*P wave ravel through all 3 maedium Solig,Liquid,Gas

S wave travel only in Solid (NOt in inner_core)

*Palaeozoic - Rodinia break up
Mesozoic merger - Pangaea
200 ml years ago � break up of Pangaea
165 ml � break up of Gondwana
*Crust: 0-100 Km , Mental: 100-2900 Km, Outer_Core(Liquid,Only P-wave): 2900-5100
Km, Inner_core(Solid,only P-wave): 5100-6300 Km
*Oceanic crust heavier than continental crust
*1st Carlsberg ridge � Indian ocean
* sea-floor spreading:Atlantic � 1.0 cm/ year, Indian � 1.5 cm/year, Pacific � 6.0
cm/year
*Asthenosphere = unique mechanical rigidity, semi-molten, plastic
-Crust and upper part of mantle => lithosphere
-Mantel:Olivine(Magnesiam iron Silicate),Oceans = basalt, Continents = granite and
andesite
*Red sea is nascent sea
*Blue and white Nile meet at khartun in Sudan
*Grand Renaissance dam, Ethiopia
*Mt. Aconcagua (highest peak) in south america
*Mt.Logan (highest peak of rockies),Mt. Mckinley (highest peak of N. America) in
Alaskan range
*O-O convergence:Island of SE-Asia
*O-C convergence(Volcanic Mountains):Andes , Rockies, Atlas mountain
*C-C(Fold Mountain):Himalayas, Alps(Europ), Urals(Russia)
Because of sediments of geo-syncline � marine origin
*FOld mountain:Compressive force
*Block mountains:Tensile force,Horst and Garban(block)
*Andes , Rockies, Atlas,Himalayas, Alps(Europ), Urals(Russia) are fold mountain and
Arravali is old fold mountain
*Batholith:Backbone of fold mountains made of Granite(Marble)
*Satpura,Vindhayan,Sierra nevada(USA),Harz(Gemany) are Block mountain
*Islands of Mediterranean sea: Balearic, Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, Malta, Cyprus
*Straits: Bonifacio(between Sardinia and Corsica), Messina, Marmara in Mediterian
Sea
*Opening a new canal across Kra Isthmus between gulf of Siam(Gulf of thailand) and
Andaman sea
*Grahwal platue(Utarakhand) is Glasial platue and Deccan platue is continental as
wll as lava platue
*Euphrates- Tigris river originate in Turkey and flow through syria and iraq than
flow in persian gulf
*Lake Urmia in Iran
*Katanga Plateau(Africa):Dense equatorial forest,gold
*Shan plateau, Myanmar:Known for teak forest,Zink,Lead
*Tibetan plateau:Source of Indus, Brahmaputra, Salween, Mekong, Yangtse, Hwang He
*Plateau of Mato Grasso(Brazil):Dense rainforest,gold
*Selvas � equatorial rain forest in Brazil,tin,rubber
*Mississippi basin:Temperate grasslands � Prairies,wheat,corn,cotton
*Murray-darling basin in Australia:Temperate grassland � downs,wheat,sheep rearing
*Distribution of Volcanism
-O-O divergence:Basaltic � peaceful eruption
-Mediterranean volcanism:Andesitic eruption(Violant eruption),Mt. Etna(Itali), Mt.
Vesuvius(Itali)
-History of Mediterranean sea:Collision of Africa to Laurasia
-Hot Spot Volcanoes:Hawaii, Reunion, Kurile, Aleutian
*Types of Volcanic cones
-Shield/ dome(Like Basaltic):highly fluied,silent flow,Gentle slop,small volcano
-Cinder(Like Andesitic):Less fluid / highly viscous,Violant eruption,Steep
slop,small volcano
-Composite(Strato Volcano):Fluid + viscous,Multiple and violent eruption,Highest
volcanoes,Large volcanoes
*List of lava plateaus of the world
-Columbia-snake plateau(USA),Ozark plateau(USA)
-Balkan plateau, Europe
-Adamawa plateau, Africa
*Geysers :Ground water heated by shallow source of magma,Yellow stone park,
USA,Found rare
*Hot Spring:Water reach deep enough � heated by interior ,Quite,Found anywhere
*Reasons behind EQ
-Collision of Plate boundaries:OO,OC,CC
-Divergent Plate boundaries:MOR(OO)
-Transverse plate boundaries
-Mediterranean sea region-Numerous small plates-Frequent interactions
-Craton = stable part of crust So Re-emergence of old fractures
-human Induced
*Tsunami
-4th and 8th waves are the most dangerous
-Time lapse between each waves � 15 to 50 minutes
-Indian National centre for Ocean Information Sciences (INCOIS),Hyderabad
-Tsunami Early warning system- gives warning in 10 minutes of submarine earthquake

Oceanography
*Oceanic crust thickness = 1-3 km, darker in colour, higher density
*Oceanic crust created at MOR and destroyed at trenches
*Ocean floor is not flat. More diversity than on continents
*Continental shelf:Depth:200m,photic zone,Euphotic Zone,floating planktons, benthos
(crabs) and nektons (fishes),sediments from land = terrigenous
90 % of Petroleum reserves,Gulf of Mexico � rich source of sulphur. monazite sand
(source of thorium) in kerala,
Calcium- least soluble in ocean water(Peruvian coast,Pearls)
*Continental slope:Massive landslides of terrigenous deposits,Rivers like
Ganga,Indus have created submarine canyons,Highest waterfall
*Continental Rise:Transition zone between continental block and oceanic block
absent near trenches,
*Abyssal Plain:40% of oceon floor,Resources is PMN (Poly Metallic Nodules) or
Manganese nodules(First found in Kara sea, Arctic ocean)
*UNCLOS(UN convention on Laws of the seas):1983,came into force 1993 signed by 60
countries,
Decides the maritime boundary,Deep sea mining (ISA, Kingston, Jamaica),Environment
protection,Dispute settlement
Decides territorial waters(12M), contiguous zone(24M) and EEZ for coastal
countries(200M)
EEZ � special right of the state to explore minerals or produce energy from the
area
*Sandbar island:Long island,Newyork
*Coral Reefs:Polyps extract calsium from sea water for skeleton,symbiotic relation
with zozanthula and photosynthesis,Zooz provide food to polyps,
whan polyps is in strees they expel zoozanthula,so coral seem white and it is
called coral bleaching
-3 stages of coral formation Fringing reef,Barrier reef,Atoll
-Temperature- 25-27 degree and Salinity � 33 ppt
-if there ids to hot water than coral is not survive,But Coral does not expel
Zoozanthula

*Subsidence theory of Darwin,Standstill theory of Murray

*Breaking up of the waves:when the depth of water is less than half the wavelength
of the wave, the wave breaks
*Ocean Currents
-Ocean currents are narrow and shallow (up to 500 meter deep)
-Most of the currents follow the direction of the trade winds, Westerlies and polar
easterlies
-Salinity increases density of water-Denser water sinks at depth
-Coriolis effect modify oceon current:clockwise in north and an-clockwise in south
-North Atlantic drift-warming effects to Western Europe
-Canary current:desiccating effect to Sahara desert
-Benguela current:Desiccating effect to Namib desert
-cold Californian current:Drying effect to Mojave desert, Sonoran desert in
California
-Sargasso sea:HP zone,high salinity,obstruct navigation,Devoid of nutrients
-Bahia Blanca:Meeting of warm Brazilian and cold Falkland current,important for
fishing
-Upwelling on Peruvian coast:rich fishing ground
-Navigation in Indian Ocean:In summer wind and current flow towards India i.e
Arabia to India and in winter india to arbia,change in regular direction of the
ocean
currents
-New found land,Bahia Blanca,Japanese coast is important fishing ground
*Ekman layer
-The wind exerts stress on the ocean surface
-Water defect 45 deg under coriolis force
-Ekman spiral:Deflect right in Northen hemisphere and Left in SH
-When Ekman transport induce divergence at the coast:Up-weiling,cold water,nutrient
rich
Up-welling regions:Peruvian,Canaries,benguela
-When Ekman transport induce convergence at the coast:Down-welling,hot
water,salinity
*Ocean tide:Gravitational + Centrifugal force
2 HT and 2 LT in 24 hours whan moon stationary � every place on earth
*Tidal range:Difference between High tide and Low Tide
Highest tidal range:World: Bay Fundy and in india Gulf of Khambhat
*Ebb:fall of water and Flood:rising of water
*Syzygy positions:the sun, the moon and the earth are in a straight line,opposition
� full moon, Spring � highest HT
*Quadrature position:sun and moon are at right angles to each other,7/8 D of every
fortnight,Neap � Lowest HT(occurs on full moon)
*When the tide is channelled between islands or into bays and estuaries:Coastward =
flood current,Seaward = ebb current
*Tidal bores:when seawater enters into mouths of low lying rivers during HT
*Estuary:If a mouth of a river is low-lying and submerged under sea-water,Ex.
Deltas of Tapi, Narmada
*Rushing current imbalance the docking ships ,Tide not helpful in navigation
*Non-tidal ports:Feed by rivers,Relatively in-land, Ex. Kolkata port
*Tidal energy:potential of 8000MW in India,50 MW plant in gulf of Kutch 2012
*Average temperature of ocean = 3-5 degree Celsius
*But average surface temperature of ocean water = 25 degree
*Main energy source - Insolation for Temperature of Ocean
*Highest tempreture is at tropic than equator because of mixxing of water
*Enclosed seas:tropics warmer than open Ocean,temperate region cooler than open
seas,Reason:less mixing of water
*Tropical water higher diurnal range than equatorial waters,Because, Heating and
cooling of water rapid under clear sky
*Bigger the size of ocean- better mixing of water and heat,Lower annual range
*Temp decreases with increasing depth,1st layer � permanent in Tropics� temperate
only in summer
*Salinity goes decrease from equator to poles
*Salinity of Ocean water:Nacl (78%), MgCl2 (11%), MgSO4 (3.5%), CaSO4 (2.5%)
*Standard salinity of ocean water is = 35.5 ppt � salinity of Atlantic Ocean
 Dead Sea (350 salinity), Lake van (400), Lake Urmia
*Equator � salinity increases with depth upto some layer �than decreases with depth
Beyond equator � salinity decreases with depth

