental
Periods Piaget’s Cognitive Erickson’s Psychosocial
(8 periods proposed Stages (4) Stages (8)
by Laura E. Berk)
 1]. Physical Development

• These are changes that occur in the body.

They can either be internal or external and
can find expression in height, broken voice (in
boys), pubic hairs, enlargement of hips (girls).
The external ones include building of
muscles, glands, reproductive system, etc.
Physical changes across the life
span
 Physical Development (conti...)

Eight major periods of human development (Berk, 2017)

1) Prenatal
2) Infancy and Toddlerhood
3) Early Childhood
4) Middle Childhood
5) Adolescence
6) Early Adulthood
7) Middle Adulthood
8) Late Adulthood
 1). Prenatal Period
Approximate age → Conception to birth
Fertilization
 Conception
A sperm with its
tail thrashing,
burrowing into
an ovum.

20/02/2023 15
 First Month

20/02/2023 16
Three Months
4 months
 Physical Development (conti...)

Eight major periods of human development (Berk, 2017)

1) Prenatal
2) Infancy and Toddlerhood
3) Early Childhood
4) Middle Childhood
5) Adolescence
6) Early Adulthood
7) Middle Adulthood
8) Late Adulthood
2). Infancy and Toddlerhood

• Birth – 2 years
3). Early Childhood
(2 → 6 years)
4). Middle and Late Childhood
(6 → 11 years)
5). Adolescence
(11 → 18 years)
6). Early Adulthood
(18 → 40 years)
7). Middle Adulthood
(40 → 65 years)
 8).

Late
Adulthood

(65 years → Death)

Death and Dying

THE END OF LIFE

Death and Dying (continued...)

• Older people tend to be less frightened by death

than are younger adults. Highly religious people
experience least fear of death than nonreligious
individuals.
• Elisabeth Kübler-Ross (1974) - Five distinct stages
of dying:
1) Denial
2) Anger
3) Bargaining
4) Depression
5) Acceptance
2]. Cognitive
Development
in Humans
 2]. Cognitive Development

These are natural processes relating to

thinking, memory, perception, problem solving,
language, reasoning and creativity. They are
closely related to physical growth. The ability to
speak depends on the physical development of
the mouth and the brain.
Jean Piaget
 I). SENSORIMOTOR STAGE
(BIRTH - 2 YEARS)

• At birth the child‘s mind => ‘tabula rasa’

• Before 6 months => ‘out of sight, out of mind’.

• By 6-9 months => ‘Object permanence’.

• By 2 years => Develops telegraphic speech.

 II). PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE
(2-7 YEARS)

•He called this stage pre-operational

because the children cannot perform
what Piaget called operations (i.e.,
mental manipulation of reality).
• Conservation photo here
 III). CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE
(7-11 YEARS)

• Can reason with only concrete problems.

• Can decentre.
• Can make transitive inferences.
• Can understand and participate in play with
rules.
• No sense of multifactoral causes to situations.
• Can understand principles of conservation.
 IV). FORMAL OPERATIONS
(11-15 YRS +)

• Here, systematic and reasonably well

integrated thought processes develop.

• Research shows that many adults never reach

this level of thinking.

▪ Logical thinking
▪ Combinational thinking
▪ Reflective thinking
In summary:
 3). Psychosocial
(socio-emotional) Development
Erik Erikson
There are 8
• Family members, significant others, the society at
large contributes a lot to the transition of these
stages.
• If the challenges are successfully handled, virtues
or psychosocial strengths result.
• If not well resolved, a maladaptation (excess of
the positive) or a malignancy (excess of the
negative) may develop.
 Stage I: TRUST VS. MISTRUST
(Birth - 18months)

• Over-protective family => maladaptation

of sensory distortion (i.e., too much
trust).

• Inadequate care by family => Mistrust

• Healthy resolution => virtue of hope

 Stage II: AUTONOMY VS. SHAME and
DOUBT (18months – 3yrs)

• Too much chance to explore the

environment => Maladaptation of
impulsiveness.
• Ridiculed or overprotected from exercising
their independence => Malignancy of
compulsiveness (an excess of shame and
doubt).
• Healthy resolution => Will power.
 Stage III:
INITIATIVE VS. GUILT (3 - 5yrs)

• Excess of initiative => maladaption of

ruthlessness.
• If severely punished, prevented to play or
discouraged from asking questions => sense of
guilt.
• Excess of guilt => malignancy of inhibition.
• If assisted to undertake goal-directed
behaviours => virtue of courage
 Stage IV:
INDUSTRY VERSUS INFERIORITY
(6 - 12yrs)
• Conflict: Fear of not being able to do enough or
to be as good as peers.
• Parents who discourage => inferiority complex.
• Maladaptation (i.e. an excess of industry) =>
narrow virtuosity.
• Malignancy or excess inferiority => inertia.
• Healthy resolution => competence.
 Stage V:
IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION
(12 - 18yrs)

• Turbulent stage.

• Sense of confusion result when the individual fails

to reach any clarity about his/her roles in life.

• Maladaptation => fanaticism.

• Malignancy => repudiation.

• Healthy resolution => virtue of fidelity.

 Stage VI:
INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION
(18-30yrs)

• Period of courtship leading to family life.

• Maladaptation (excess of intimacy) =>

promiscuity.

• Malignancy (an excess of isolation) =>

exclusion.

• Healthy resolution=> love.

 Stage VII:
GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION
(30s-40s)

• Individuals aim at establishing and guiding the

next generation.
• Failure to establish the sense of caring for
others => self-absorption.
• Maladaptation => overextension.
• Malignancy or excess of stagnation =>
rejectivity.
• Healthy resolution => virtue of care.
 Stage VIII:
INTEGRITY Vs. DESPAIR (55yrs+)

• This is a result or a culmination of the preceding

7 stages.

• Reflecting on the past and either piecing

together a positive review (ego integrity) or
concluding that one’s life has not been well
spent (despair).
Summary
 Now let’s recap:
Human
Development

Psychosocial / Socio-
Physical Cognitive
emotional

Developmental
Periods Piaget’s Cognitive Erickson’s Psychosocial
(8 periods proposed Stages (4) Stages (8)
by Laura E. Berk)
 1) Nature–nurture debate about
human development.
2) Critique of Kübler-Ross’ theory of
dying.
3) Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of
moral development.
Further reading 4) Critique of Piaget’s cognitive
theory.
5) Critique of Erikson’s Psychosocial
Theory.
6) Sigmund Freud’s 5 stages of
Psychosexual development.
I thank you
for your attention ▪ Questions?
▪ Comments?
▪ Concerns?

✓ Announcements