*Origin of the Atmosphere on Earth:H and He is abundance,volcanism-

degasing,N,S,Water vapour,Argon and Co2 came out,
Water vapour condence,Cloud,Than bulk of Co2 washed in oceon,in oceon only Co2 is
0.03%
*propotion of gases in atmosphere:Nitrozen-78%,O-21%,Argon-0.93%
N, Argon � inert gases
Atmospheric gases- no chemical interaction among them
*Structure of atmosphere
-90% of atmosphere within 32 km
-Troposphere:Height 8 km at poles, 18 km at equator
Temperature decrease as height increases because The air is less dense in upper
atmosphere,Present of GHG
-Stratospere:10-30Km,Ozone layer,tempertature increase,There are no clouds or water
vapour in lower stratosphere,
-Mesophere:30-50Km,tem decrease because Absence of GHGs,Clouds visible at high
latitudes,Noctilucent cloud(shining cloud at night),Condensation of mixture of
meteoric
dust
-Thermosphere:50-80Km:Tem increase bcs Gases in ionic state absorb heat,
-Ionosphere:80-640Km:Useful in radio-communication
-Exosphere:Beyond 640Km,Very high temperature- but different from air temperature-
because no existence of air- temp can�t be felt
*Auroras:Collision of charged particles (isonization) in magnetosphere
*The average temperature of the earth 15 degree
*Earth maintains influx and out-flux of the energy, but out-flux is not immediate,
it has long time gap.That is why, the temperature is maintained.
*Heat budget - Incoming:Absorb by Ozone-35%,Cloud-15%,
Only 50% in atmosphere:20% evaporation,GHGs-15%,10% lost in sensible heat
Remaining 5% was released in the space
*Earth�s avg. Albedo = 35%,Lowest- dark soil, highest - snowfall
*Valley temprature inversion:Cool air descends to valley,Loss of crop
*Adiabatic lapse rate:6.4 degree/km(The rate at which air packet cools while rising
)
*Wet ALR-<6.4 Instable condition and Dry ALR:>6.4 stable condition
*fog:Water droplet condensed around a dust particle
*Smog:Water droplet condensed around a particle of pollutant, like SO2,cool
climate,mixture of smoke, fog and sulphur dioxide (SO2).
*Photochemical smog:It occurs in warm, dry and sunny climate,Mixture unsaturated
hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides (NO2) in presence of sunlight
components are ozone, nitric oxide, acrolein, and formaldehyde and peroxyacetyl
nitrate (PAN).
*Decrease visibility:Mist-Haze-fog-smog
*air is saturated means maximum amount of water vapor contain in Air
Hot air � saturation reach with more moisture content than cold air

*Thermal: high temperature=> LP(Air converge), low temperature => HP(Air diverege)
Dynamic: air rises => LP, air descends => HP
*Equatorial LP belt:Air gets warm -LP,Absence of advection of air,Doldrum
*Sub-tropical HP belt (STHP):The air above equator move towards pole,Their energy
reduced in mid-path -cooled,horse latitude
*Sub-polar LP belt (SPLP):From the pole, cold winds move towards equator,The both
warm from STHP and cold winds collide,rising of warmer wind,rising of warm air-LP
*Polar high:Air risen at SPLP, descends at poles,Thermally induced
*Tropical deserts and trade winds:Off �shore trade winds
*Westerlies:From STHP to SPLP,Less landmass in southern hemisphere but Fast flowing
winds in the open sea- Roaring 40s, furious 50s, shrinking 60s and screaming 70s
in southern hemisphere.Westerlies in southern hemisphere are stronger and
persistent than northern hemisphere
*Local winds : mountains winds
Alps Fohn
Rockies Chinook
Andes Zonda
*Local winds : land
Sahara Sirocco
Egypt Khamsin
Libya Gibli
Gulf of Guinea Harmattan
*Local winds: India
Bihar, WB, Assam Kalbaishakhi
KN Blossom shower
KR Mango shower
*Mountain breeze:During night time: top gets cooler than valley = HP, valley =LP
bad for Agr
*Valley breeze :During day time: top gets warmer than valley = LP, valley = HP
good for Agr
*Coriolis force is strong at pole than equator
*Geo-strophic winds:strong coriolis force at tropopause,Air deflection is 90 degree
*Rossby waves do not meander consistently, but follow a cycle
*Jet streams:In westerlies, there are strong, narrow bands of high speed
wind ,300Km/H,margins of meridional cells,2 Polar Jet and 2 Sub-Tropical Westerly
Jet,
STWJ called travelling depression(cause pressure variability),
*Weather of higher latitude is more complex than weather of equatorial or tropical
regions
*Air mass:Height upto Tropopause,air mass will have uniform temperature and
moisture,Differentiate according to their temperature and moisture,
properties from the source regions land, marine, polar, arctic, Antarctic
*Front:The border/ meeting region of the two air-mass
Cold front:Steep slop,sudden up-liftment of the warm air = cumulonimbus clouds
=frontal rainfall
Warm Front:slope will be gentler = there won�t be sudden up-liftment of warm air =
uniform prolonged rain � drizzle
*Frontal cyclone:Also called as extra-tropical cyclone, travelling depressions,
cold-core cyclone, wave cyclones
*cyclone:Close isobar
*Conditions for LP:Thermally induced-Convetional rainfall at equator. Dynamically
induced-Frontal rainfall at SPLP
*One cold air mass climb over other cold air mass�warm front is destroyed:Oqualand
*Path of the temperate cyclone:west to east (because of Westerles)
*Tropical cyclone:Coriolis force induce spiral movement of air,Diverging air at the
top of cyclone,. HP and clear sky at �eye�
Hurricane �N. America
Typhoon - China
*Temperate cyclone:Large,Gradual movement � predictable,Move west to east,frontal
interaction,30-40 altitude,Wind speed is low and presure gredient is high
*Tropical cyclone:Small,Swift movement- difficult to predict path,Thermally induced
,8-20 latitude,wind speed is high and presuure gredient is low
*Tornedo:High wind than tropical cyclone But smaller,LP,pass through water called
water spout,20 to 60 deg N and S,Where cold polar air meets warm tropical air
*Stages of thunderstorm:Air goes upward with moisture,Accumulate,come
downward,Descending water droplet evaporate,again go upward,collision,
+ve charge at higher and lower altitude and between -ve charge,Create high
electric field
*Thermal thunderstorm:Localised intense heating of ground during summer afternoon.
Die out if passes over water body because absence of supply of heat
*Orographic thunderstorm:in mountain,cloud brust
*Polar vortex:Span =1000 sqkm,develops at upper troposphere or stratosphere
,differential created between poles and equator ,
Development of Polar night Jet streams,Circular movment,Rossby waves can disrupt
the circulation around the polar vortex,North moving warm air masses and HP systems
*Nacreous cloud/mother of pearl:Formed in winter during polar vortex,Contains
water, Nitric acid and sulphuric acid
Nitric acid reacte with CFC and produce clorin,During Polar vertx clorin
concentrate more,in summer clorin reacte with Oxigen of ozone,hance deplation of
ozone
*Polar vortex in northern hemi are weak and not as cold as formed at Antarctica
Ozone depletion at Arctic = �Ozone dent�
ozone depletion more at southern pole = �Ozone hole�
*Montreal Protocol, 1987 (1989):restict on CFC and HFC
*Kigali amendment for HFC start from 1st jan 2019
*Pressure gradient cells:Verticle-Hardley and ferrel cell,Horizontal-walker cell
*Walkar cell at south Pacific:There are oscillation in pressure gradient and air
circulation after intervals of 2-3 years in south Pacific Ocean,Called Southern
Oscillation,EL Nino Southern Oscillation
*Normal Year:Southern equatorial current strong at west pacific pull(Austrelia) i.e
LP at Astrelia and HP at peru,desiccating effect to Atacama desert but
Peruvian coast = rich fishing ground
*El-Nino year:Southern equatorial current week at west pasific pull(Austrelia) i.e
HP at austrela and LP at Peru,drought in Northern Australia,Low monsoon in india

*Equatorial climate:Dense forest,epiphyte,Tall trees (Abony, Rosewood, mahogany,

rubber),hardwood bad for lumbering,dieases,not good for habitation

*Tropical desert:off-shore wind and Effect of Cold currents,dry land,vegitation

Xerophytes,Low population � Maghreb region(north africa) � high poverty
*Continental desert:Interior of large land,Leeward side of the mountain(Rain
shadow region),Aridity (but no sand dunes)
atcama desert(lea-ward side of andis mountain),Dast-e-kavir Dast-e-lut in
iran,Patagonian Desert(south ame)

*Tropical grassland:called savannah,dry and wet season,Located between rain forest

and hot desert,Tall grass/elephant grass with long root,Boad tree
grass fire,carnivorous animals,Masai tribe kenya,hausa in nigeria
Llanos and Campos � S.Ame,
Savannah -Africa,

*Temperate grasslands:Cooler and wetter than Savannah,Under westerlies,No tree but

perfact grassland,Truck farming,High productivity per person,
Prairies, North America:Wheat, cotton
Steppe, Asia:Pustaz in hungary Wheat bowl of the world,Black Earth� Sugar from
sugar beet,Dzungarian Basin in chiana
Pampas, South America:Alfaalfa grass,Livestock ranching,Meat and dairy exports
Downs, Australia:Sheep rearing
Veldt, Africa:Wool production

*Tropical Monsoon:Similar to savannah but wetter than savannah,Distinct wet and dry
season � rainfall in confined to 4 months,Tropical deciduous forest,trees are SAL
and TEAK,Hardwood,Shifting cultivation,on shore trade wind
-Tropical high lands exhibit vertical zonation of different climate,With increasing
height � decrease in moisture,Soil layer becomes thinner
-Lova name of shifting cultivation
Malaysia Ladang
Myanmar Taungya
 Thailand Tamrai
Philippines Caingin
Java Humah
Shri Lanka Chena
Africa Milpa

*Warm temperate western margin:Mediterranean climate

-Calirornia USA,CHile,South africa,Perth
-Shifting wind belt toward north in summer-off-shore North trade winds => no rain
-Shifting wind belt toward south in winter-westerlies => rainfall in winter
-Winter � cyclonic rain because of STWJ to Northern India in winter-western
disturbances in northern India during winter
-Shrubs and bushes with scattered stunted trees,Trees without shed because winter
rain i.e not canopy � growth limited
-grass is so wiry and bunchy � not suitable for cattle rearing
-net importer of dairy product
-Different names of medi. vegetation:
Southern France Maquis
Italy Macchia
California Chaparral
Australia Mallee scrub
-Not suitable for agriculture-cultivation using irrigation -Wheat and barley grown-
Chief cooking oil is olives
-Citrus fruit plantation-World�s orchard lands
-Negev desert of Israel � Jaffa oranges
-Viticulture

*Warm temperate eastern margin:China type,GulfType,natal type

China Type:Similar to tropical monsoon,south east monsoon ,Rainfall throughout the
year ,Intensive agriculture,Rice cultivation
-In winter -> north-west monsoon,Siberian plateau � HP anticyclone,snow fall and
rain on windward side
-Rainfall due to tyfoon in late summer,
-More rainfall than Mediterranean climate though being on the same latitude
Gulf type:Less annual temperature range,warm due to gulf stream,on-shore trade
winds,cotton cultivation,frost free days,Tobacco cultivation
-Late Summer-Hurricanes and Winter- temperate cyclone
Natal Type:South east trade winds-Rain fallthrough put year,Evergreen
vegetation,broadleaved forest,bamboo and palm,Sugarcane

*cool temperate western margin:British type climate,canada,Newzeland,chile,not in

africa
British type:Best climate for human habitation,North atlantic drift,Moderate
climate � warm summer, cool winters
-Rainfall from westerlies,western coast receive the most ,Temperate cyclones �
rainfall in winters
-Tall trees with good canopy cover,soft wood,Oak, elm and birch
-Lumbering in Canada � Vancouver city,Wood furniture and paper making,cultivation
of fruits and vegetables

*Cool temperate Eastern margin:Laurentian Type in Britain,Japan,chaina,North

america,canada. not in southern
-Transition between British and Siberian climate
-Coniferous forest � lumbering,Oak,birch,Potatoes, apple farming,fish in large
shoals,Economically profitable
-China Manchurian part, South east part of Russia, Northern Japan
-Not in southern hemisphere- because hardly any land beyond 40 degree latitude
-South America � Andes block the westerlies � oceanic influence
Laurentian climate, N. America
-Rainfall throughout the year,Summer:Westerlies bring rain and Winter:Gulf stream
increases moisture
Laurentian type, China
-summer � intense heating of land � rainfall
-Winter � anti-cyclonic condition in the heart of Asia
Climate of Japan
-Rainfall from south east monsoon in summer
-North west monsoon in winter � dry wind from Siberia

*Taiga
-Not in southern hemisphere,Siberia in Russia, Northern Canada, Scandinavia
-Very cold winter, warm summer,Rainfall throughout the year,Temperate cyclones,
Evergreen coniferous forest,Soft wood
-Fur bearing animals with warm blooded,limited economic prospects,Hard weather

*Tundra
-Arctic or polar climate,Northern Canada and Northern Russia
-Freezing winter, thawing in summer
-Mosses, linchens (algae and fungi) � ephemeral flowering plants(Short live
flower),Nomadic herders

*The correct sequence in decreasing order of albedo values of these ecosystem

is:Tundra-Taiga-Tropical deciduos-Tropical evergreen

*Geological history of India

Pre-Cambrian era
-Indian Peninsular plate =Oldest crustal block of India
-Collision between 3 proto continents:Aravalli,Dharwad,Singhbhum

Gondwana times
-3 lineaments:Narmada,Godawari,son
-Reactivation of Narmada � Son-Godawari lineament
-Rifting of Mahanadi and Damodar valley
-Faulting along western edge of peninsular plateau

Mesozoic time
-150 ml yrs ago Indian plate broke from Gondwana land,India broke from Madagascar

Late Cretaceous(Mesozoic)
-India move over Reunion Islands
-Hotspot volcanism,Deccan lava plateau,Narrowing of Tethys sea

Tertiary time(Cenozoic)
-Collision between Indian plate and Eurasian plate,Upliftment of Himalayas
-The jerk � activation of crack created at western margin of peninsula
-3 phases of formation of Himalayas:Great,mid and outer
-Than Northern plains,Sediments from Himalayan rivers

*Northern mountain complex

-Himalayas (Nanga parbat to Namcha barwa)
-Trans-Himalayas ( Karakoram, Ladakh and Zaskar)
-Purvanchal

*Great Himalayas
-Highest and most continuous mountain range of the world
-Mount Everest, Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Dhaulagiri, Mansalu, Annapurna,Nanda devi,
Kamet, Gurla Mandhata

*Middle Himalayas
-discontinuities
-Pir Panjal,Dhauladhar,Nagtibba,Masoorie,Kumaon hills,Mahabharat(Nepal)

*Shiwalics
-Upliftment of foothills of Himalayas
-Fluvial in origin � alluvial fans
-Closer to great Him in Nepal � disappear after river Gandak

*Structure of Himalayas
-Aravalli and Assam hills � strong push.
-Middle peninsula �sagged(Sunk)
-Sharply bent towards southward - sudden end
-Great Himalayas and Shiwaliks hog-back structure(I.e Narrow range with searies of
hills and steep slop)
-Gentle sloping in northern face and in southern face steep slope
-Northern side rest against Tibetan plt
-Snow accumulation on southern side
-Antecedent rivers:Maintaint its original cource without change topography of rock
Indus, Satluj, Brahmaputra, Kosi
-Superimposed rivers:It is formed when a stream with a course originally
established on a cover of rock, is now removed by erosion, so that the stream or
drainage
system is independent of the newly exposed rocks and structures

*Western and Eastern Himalayas

-Western Himalayas:From Indus to Kali river
-Eastern Himalayas:From Kali river to Brahmaputra river
West him:Karakoram-Ladakh-Zaskar-Great him-Pirpanjal-Dhauladhar,
-Gentle slope,Peaks= k2(Godwin Austin), Gasherbrum, Masherbrum,At High
latitude,colder,No active barrier for north-west monsoon -drier
Eastern Himalayas:Nepal Him (Dudwa, Muree, Churia),NE Him (Dafla, Miri, Abor,
Mishmi)
-Steep slope,Peaks= Everest, Makalu, Annapurna, Dhaulagiri,At lower
latitude,Warmer,Active barrier of south west monsoon winds -wetter
-The alpine vegetation in western Himalayas is found only upto a height of 3000m
while in Eastern Himlayas it is found upto a height of 4000m. The reason for this
variation in same mountain range is that Eastern Himalayas get more rainfall than
western Himalayas
-shiwaliks gets closer to Great Himalayas in Eastern part than in western part and
dissapear after river Gandak

*West-east division of Himalayas

Kashmir-PN Himlayas:indus to satluz
-Karakoram, Ladakh, Zasakar, Pir panjal, Dhaula dhar,Zozila pass btwn Kashmir and
Ladakh,Valleys, duns, lakes

Kumaon Himalayas:Stluz to kali

-Nandadevi, Kamet, Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri,Source of Ganga and Yamuna,
Nainital and Bhimtal -lakes

Nepal Himalayas:Kali to kosi

-Tallest section of Himalayas,Great Himalayas �peaks �Dhaulagiri, Annapurna,
Mansalu, Everest, Makalu.Kathmandu valley

Sikkim Himalayas:Kosi-teesta
-Peak: Kanchenjunga.Teesta originate near Kanchenjunga.Jelep la pass tri-junction
of India-China-Bhutan

Assam Himalayas
-Himalayas �narrower,Lesser Himalayas close to great Himalayas,Peaks: Namcha Barwa,
Kula Kangri
-Bengal �Duars�.Diphu pass(AP)- tri-junction of India- China-Myanmar

*�Duns� formation
-When river initially blocked by rising mt.made lakes
-Lakes dry out when river find weak rocks to cut across the mt. than duns
-Between great and mid-Him. Dehradun btw Shiwaliks and masoorie range

*Karewas:Flat-topped terraces of Kashmir valley on flanks of Pir Panjal.made up of

clay, sands from old deltaic. fansFertile land

*The Great Himalayan National Park, is one of India's national parks, is located in
Kullu region in the state of Himachal Pradesh.
-If there is no Himalaya Indo-Gangetic plain would be devoid of such extensive
alluvial soils

*Trans-Himalayas
-Immediately north of Great Himalayas.Most of them lie in Tibet.
-Karakoram- Ladakh - Zaskar - Kailash
-Avg. elevation 3000m
Ranges and peaks
-Karakoram Ladakh Kailash Zaskar
K2(Godwin aus) Rakapokshi Kailash Nanga Parbat
Gasherbrum
-Karakoram is home of the greatest glaciers of world outside polar regions.Siachin,
Baltoro, Biafo, Hispar- Glaciers
-Deosai mt,Origin of Suru river, part of ladakh range
-Kailash range is off-shoot of Ladakh range
-Indus river passes between Ladakh and Zaskar range

*Purvanchal
-Patkaibum, Naga hills, Manipuri hills, Mizo hills.
-Elevation decrease from north to south
-Patkai bum Border between Arunachal Pradesh and Myanmar
Naga hills Highest peak � mt. sharamati Form watershed between India and Myanmar
Manipuri hills Border between Manipur and Myanmar
Mizo hills Highest peak � blue mt.
-Extension of Purvanchal continues in Myanmar as Arakan yome �then Andaman and
Nicobar Islands

*Northern plains
-Youngest physiographic.Depositional flood plain from indus,ganga-
yamuna,brahmputra.One of the largest, continuous and extensive plains

*N-S division of N.Plains

Bhabhar
-alluvial fans of Himalayan rivers.Rivers disappear.Not good for cultivation
Terai
-Bad drainage.Rivers re-appears �swamps, marshy.Naturally sal forest
bangar
-old flood plains of rivers - Dry land.Colcareous concretion -Kankar
Khadar
-new flood plains � fresh river deposition.Slope btw Bangar and Khadar.PN-
�Dhayas�, UP- �Khol�, Bengal � �Bhils�, Bihar ��Taal�

*West-east division of plain

RJ Plains(Indus)
-West of Aravalli.North: Gangasagar region.West of Aravalli: Rajasthan
Bagar.Drained by river Luni.Luni mearge in kuchh
-RJ bangar:fluvial grasslands �RJ steppe.Very fertile �Rohi tracts.Western most RJ-
marusthali/ Thar desert� sand dunes �Dhrians�
-SW plains: marine origin(marine depo. � oil and gas reserve � salt lakes).extend
to kuchh
-Tropical desert:Off-shore trade winds + local reason-Aravalli parallel to SW
monsoon � no orographic rain.Soil is fertile � but moisture deficiency � cultivable
if
relclaimed
Punjab Plains(Indus)
-Fluvial plains �Ravi, Beas and Sutlej (tri. Of Indus).Khadar plain: fertile but
limitations.Bad drainage
Gangetic Plains
-Upper ganga plains:From Yamuna to Ghaghara plains.Rohilkhand plain.Sandy deposits
-middle ganga plains:Kosi plain.Called Magadh / Awadh plain.Flood-prone
-Lower ganga plains:Ganga enters WB,Sundarban delta.Lowland-almost sea level.Sagar
Island,Lothian Island or Lothian national park,Bengal tigers
Assam Plains
-Brahmaputra largest river of India (volume).River course narrow so flood prone
Streams from north(Swift flowing):Manas and subansiri
Streams from south(Smooth flowing):Dibang,Lohit,Dhansiri,Kapilli

Indian peninsular plateau

*N-C highlands
Aravalli range
-Sedimentary, metamorphosed rocks � marble, quartzite
-From Palanpur(Near Ahm) to Delhi ridge.Source of Sabarmati, Luni and Banas (tri.
Chmbal)
Bundelkhand
-Granite, gneissic rocks.Gneissic rock formed by high temperature and high pressure

-Drought-prone � low agro-productivity.Jhansi, Gwalior, Hamirpur

Mahabharat Uplands
Madhya Bharat Pathar

*S-C highlands
Malawa plateau
-Located btwn Arvalli and Vindhyan range
-Semi arid region.Faulty agro-Gully erosion,Chambal badlands�
-Historically known as Khandesh
Vindhyan range
-From GJ to Bihar.Rifting- southern slope steeper than northern slope
-Source of many river:Chmabal, Sindh, Betwa and Ken(tributaries of Yamuna).Water
divide of central India
Narmada valley

*Eastern plateau
Chhota Nagpur plateau:
-Craton of Singhbhum � metallic mineral rich
-Rifting along Damodar valley � 2 parts:N� Hazaribaug Plateau,S� Ranchi plateau
-Damodar and Mahanadi Rifting � coal+iron formation
-Rajmahal hills NE and Garhjal hill southern edge of Chhotanagpur plt
-drainage:North koel(tri. Of Son).Damodar.Barakar.Subarnrekha.South koel rivers
(tri. Of Brahmani)
Meghalaya Plateau
-Garo-Khasi-Jaintia.Mikir, Regma, Barail ranges
-Kapilli river separates mikir, Regma & Barail from Meghalaya plateau
-Separated from Chhotanagpur plateau:Rajmahal �garo hills = �malda gap�(Ganga-
Brahmaputra flow through the Malda gap)
-Hills are not very high-Not effective in blocking the rain bearing winds -heavy
rainfall in Meghalaya-no ficility of storage � water shortage

*Deccan traps:
-Basaltic lava flow
North Deccan:
-Satpura range (Rajpipla, Gawilgarh(MH), Mahadeo(MP), Maikal(ChG), Amarkantak
plt(MP)).pass through GJ,MH,MP,CHg
Highest peak � Dhupgarh (Mahadeo).
-Amarkamtak platue:Source of Narmada and Son (tri. Of Ganga)
-Betul plateau:south of Mahado hills,source of river Tapi, Pench/ Wainganga river
(Tri. Of Godavari)
-MH plateau:Shield �crystalline rocks.Overland by lava flow.In south merge with KN
plateau and in east with Telangana plateau
South Deccan:
-KN plt:Baba budan hills, Maidan(arid) and Malnad(Forest).Highest peak of Baba
Budan = Mulangiri
-Dharwad plateau:The most oldest sedimentary rocks of India.metallic mineral rich
region.Iron and limestone.
Bellary (KN) and upto Ratnagiri (MH) � Fe ore
-Telangana plateau:Arachaean gneisses.Southern portion higher than northern part
.North � Satmala hills(MH) and South Sheshachalam hills(AnP), Rayanseema plt(AnP)
Drained by Godavari, Krishna and Penneru

*Western Ghats
-GJ-MH-KN-TN-KR.Ajanta-Satmala � Balaghat � Harishchandra are hills
-Highest peak: Anaimudi
-Passes:Thalghat � Btwn Mumbai-Nashik.Bhor ghat � btwn Mumbai -Pune
-Rainfalll Steeper in MH, lower and broader in KN
-KR: isolated hills � rain bearing wind pass between gaps.Clouds easily escape to
leeward side.
-KN: Gentle slope. mountains are continuous.No gaps.Clouds can�t easily escape to
leeward side.
-SHOLA forest �biosphere reserve �unique BD � above 2000m
-Stunted tropical montane forest
-Bandipur(KN)-Waynad(KR)-Mudumalai National park(TN).Largest population of leopards

-TN � tea-coffee. KN �rubber, coffee, cashew plantation.KR- spices

-Western Ghats are relatively higher in their northern region.northen part is arid
compare to southern

*Eastern Ghats
-Discontinuous range.lower than western Ghats
-Northern circas.Nallamalla hill(AP).Palkonda hill(AP).Javadi hill(TN).Shevroy
hill(TN)
-Highest peak: Armakonda
Laterite soil.Bauxite deposits:Malaygiri.Niyamgiri.Baflai mali.Panchpat mali all
are hill in odisa
-POSCO plant in Niyamgiri for stil by Koria

*Southern hill complex

-South of Western Ghats but geologically not part of Western Ghats or Eastern Ghats
-Nilgiri,Anamalai,Palani,Kardamom hills
-Nilgiri and palani are horizontal.Anamali and Kardamom are vertical
-Palghat � btwn Nilgiri and Annamalai hills.Shenkotta gap� btwn Kardamom
-north to south:Nallmala-javadi-Nilgiri-palani-annamalai-Kardamom
-Javadi hill are Strait-horizontal

*Importance of Peninsular plateau

-oldest and most stable region
-Rich in minerals � iron, limestone, bauxite.98% of Gondwana coal
-�Regur� black soil important for cotton and sugarcane cultivation
-Plantation agriculture in hilly areas: tea, coffee, rubber, spices, cashews

*Coastal plains
Western coastal plain
-Narrower than Eastern coastal plain.Steeper fast flowing rivers � No alluvial
deposits
-Rivers form Estuaries and not deltas.Good for Port development
-gulf of Khambhat and gulf of Kutchh
-Narmada, Mahi,Tapi and Sabarmati flow into Gulf of Khambhat
-Baidar, Kora, Kurumbhar Island in g. of Kutchh
-KR coast/Malabar coast:Vembnad lake(Periyar river merge).Inner side � Ernakulam
and outward side - Kochi

Eastern coastal plain

-Broader. Large rivers �extensive delta formation
Odisha coast: Wheeler Island. �missile testing(Abdul kalam)
-Chilka lake (biggest).
-Olive ridley turtles �Ganjam coast- (nr. Mouth of Rushikulya river)
Andhra coast:Kolleru lake �deltaic lake (Goadavari and Krishna rivers)
-Pulicut lake � split bar Shriharikota Island. (ISRO rocket launching station)
TN coast:Winter rainfall
-Rameshwaram � Pamban Island � last point � Dhanushkondi
-Gulf of Mannar � biosphere reserve.Ram setu issue

River of india
*Indus river
-Have 5 tributery:Indus, Jhelum, Chenab to Pak and Ravi, Beas and Sutlej to India
Tributaries of Indus
-Shyok from Siachin glacier.Suru (Obsequent tri i.e subsequent opposite path than
original) � originate from Deosai mt(Ladakh).Burzil la pass btw between Srinagar
and
Gilgit.kargil on it.chutak dam(On suru river,in J&K)
-Gilgit river � last tri in India
-Jhelum river:Originate into varinag Lake.Shrinagar.Kishanganga river joins on
right(dispute with Pakistan).Jhelum enters Pakistan near Baramulla
-Chenab: originate into Baracha la.Two headward tributaries: Chandra(Zozi la) and
Bhaga(Baracha la).join at Tandi river to form Chandrabhaga.becomes Chenab River in
Pakista.Dhulhasti, Baglihar and Salal dams
-Ravi:Source near Rohtang pass in Himachal Pradesh.Drains between Pirpanjal and
Dhauladhar.Chamba city
-Beas:Source near Rohtang pass - at southern end of Pir Panjal (HP).Meets Satluj at
Harike.Kullu.tributary Parbati.It is entirely within India
-Satluj:Originate near Man sarovar(Kailas Mt).Enters India through Shipki la
pass(HP).tributary: Spiti. Neptha-jhakhari dam
-North to south:Shyok-Zaskar-Spiti-Sutlej

*Ganga system
-Badrinath:Alaknanda.Kedarnath:Madakini
-Originate as Bhagirathi from Gangotri
-Vishnu prayag:Dhauliganga meet alaknanada
-Nand prayag :Nandakini meet Alaknanda
-Karna prayag :pindar river meet alknanda
-Rudra prayag :Mandakini meet alaknanda
-Dev Prayag :Bhagirathi meet alaknanda
-After merger known as Ganga
left bank tributaries
-Ramganga:Originate near Garhwal(UK)
-Gomati :north UP.Lucknow
-Both originate within India
-Ghaghara:Originate from Gurala mandhata peak (South of Man sarovar) in Tibet.Two
headward streams: kali (Sarda) and Karnali.Ayodhya and Faizabad
-Gandak :originated near Nepal-Tibet border.Kali Gandaki and Trishuli are imp
tributaries.Merge in Ganga near Patna
-Kosi :�Saptkaushi�.Located in snow covered areas � heavy rainfall � huge volume
of water.3 stream -> merged at Triveni (mahabharat range) to form Kosi
-This three originate outside india

right bank tributaries

-Yamuna:Yamnotri glacier � Bandarpunch peak �Garhwal(UK).Delhi, Agra and Mathura.
right bank tributaries from Vindhyan range(Chambal, Sindh, Betwa and Ken
and Banas from aravalli
Ton(Bandar punch glacier) largest tributary of yamuna and Yamuna largest
tributary of Ganga
-Son :From Amarkantak plateau(Mp).Tri is rihand(Govind vallabh pant sagar) and
North Koel.
-Hugali:Distributary of Ganga.Tri is ajay.kolkata
-Rivers that pass through Himachal Pradesh are :Chenab,ravi,beas,satluj,yamunaa and
spiti

*Brahmaputra system
-originate from Chemayungdung glacier in Kailash mountain
-Passes in Indus-Tsangpo sature zone
-The Brahmaputra enters India in the state of Arunachal Pradesh, where it is called
Siang
-appears in the plains, where it is called Dihang.joined by its two main
tributaries, the Dibang and the Lohit, it is known by the name of Brahmaputra.
-Enters into Assam Plains near Sadiya.After Sadiya it is known as Brahmaputra
-Tributaries: Manas, Subansiri, Dhansiri, Dibang, Lohit and Kapilli
Bhupen Hazarika Bridge or Dhola-sadiya bridge is on Lohit river in assam.three
lane bridge stretching 9.15 kilometre
As on now Bandra-worli bridge is longest,Dhola-Sadiya bridge is 3.55 km longer
than the Bandra�Worli
-enters Bangladesh as Jamuna.Merged with Ganga � unitedly known as Padma.Meghana
river joins called Meghana.Large delta formation
-river flow through Arunachal is lohit and subansiri not Barak
-Brahmputra flow through Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, and Bangladesh.

*Peninsular rivers
West flowing rivers: Narmada � Tapi
-Narmada :Source Amarkantak plateau.Flow in rift valley btwn Vindhyan and
Satpura(thats why flow toward west).MP-MH and GJ.Duandhar fall in MP.Merged near
Bharuch in
Sardar Sarovar dam in GJ
-Tapi :Source Betul plateau.Flow south of Satpura.tri is Purna (near surat).
-Sabarmati: from Aravalli range
-Mahi : from Vindhyans
-Western Ghats:Mandovi and Zuari in GOA
-KN :Kalinadi, Sharavati.Shravati- Jog fall (highest)
-KR :Periyar and Pamba
-West flowing river- short distance �speed flow- no alluvial � no delta

East flowing rivers: Damodar, Subarnarekha, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri etc
-Damodar :chhota Nagpur plateau.Tri Barakar.Iron and steel industry
-Subarnrekha :from Ranchi plateau
-Baitrani :from Garhjat hills
-Brahmani :from Chhota Nagpur plateau,tri south koal
-Mahanadi :Danadkarnya,Left bank: Sheonath, Hasdo and Mand.Right bank: Tel,
Jonk, Ong.Hirakund dam
-Rushikulya :Nayagarh hills.Mouth known for: hatching site of Olive ridley
turtles.Olive ridley turtles IUCN status- �endangered�
-Godavari :Trimbak plt in MH.LBT is Penganga, Wardha, Wainganga (combined =
Pranhita),Sabari and sileru
RBT is Manjara.flow in six states of India: Chhattisgarh,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh , Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, and Orissa.
-Krishna :Mahabaleshwar in MH,LBT is Musi, Sina,Bhima.RBT is Ghat prabha,
Malprabha, Tungbhadra, Hagari
flows through Maharastra, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
krishna water dispute between Karnataka, Maharashtra and then undivided
Andhra Pradesh
-Penneru/Penner:Nandi durg peak in KN.Tri is Kunder, Charavati, Papagni, Punchu
flow through KN and AP
-Kavery :Tal kaveri at Brahmagiri hills in KN.LBT is Shimsa, Hemvati,
Kabani, Bhavani, Noyil, Amaravati
flows through the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
kauvery Water Dispute TN,KN,KR,puducherry
-Vaigai :Varushand Hills in TN.Madurai.Dry channel.Disappear then again re-
appear

*River linking project

-First time recommended by Sir Arthur Cotton in 19th cent
-K.L. Rao, MoWR: Ganga-Kaveri link
-Transfer of water of Ganga and Brahmaputra towards west and east
-May produce 35GW of power
-Plateau higher (upland) than northern plains � difficult to pumping of water from
plains to peninsula
-International water disputes and inter-state water disputes-

*Indian Monsoon
Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ):
-Northward movement of the sun in summer-Heating of Tibetan plt �LP-Rising of the
air-Create TEJ above Tibet � move towards Mascarene High-Mascarene High pressure
cell
Second equatorial trough:
-in summer ITCZ came north-Sometimes LP cells of ITCZ do not merge with ITCZ -When
2nd equatorial trough (LP cell of ITCZ) merges with main ITCZ -strengthen the LP of
ITCZ-monsoon in india-if not than weak LP-weak rain
Somali current and Somali Jet stream:
-Somali jet stream pushes monsoon winds towards India.Stronger the Somali current,
strong the monsoon
Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet:
-Winter � STWZ is entirely south of Himalayas i.e over north India-Keep HP in N-
india.
-Early summer � northward movement � bifurcation � southern branch still over
northern India.HP conditions in N-Ind
-Even after development of ITCZ over Tibet, and merging of 2nd equatorial trough,
monsoon winds can�t attract toward India
-Summer: STWJ entirely northward.Allow Onset of monsoon (sudden burst).If southern
branch re-establish- monsoon break
Indian Ocean Dipole:
-Association of Western Pacific Pool(Aus) with Mascarene High.Strong WPP(LP)-
strong Mascarene High(HP)-strong SW monsoon
-El-Nino year: Weak WPP(HP) �Southern equatorial current week- weak Mascarene
High(HP).Low push to SW monsoon winds to move towards India
Fluctuation in Monsoon:
-If ITCZ does not develop properly over Tibet
-If 2nd equatorial trough does not merge with ITCZ
-Southern branch of STWJ re-establish over north India
-Inadequate heating of Tibetan plateau
-Weak Mascarene High pressure cell
-If IOD intense= IOD negative � weak monsoon in India

*Monsoon:Arabian branch
-Burst of monsoon first on Malabar coast-Arbian branch-BOB
-Western Ghats-continiue range of hill- blocks Rainfall in windward side-South KN
plateau, Rayalseema of AP remain dry
-No active barrier in Gujarat or Rajasthan-Aravalli parallel to the winds-Low
rainfall in GJ-RJ-Only Kathiawar upland, south Aravalli
-Gap and river vally in WG-wind enter interior-reach to HP and PB

*Monsoon: Bay of Bengal branch

-Discontinued range of hill-large gap-large river delta-more winds can enter inland
-Rainfall along chhotanagpur plateau, Vindhyan and Satpura range
Purvanchal:
-Meghalaya platue-hight of hill is low-Funneling effect-high rainfall
-Rainfall decrease from east to west

*Rainfall pattern
-India �avg rainfall = 120-180 cm = wetter
-Highest rainfall:Western ghat-NE state-East-GJ and RJ-J&K-Then south KN,
Rayalseema region-Thar and Kutchh deserts

*Retreating Monsoon: tropical cyclone

-Southward movement of ITCZ-SW monsoon winds and NE winds co-exist-Gradual
withdrawal of SW monsoon winds � first eastern then western branch
-Increase in SST of Bay of Bengal and Arabian sea-Tropical cyclone-Retreating SW
monsoon branch-drag them towards Eastern coast
winter
-NE winds � coming from land � dry winds-But passing through Bay of Bengal- become
moist-Coastline of TN-Rainfall in TN
-STWJ from Mediterranean sea-Winter rainfall � western disturbances
Summer
-Northward movment of ITCZ-Heating-LP but resisted by STWJ-Local heating-
convectional rainfall
-Pre-monsoon thunder storm-Kalbaishakhi (WB), Mango shower(KR), Blossom shower(KN)

*Climatic regions of India by Trewartha

A: tropical Humid:
-Am:monsoon type (>250 cm rainfall).Western cost,Tripura.
-Aw:Tropical wet and dry (avg. 100 cm rainfall).peninsular plateau, Mizoram
B: dry climate
-Bs :semi-arid (<100 cm).Rain-shadow region of Western Ghats
-Bsh:dry regions (Kathiawar, Rayalseema, Telangana, malawa plteau)
-Bwh: desert (Thar, Kutchh)
C: Sub-tropical
-Caw:humid, sub-humid.Northern Plains, most of NE states
-H :mountainous Himalayan regions

*Vegetation types in India

Tropical moist Forest:Wet -Evergreen
-high rainfall-more than 250cm.25-27 deg.Western side of western Ghats, NE states
and Andaman and Nicobar
-Dense forest.Pine, bamboo, Jamun.Underdeveloped lumbering industry bcs Tress are
not in pure stands and Lack of transport facility

Tropical moist forest:Semi-evergreen:

-Border areas of tropical evergreen forest.Rainfall 200-250 cm.Western coast,
Assam,lower slopes of eastern Himalayas and A & N

Tropical moist forest:Moist deciduous

-Moderate rainfall 100-200 cm.Both on western and eastern sides of western Ghats
.MP, Chhota nagpur plateau,Odisha, WB, A &N

Tropical Dry forest:Dry Evergreen

-Rainfall about 100 cm.TN coast.Winter rainfall + monsoon rainfall

Tropical Dry forest:Dry Deciduous

-Rainfall about 75-100 cm.Shed their leaves in dry season.Transition type between
Wetter -> moist deciduous.
-Central India.MP, RJ, Kathiawar, western Ghats.Sal, Teak, Rosewood

Tropical Dry forest:Thorn

-Less than 75 cm rainfall.North-west part of the country.RJ, Kutchh, Kathiawar

*Montane forest
Sub-tropical forest(1000-2000m):broad-leaves
-Height about 1000-2000m.Rainfall: 75-125 cm.Oak and chestnus

Sub-tropical forest(1000-2000m):Moist Pine forest

-Height about 1000-2000m.Rainfall: about 100 cm.Eastern Himalayas.Chil/chir most
abundant used for timber, resin and turpentine

Sub-tropical forest(1000-2000m):Dry evergreen

-Height about 1000m.Rainfall: 50-100 cm.Bhabhar, Shiwaliks � western
Himalayas.Stunted trees and shrubs

Montane Temperate forest1500-3000m:Wet-Temperate

-1800-3000 m.150-300 cm rain.Trees: evergreen, short, leaves dense and
round.Eastern Himalayas.Western Ghats above height of 1800 m.Deodar, Birch, Plum

Montane Temperate forest1500-3000m:Moist-temprate

-1500-3300 m.150-250Cm rain.Entire length of Himalayas.Deodar wood used for Timber,
railway sleepers

Montane Temperate forest1500-3000m:Dry-temprate

-less than 100 cm.Dry part of Himalayas such as Ladakh,Sikkim,Garhwal.Coniferous
forest,Oak, ash, maple

*Alpine forest
-Height: 2900- 3800 m.Mixture of coniferous trees, large scrubs,trees attain a
height of about 30 m while the broad leaved trees reach only 10 m.
increase in height Alpine grass and scrub.Fur, Spruce, Birch, Berberries

*Tropical:pine,bamboo
tmperate:Deodar and oak

*Forest type and percentage of area

Largest area:
-Tropical Moist Deciduous forest (100-200 cm)-37%(In western Ghats.MP, Chhota
nagpur plateau,Odisha, WB, A &N)
-Tropical Dry Deciduous forest -28%
-Tropical Moist Wet Evergreen (>250cm) -8%
Lowest area:
-Tropical Dry Evergreen -0.2%(In TN)
-Montane Dry Temperate -0.3%
-Sub-tropical Broad leaved-0.4%

*Water Resource:70% of India�s useable water is surface water resource from Rivers,
lakes and ponds
-Ground water resource:Rainwater/ river water percolate the soil � through pores
and cracks reach till aquifer.Aquifer = storage pool of GW
-when all the pores are filled = saturated zone
-Upper layer of saturated zone = water-table
-Aquitard zone is restrict the flow of groundwater from one layer to other
Aquiclude or aquifuge zone is complete impermiable aquitard contain layer of non
pores rock
-Ground water reserves: 30-40 ml ha in India.But Not found everywhere
Alluvial sedimentary - Northern plains .
Bhabhar (foothills of Himalayas):Not important.Coarse topography � no soil.Not
important for agriculture
East and west coastal plains:Issue of over-use and saline because overuse
Peninsular gneissic and granitic rocks- Impermeable rocks,water stored in cracks
and once water is extracted difficult to recharge � easily exhausted
Telangana, Dharwad, Bastar, Rayalseema
-Largest Ground water reserve:Ganga-Godavari-Brahmaputra-Krishna-Indus
-Development of use of GW:Indus (+PN-HN)-Cauveri-Kutchh-Saurashtra-Ganga basin-
Penner basin
-50% already used.Now 60% of India�s irrigation through dug-wells and tube-
wells.Highest in PN-HN, RJ, UP, GJ and TN
-Ground water pollution:Fluoride- northern plains, Telangana. Arsenic � leather
industries- UP, Bihar.Nitrate � fertilizers- across country
-Current water availability 2000 cum/person/year, by 2050 it will 3500cum But
actual availability will be 1200/cum

*Problems of floods:
-IPCC 4th and 5th report:Increase in events of heavy rainfall in Himalayan region
.Deforestation.dams in upper reaches of rivers.Sand mining.
Solutions for flood
-Flood management program (11th Plan).Flood control commission to control flood in
23 rivers.Information exchange from Nepal and China about volume of water
Forestation on the banks.Watershed management and rainwater harvesting than
construction of dams and canals

*Drought:
-Rainfall less or equal to 75 cm or less than 60 cm
-Areas having more than 25% of variability of normal rainfall:Plateau region
,Western RJ, Kutchh,Ladakh
-Drought = agrarian poverty = high IMR, high MMR, low literacy
Rainfed-Areas
-Where agriculture is totally depended on rainfall.55% of net sown area of the
country
Drought-prone areas:
-Rain-shadow regions of western Ghats - Telangana, Rayalseema, Vidarbha
-Malawa, Bundelkhand, Mewar
-Eastern India- High rainfall but misuse or under use of water
resources.underdevelopment of irrigation network
-North-east India-Wettest part of India but no availability of water storage
facility
Importance of Rainfed areas:
-50% of grain,90% of pulses and milet are produce hear and 66% of livestock
population of India
Problems of Rainfed areas:
-Most of their farmers grow cash-crops-if crop fails � reduce their purchasing
power-hunger
-Arid, semi-arid regions:soil-erosion.
-Penninsular region -Difficult to construct canals + low ground water level
-more than 40% of India�s BPL population
Impact of drought:
-Land abandoning � soil erosion-Reduction in production � food security
-most of the small and marginal farmers live in drought-prone areas
Solution to drought:
-Expansion of irrigation facility.Check-dams
-Animal husbandry.Agro-forestry.Food-processing industries, handicraft,
tourism.Availability of alternative employment in rural areas
-Connectivity, transportation network.24/7 electricity.Facility of crop-insurance
-Agro-practice :agro-infrastructure such as check-dams, tanks, rain-water
harvesting systems, wells/tube wells, cold storages
No = Water intensive crops like, rice, cotton, sugarcane.Yes = Less water
intensive crops � millets (Jawar, Bajra, Ragi).Optimum use of water in irrigation
Agro-silvi(combines pastoralism (extensive livestock husbandry on pastures) and
agriculture).Pastoral system.Drought-resistance variety
Conservation of soil moisture � mulching.Pre-monsoon ploughing.Deep drilling of
seed

*Meaning of Watershed
-drains of water at a common point A main river and its catchment area.
-Construction of small earthen check-dams.No blockage of river.small dams instead
of large concrete dams.Afforestation on river banks
-Watershed Management program in 1973.Drought-prone area Program + Desert
development program
integrated watershed development program = Integrated watershed Management
Program
-Successful Watershed Management experiments:Aravari project in RJ and Rale gaon
siddhi (MH)
-Community participation,Strong panchayati raj system,Decentralized
system.Involvement of local population
Benefits:
-Increase in water availability.Multiple crop in a year.Increase farm income.more
access to modern inputs.Increase fodder availability

*Soil- forming factors

rocks:
-Soil made up of erosion of parent rock-provides soil minerals, texture, structure,
pH value, porosity-
Climate:
-temp + rainfall.Agent of erosion:Dry region � wind,Wet region �water,Cold region �
glacier
Relief:
-Steep gradient = thin, under developed soil.Plain (low gradient) = thick, well
developed soil
Biota:
-Micro-organism help in enrichment of soil.Roots of vegetation � agent of
weathering
-Humus content from vegetation provide nutrients to soil
Time:
-After weathering � time decides maturity of soil

*Transportation in soil
capillary:
-In hot and dry climate-Evaporation-Salts within the soil come at the upper layer-
Calcium salts-Soil salinity
Leaching:
-In hot and humid climate-Heavy rainfall-Silica within soil move downward-Iron and
aluminum remain at upper layer-Acidic and reddish soil-Lateritic soil
-In cold and humid climate-Iron and Aluminum move downward-silica at upper layer-
Gray in colour-Podzoilic soil-Low fertility-but good for forestry - lumbering
Gleying:
-In swampy,Terai, Mangrove region � peat soils-Bluish in colour-Excessive Potassium
salts

*Soil Profile
-Soil have different layers with different physical and chemical properties
-Horizons of soil:O = with organic dust, leaves,litter
A = top soil with nutrients
E = transition zone
B = sub-soil
C = weathered rock material(parent rock)
R = Bad rock
-O and R not part of functional soil.
-Soil erosion = loss of top soil (A and E).Extreme soil erosion = loss of B also
-B cannot support plant life
-Leaching:Latosol A (Al, iron), B (Silica).Podzol A (silica), B (Al, iron)
-capillary:A layer will have Calcium, or Sodium salts

*Soils of India
Alluvial soil:
-Covers 42% of Indian soil.Deposition of rivers.Most fertile
-Rich in nitrogen,Potash,hmus,organic material, micro-nutrients, well-drained.Lacks
Phosphorus
-Northern Plains, east coast, GJ except Kathiawar.
-East India: high potential for 2nd Green revolution.

Red soil:
-Covers 25% of Indian soil area.Most wide-spread.Formed due to erosion of granite
and Gneissic rocks having iron and Nickel
-Best-drained soil-least susceptible to water-logging
-Rich in lime, phosphate, iron, Potash,.But lack in Nitrogen,Phosphorus and humus
-It can support maximum crop-diversity.Important for food security and nutrition
balance
-But most vulnerable to soil-erosion.Arid regions � drought prone= poverty
-Brick-making �loss of top soil
-Presence of ferric oxide

Black soil
-Covers 15%.Weathering of lava rocks of Deccan plateau.
-Rich in Ferro-magnesium-silicate, lime and potash.Lack Nitrogen and Phosphorus
-Areas:MH plateau, Kathiawar, Vindhyan, Kaimur hills,Northern part KN and uplands

Latosol (lateritic soil):

-Covers 4.5% areas.Alternate wet-dry weather.use for bricks
-Leaching of silica � iron remain in the top layer.Thick iron pans �Petlands�
.Acidic soil.
-Quickly eroded on deforestation, mining and plantation
-Not suitable agriculture.But suitable for sp. Crops like Tapioca and cashew nuts
-Rich in iron � support tea, coffee and rubber
-Rich in Bauxite.Eastern Ghats, Telangana and KN plateau

Mountainous soil
-Soil at steep gradient cannot support agriculture.Can support grassed of scrubs
-Under cold humid climate-Leaching of iron � silica remain at top soil-Podzolic
soil-Not good for agriculture but good for forestry - lumbering
-Leaves of coniferous trees covered with cheating agent � hard to degrade=Chelation
-Cold climate � slow bacterial process-Humus content is high

Desert Soil:
-Coarse texture, low water holding capacity-Low nutrient, low fertility
-Indian desert soil is unique-Its made up of alluvium, fine loessic deposits-Good
in micro-nutrients-Support agriculture under irrigation

Mangrove soil:
-Along tidal region of coastal areas-Gleying process-Swampy-peaty soil-Not suitable
for agriculture � but support mangroves

Saline �Alkaline soil:

-Soil problem areas-Bad drainage in arid areas-Over irrigation
-West RJ, PN-HN, terai belt, Deccan region
-Calcification: moderate aridity condition-Calcium salts in upper layer
-Saline soil: extreme arid condition-Sodium and Potassium salts in upper layer

*Land use pattern in India:

-total agro area is 328 ml ha and productive land is 305 ml ha.
-india have total 17% population in world and 2.4% of land
-9 diffrence way land use in india(Dept. Land resource)
-land cover:Forest(25%),Net sown area(46%),Land not for agr
develpoement(15%),fallow land(12.5%) i.e no crops on land for a year to recover its
fertility to grow crops
-in forest dense canopy is 8%.NACC given target 33% of forest in india
-Net sown area in India of 141 ml ha that is world 10% agr land.instade of increse
NSA we need to increase productivity of land
China have 80ml ha NSA but net producer and exporter of grains.even india have
hugh potential of fertile land.Use such land for afforestation or for development
purpose
-Gross sown are:is the total area sown once as well as more than once in a
particular year. When the crop is sown on a piece of land for twice, the area is
counted
twice in GCA.and in NSA count only one's
India have total 199ml ha GSA and 141ml ha NSA i.e 58ml ha of land grown more than
once
-63.6ml ha land of total is under irrigation
-India needs to increase GSA and not NSA to increase productivity
-Cropping Intensity:refers to raising of a number of crops from the same field
during one agricultural year
-GSA/NSA(%) i.e india have 141% CI and highest in PB(187%)

*Agriculture Efficiency
-agri output / agri input
-But India�s agriculture is subsistence, output not monetized
-Input not monetized � family members as labourers
-Agriculture (+ fisheries + livestock + forest) contribute 13.9% to India�s GDP
(2013-14)

*Agriculture Productivity
-India � half or 1/3th of highest productivity in the world (except sugarcane and
wheat)
3 things to consider: productivity:
-Conservation of natural resources
-Modernization needed at post-harvest side.
-Not to achieve highest productivity � it will exhaust our natural resources
Kharif crops:
-All crops except Rabi crops.Rice, sugarcane, Bajra, Jawar etc.
Rabi crops:
-Wheat, gram, linseed, pea and Mustard
Zaid crops:
-Dry summer season.Vegetables and fruits

*Major crops
Rise:
-India- largest area under rice in the world.water intensive
-temp =21-25 deg, warm conditions.Productivity is low compared to wheat
-Japanese transplantation technique.Peninsular India � less water intensive dry-
upland rice.New SRI technique(System of Rice Intensification)
-60-70% from late summer rice � Aman, Sali, Afghani.Peninsular plateau � autumn
rice � �Ours�.East India � summer rice � �Boro� and �Palua�

Sugarcane:
-Water intensive cash-crop. Reliable cash crop than cotton. Traditional sugarcane
areas- Northern plains. North India- sub-tropical variety � low sugar content and
shut in winter
-From northern Plains, Shift to south India,PN-HN,Western India.
-South India:tropical variety,coastal areas; humidity. open year around. Skilled
disciplined labour. South India organized cooperative sector

Tea:
-Need high rainfall >200cm. Himalayan slopes and Nilgiri(TN). India largest
producer � 70% domestically consumed. Introduction by British
-did not succeed beyond Darjeeling area bcs Disappearance of lesser him in east.
Steep-slope. Heights � low temp (frost). Low population density.
Difficult terrain � transportation issues. Far away from ports (Kolkata)

Jute:
-high rainfall and humid areas. Water-intensive. Traditional area Hugli basin.
Shifted to Godavari basin
-it was called �golden fiber�.

Spices:
-Slopes of western Ghats (largest- KR). Assam (Cardamom),RJ(chili),AP(turmeric)
-In kerala Hot, Humid climate (200-250 cm rainfall).Tem 25-30 degree. 1000-1200m
height of Western Ghats. loamy lateritic soils. KN, TN are other important spice
producer states

Wheat :
-Temp: 17-20 deg.Sub-tropical crop.Not water intensive.Productivity highest in
India- after green revolution
-Western disturbances help wheat ripening.North and north-western part

Pulses:
-Moong:Eastern ind. Arhar:Northen ind and Mp. Urad(Black gram):South ind. Gram:PB
-High pulse import.
-Introduction of Dryland agriculture program for pulses
-RKVY � 60k pulse village prog
-National Food security Mission include pulses
-Target: 4 mT pulse production

Millets:
-Need less rainfall (dry crops). grown under subsistence farming. Very nutritious
and affordable. But least preferred
-Jawar (Sorghum):3th most imp crop after rice and wheat. Kharif + Rabi Crop.
Require around 30 cm rainfall. MH, MP, KN, AP
-Bajra :Kharif crop. 40-50 cm rainfall + warm climate. Bright sunlight
after light shower. MH, GJ, UP
-Ragi :Drier part � rainfed crop. 20-30 deg temp. KN largest producer
(more than 50%)

Cotton:
-Dry crop � not much rain needed. But adequate and timely supply of water to roots.
high profitability shift to PN and Kaveri basin regions.
-Over-irrigation in dry seasons � soil salinity

Oil-seeds:
-Traditionally low productivity. Input intensive + price volatility. Import from SE
Asian countries. Highest import bill in food-basket
-Mission on Oil-seed and oil-palm to Increase oil-seed production 4.5% per year.
-But yet not matched with edible oil demand. Govt. introduced �Yellow Revolution�

*Textile industries in India:

-labor intensive. During British era, Bombay developed 1st center for textile
industries
-MH region:black soil for cotton-cheap Labour-port shift to Guj(Ahm)
-Aehmadabad: heart of cotton-emerging market, cheap labour supply-development of
Kandla. shift to TN
-TN :development of railway and cheap labor

*In gujarat Northern part is arid, semi-arid. Its central part produces cotton.
Cultivation of cash crops is predominant over food crops

*Seed Mission:
-12th FYP by Min. of agri For major 45 crops. To increase production of certified
quality seeds. enhance the seed replacement rate (SRR).
-upgrade quality of farm saved seeds. establish a seed reserve at regional levels.
Seed Bill, 2004:
-Replace seed act, 1966. regulate production, distribution and sale of seeds. All
varieties of seeds for sale have to be registered.
-seeds are required to meet certain prescribed minimum standards.�
-Transgenic varieties of seeds can be registered only after clearance under the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
-If a registered variety of seed fails to perform compensat to farmer. Setting up a
compensation committee

*Land issues: Land size

-net sown area (~141ml ha). Per capita availability of land = 0.32 ha and World
avg. = 2 ha and Average 1.23ha
Reasons:
-In Ancient Symbiotic relation with ruler and farmers. Non-exploitative and non-
interference
-Akabar�s Mansabdari system- devised by Todalmal � continued till Tuqluq
-British dismantled this system by Zamindar and intermediaries
-After Independence: J.C Kumarappa committee: for land reform
Objectives:Elimination of intermediaries. Tenancy reforms . Land consolidation.
Modernize land records. Abolition of Zamindaari.
Land rent reduced to 10-15%. Land-ceiling:uper land transfer to
government but lack of computerizasion of land record
Land consolidation:small land holding. Exchange of land but no mutual
trust. Cooperative farming - failed
-Not all states can successfully implement the land reforms only PN, HN, GJ, MH
-Farmers in Eastern Indian states still not free from clutches of zamindaars,bonded
labor. Farmers of east India � small land holding
Agro-climatic Planning:
-for better agro-productivity. Encouraging farming practice which is suitable for
local climate
-Objectives is maximum productivity through technology reserch and agro practice.
conservation of resource by water use efficiency and chois of crop
-ICAR National Agro-research Project:Ecological status-Soil degradation, salinity,
GW issues
Socio-economic status-Landless labours, marginal
farmers
Cropping system-Rainfed farming, shifting agriculture

*Irrigation:
-63.6 ml ha out of 141 ml ha. 55% net sown area is rain-fed
-To increase productivity, expand cropping intensity or Gross area
production,expansion of irrigation network

Canal Irrigation:
-oldest way of irrigation . Easy to construct in soft rocks areas.
-But Problems is Silting,Leakage losses,Evaporative losses,Submergence of lands
,Prone to disputes
-Canal installed irrigation potential � 90-100 ml ha but actual usage 70-80 ml ha.
Govt. formulated command-area development program to encourage it
bcs all farmers can not construct field application channels from the canals and
Lack of warabandhi irrigation system
Command area dev. Prog:
-Development of on-field activities such as field channle
-Supply of improved seeds, fertilizers
-Agro-credit and services
-Post-harvest infra and Forming of �Paani-panchayats�- to resolve water issues

Tank irrigation:
-up to 3-4 acre of area. Popular in southern India / peninsular plateau
-in south Difficult-Common tank among the temple town-mall channels to agriculture
fields-dry, semi-arid region-evaporative losses

Tube wells:Most convenient, cheap method. No evaporative or seepage losses.

*Irrigation techniques 1950-51 2009-10

Canals 40% 30%
Tanks 15-17% <4%
Tube wells 30% >60%
-New Schemes for Irrigation development:Neeranchal-Watershed development in country
PMKVY -Expedite stalled small and major irrigation
projects

*Nutrient:
-N:P:K ratio should be 4: 2: 1 but now 8.2: 4.2: 1 bcs high subsidy
-Soil Health Cared scheme:status will be assessed regularly in a cycle of 3 years
about nutrision level in soil
-Unless the soil gets enough humus-chemicals harden the soil-reduce its fertility
in the long run
-Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana to promote organic farming
-Green Manure:before plauging,guar are grown and mulch,helps in enriching N, P in
soil,Discourage weeds and leaching
-Vermi-compost:Mixture of Earth-worms + decomposed food or vegetable waste

*1st FYP- all the sectors of economy was given equal importance. After independence
net sown area expansion till 1st FYP
-2nd FYP � Mahalanobis model � impetus to heavy industries.
-Green revolution Launched in 1965-66 as HYV program. Model: Philippines and Mexico
-Benefits of Green Revolution:1950-51 � production was 50 ml ton. 1990s � 200 ml
ton
Improvement was carried out in jawar, sugarcane, potatoes. Boost to growth of
fertilizer industries
Not a single incidence of famine after GR
-In eastern No to input intensive agriculture practice,local natural resources is
time limit,Green Revolution was for India to achieve self-sufficiency and this is
done by wheat and Eastern india climate is not suitable for wheat
Common crops are grown in eastern region so east india is not part of green
revolution
-National Food security Mission Launched in 2007 by Ministry of agriculture .5
components;1)Rice 2)Wheat 3)Pulses 4)Millets(coarse cereals) 5)Commercial crops �
cotton, sugarcane and Jute. 10 mT Rice,8 mT Wheat,4 mT Pulse,3 mT Coarse cereals
promote new techniques- direct seeded rice/line transplanting/SRI

*For Evergreen Revolution:

-R&d :Lab to land. lab to industry
-Investment:consolidate of land,make in india and skill india
-Pricing and policy:FCI reform and better MSP
-Agro-trade:APMC and FPI/FPO

*Agricultural Extension
-First train farmer:Farmer-scientist linkage,Training+ demo
-Than student:Agro- education
-ARYA:Create employment opportunities for youth in agri.

Finance:
-Kisan Credit card scheme:crop loans, term-loans and consumption loans. use as ATM.
Risk coverage to KCC holder 50K(accidental death) and 20k(permanent disability)
-National crop-insurance Prog:Merging National,weather,coconut scheme. available
for all farmers. covers all crops � cereal, millets, pulses, horticulture, oil
seeds
10% premium subsidy for small and medium farmers
-NABARD�s initiatives:"Long Term Rural Credit Fund" to refinance Cooperative Banks
and Regional Rural Banks
�PRODUCE�:Fund for Producer�s development. "Price Stabilization Fund� to mitigate
price volatility in the agriculture produce

*Problems of Agro-marketing in India:

-middle men. lake standardization. Inadequte transport system. Indian farmers
receive 25% of the retail price of their produce (US farmers get 70%)
-Solution:Amend APMC Act,Kisan Mandi to Direct sale of fruits and vegetables by
farmers to consumers. make FPO. Unified National Market to Elimination of inter-
state
barriers
-Storage Infrastructure:Grameen Bhandaran Yojana,Storage capacity should be enough
to meet 4 months� requirement of PDS. 100% FDI allowed in warehouse development
go-downs through PPP
-Warehouses, private or of CWC(Central warhouse center) or SWC, have to be
registered with WDRA(war_h dev reg auth) whichever want to issue warehouse
negotiable receipt
-FMC has set up e-portal AGMARKNET for Real time whole sale prices of agricultural
commodities and Connected with most of the APMC markets, mandis and Kisan Vikas
Kendras

*Livestock
-India have 17% of the cattle population. 64% of the buffalo population.
-Rate of increase in milk production = 4.2%. which is higher than growth rate of
population (1.2% -2013).�
-Per capita availability of milk is 281gm per day (2013-14) > 186gm/Day (Asia) but
lesser than wolrd avrage 294gm/day
-Sardar Patel and Morarji Desai organised a cooperative union for Amul.
-Tribhuvandas Patel persuaded farmers door to door to join the milk cooperative
-Dr. vergese Kurien who led white revolution
-Amul was first dairy to produce cheese and baby food from buffalo milk
-Amul provides artificial insemination, veterinary facilities to farmer
-IRMA was founded in Anand. In 1974 Gujarat cooperative milk marketing federation
ltd was established.
-1964, Lal Bahadur Shashtri initiated all states to set up cooperative dairies
based on Anand pattern
-In 1965 he created NDDB with kurien as his chairman and HQ at Anand
-NDDB launched operation flood in 1970 to replicate Anand pattern in other part of
the country
Outcome of Operation flood
-The operation made India � world�s largest milk producer, surpassing USA in 1998
-Today India�s milk output is 17% of world�s output
-�RAKSHA� vaccine developed for cattle health
-Woman empowerment:take assistance from SEWA and established 6000 women dairy
cooperative societies
National Livestock Mission:
-FY 2014-15 by Dept. of Animal husbandry and dairying, Ministry of Agriculture.
Fodder and feed development for animal
Fodder development:Feed Security Bill on the lines of Food Security Bill.
-decide the milk pricing policy
-Setting up Gobar Bank (fertilizer+ biogas)
-Collection centres for urine of cow became additional source of income for
farmers.�
-Marketing facility for cow products
Veterinary health:
-Need for universal vaccination of cattle on regular basis
Indigenous cattle:
-India, total 83% of cow population is indigenous.Decline to 8% in 2007

*Challenges: indigenous cattle breed:

-Excessive cross-breeding. Decline of grazing grounds. shift to cash crops such as
rubber
-Importance of Indigenous cattle breed:better than exotic cattle breed in disease
resistance,easier management,suitable for drought work.lower feed intake and
They are adapted to arid weather conditions
-the average milk yield is lower than hybrid but their quality of the milk is very
rich
-Rashtriya Kamdhenu Breeding centre:total 2:one each in Northern India and southern
India
repositories of indigenous germ-plasm. Certified germ-plasm will be made available
to farmers, breeding institutes
-Rashtriya Gokul Mission:under National Programme for Bovine Breeding and Dairy
Development (BBDD). 37 indigenous breeds of cattle and 13 buffalo breeds.
conserve Indigenous Breeds in a scientific manner. Develop indigenous breeds for
higher productivity. enhancing the milk production and productivity of indigenous
bovines. gradation of indigenous bovine germ-plasm.

*Marine fishing
-Indian ocean � least exploited. 75% of marine fish production come from west
coast.
-Largest producer:GJ-KR-MH-TN-AP
-Problems:off-shore and deep-sea fishing is very poor. Low use of technology. Poor
infra . monsoon and tropical cyclone hinder fishing
-Growth of inland fishing faster than marine fishing.After 2000 production under
inland fishing is more than marine

*Inland fishing
-Largest producer WB-GJ-KR-AP-MH
-WB : Ganga delta, large demand. GJ: low local demand, 97% export. KR: lakes and
lagoons -85% of produce is processed. AP: fishing cooperatives � supply to WB
Blue Revolution:
-1970s � 5th FYP. set up Fish farmers development Agency and latter Brackish water
fish farmers development agency
-Objective:new technique of fish breeding,fish rearing, fish marketing and fish
export
-increase in production of Shrimp � Nellor of AP � Shrimp capital of India
Brackish water aqua-culture:
-Artificial brackish water ponds � carp culture(Intro in 1980s).AP: >73% of carp
production (shrimp, prawn)

*Potential in fishing sector

-Breeding of High value fin-fish and shell-fish
-Upgradation of technology in cold water fish species
-Development of technology for inland saline areas
-mechanization:Modern trawlers. Bio-tech:Germ-plasm. sustainable:Eco-friendly
techniques

*Minerals and Physiography of India

-Shield regions:Chhotanagpur plt and Dharwad all are metalic minrel
-Rift valley- Gondwana time:Damodar valley and Mahanadi valley all are coal reserve
-Marine Transgression:G.Of Khambhat and G.Of Kutchh(marine transgression is a
geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline
moves
toward higher ground,)
-Tertiary time: Marine Transgression:Brahmputra-shillling shelf, Bengal-bangladesh
shelf, Saurashtra shelf and KG basin all are petrolium reserve
-Mineral regions:Peninsular upland-Bauxite. Himalaya:anthresite coal. coastal area-
salt+thorium
-Minerals in Himalayan region:Assam-Lignite coal. HP-Rock salt. Ladakh-Geo-thermal
energy

*5 mineral rich regions

Northern Belt:
-1) Chhotanagpur plateau:Kynite (100%), Iron (90%), Chromium (90%), Mica (75%),
coal (70%)
-2) Assam petroleum reserve:Lignite coal

Central Belt:
-Chhattisgarh region -Extension of Chhota nagpur plateau:Iron, limestone in
Chhattisgarh
-Godavari- Wardha valley �coal field

South- East region:

-East KN: Bellary-hospet region- iron
-AP: Cuddapah, Kurnool
-Nellore (AP) � mica, Manganese, lignite coal
-Telangana: Bauxite
-TN: Neyveli � lignite coal

South- West region:

-KN: Dharwad.Iron, Manganese, limestone
-Goa: iron
-MH: Ratnagiri - iron

NW region:
-GJ and RJ:Petroleum
-Salt from kutchh and pyala lake of RJ
-Lake Sambhar, Lake Didwana � Gypsum, Borax

*Types of Iron ore

-Hematite(Iron+steel industry). Megnetite(Electronic ind).Limonite(pigment and
paint). Siderite(Source of magnesium and mengenese)
-India�s iron ore mostly � Hematite
-India -2nd largest producer of hematite after Russia
-Magnetite � Russia largest producer
-Iron Reserve -AP:Kurnool,MH:Ratnagiri,Jharkhand:Hazaribaug and singhbhum
-Manganese Reserve-MP:Balaghat,Jarkhand:Chaibasa(Biggest mine)
-Copper reserve -Jharkhand:Raka mines,AP:Kurnool,guntur
-Bauxite reserve -Jharkhand:garhjat hill,GJ:Kheda, Amreli,MP:Balaghat,
-Mica reserve -Odisa:Kodarma (largest in the world),AP:Nellore
-Limestone reserve-MP:Birmitrapur,MH:satara
-Chromite reserve -Odisha:Sukinda Largest reserve,MH:Ratnagiri,KN:Shimoga

*Indian coal
-Gondwana formation (later than Carboniferous time)
-Inferior,Important for electricity generation,Volatile, Sulphur + moisture is
high,But Calorific value is low,not for Cocking coal and Metallurgical coal
Bituminous reserve:
-JK:Damodar valley (Bokaro, Jharia, Dhanbad, Giridih, Daltonganj)
-WB:Extension of Damodar valley (raniganj and Barakar)
-OD:Mahanadi basin
-AP:Singreni coal field
Lignite reserve:
-Assam. TN:Neyvelli. GJ:Umarsar(Kutchh) and RJ(Palana)
Anthracite & Peat reserve:
-J&K:Kalakot
-KR:Mangrove-Karee soil
-WB:Gangetic Delta

-Not enough high grade cocking coal � depend on import

-Washing � lower down ash content is needed
-Coal field contains Coal Bed Methane,CBM policy for exploration and production in
1997
-Policy does not allow simultaneous exploration of coal and CBM�
-CBM exploration and production allowed only in pure seam gas bearing blocks
-Underground coal- Gassification:They dig two wells
injection well: water+ oxygen+ gasification agent pumped from here
production well: synthetic gas (syngas) comes out from here
Syngas can be used in generating electricity, manufacturing of hydrogen &
fertilizers.
Sulphur, mercury, arsenic are not come out remain underground = less pollution.
needs less water than conventional mining

*Petroleum Reserves
-Saurashtra region (GJ, RJ, gulf of Khambhat, Off-shore Mumbai)
-Upper Assam-Shillong shelf
-Cuttak shelf and KG Basin
-Petroleum reserve:Digboi and baruni in assam,
GJ:On-shore:Kheda, Mehsana and Off-shore:Gandhar oil filed,Aliya bet
RJ:Barmer (by Cairns)
MH:Nilam oil field (Bombay High) � 60% of ind production and South Bassain (larger
reserve than Nilam)
KG:Rawa oil field
-Cairn Energy, which bought a block in Rajasthan in 2002
-The crude is waxy, and difficult to transport.
-Now it is planning to lay a heated pipeline to Salaya(Dwarka) and export the
crude.
-Reliance extracting oil in Krishna-Godavari off-shore, found gas as well.
-1st refinery in India: Digboi in Assam,2nd Tarapur, in 1954
-India exports refined petroleum products 10% of the production
-PSU-17,Private-3(Rel,Ass,cairn),JV-2(Bina (MP): Bharat + Oman,Bathinda: HPCL +
Mittal)
-India's refining capacity exceeds demand.

-Oil from ageing fields, except KG & RJ

-Digboi refinery = 1st oil well of India. ~Lowest output in world.
-Refinery -not upgraded, shortage of man, crude oil, finance

*Natural gas
-where hydrocarbons are trapped,often hold gas,sometimes in association with crude
oil and sometimes alone
-Natural gas did not occur in Gondwana beds
-It consists mostly of methane, which is lighter than air and toxic
-requires airtight tanks for storage and similarly leak-proof pipes or trucks for
transport,
-which raise its capital costs.-
-occupies 4 times the space of a gasoline-equivalent energy
-India does not have exclusive natural gas reserve
-Sometimes, Natural gas re-injected into the oilfield to maintain pressure which
forces oil up to the surface
-Production ind Bombay High,Gujarat,Assam,KG basin,Kaveri Basin.
-Import from other countries:Qatar (>80%),Egypt,Oman,Australia,Saudi Arabia,
-Almost 70 percent of India's natural gas reserves are found in Bombay High basin
and in Gujarat.rest found in Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu, Maharashtra, Mumbai.
-India 5 existing such LNG terminals::Dahej,hajira,Kochi,ratnagiri,Kakinada(Ap)
-First floating storage and Regasification unit in AP
-Proposed new LNG terminals:Mudra,pipavav,Ennor(TN),Manglore (KN),Paradip
(Odisha),Gangawaram(AP)
-Tight gas:one type of unconventional gas,deeper parts of sedimentary basin,Their
Reservoir has no Nature fractures
have to use hydraulic fracturing technique to extract gas.drilling=> special fluid
pumped, contains water + sand + chemicals
This pumping creates fractures in the basin.
-15% of US Gas production via Hydraulic fracturing technique,India doing trials
since 2010

*TAPI pipeline: detail

-90 ml std cm/day for 30 year started from 2018.India= 38ml,Pakistan =38ml,
Afghanistan = 14ml
-Turkmenistan's Galkynysh field. Herat, Afg. Kandahar, Afg. Fazilka, PN in India.
Multan and quetta in Pak.
-not been able to get an international firm to head a consortium.
-French co. Total SA had showed interest but backed off after Turkmenistan,

*IPI Pipeline: challenges

-The pipeline faced setbacks due to sanctions put by USA on Iran
-The agreement between Pak and Iran in 2009
-Saudi Arabia said that reservation against Iran-Pakistan pipeline
-passes through disturbed region of Pakistan- Baluchistan.
*Deep sea pipeline: Iran-India
-India have started talks with Iran and Oman
-pipeline is technically and economically viable.
-pipeline can be started only after sanctions against Iran are lifted
-pipeline expected to carry 31 million cubic meter of gas per day

*Russia-India natural gas pipeline

-2 proposed routes:Russia�s southern border to India via the Himalayas
-Russia - Astrakhan - Khazakstan � Uzbekistan attach to TAPI

*Energy security
-India = 2.4% of annual world energy production but consumes 3.4% of annual world
energy production
-Need Full exploration of India�s sedimentary basin
-Untapped renewable resources (30% of its potential)
-India relied on import for 75-80% of its demand
-West Asia � political fragile region
-Need acquisition of foreign oil fields by state oil companies
-Petroleum assets abroad:ONGC Videsh Ltd in Sudan, Vietnam, Venezuela but
Geopolitical problem: S. Sudan, Syria = Lower production
global challenges:
-Shale gas discovery in USA � slow down the research in renewable energy
-Developed nations not willing to transfer green technology or advanced efficient
technology to other nations

-Kelkar panel on energy security (2013) to Enhance domestic oil and gas production
Lower down the import dependence by 2030.Devise roadmap for deregulation of retail
oil and gas.
Utilize oil industry development board cess

*Strategic reserve of crude oil

-2004 � Mangaluru and Padur in west coast and Vishakhapatnam in east cost:5 ml
ton,To cover 2 weeks� requirements
-2015:Vishakhapatnam (AP),Bikaner (RJ),Rajkot (GJ),Padur (KN),Chandikhole
(Odisha):12.5 ml ton,Cover 90 days requirement
-Iran � large crude carriers = floating storage (20-25 ml ton on tankers)
-Special cess or small import duty can be levied to fund the storage
-US strategic reserve = 727 ml ton
-China strategic reserve = 170 ml ton

*Uranium:
-JK-jadughoda. Meghalaya:Domiasiat,Wahkyn. AP-Tumallapalle(Nalgonda).KN-Gogi. RJ-
Rohil
-Uranium corp. of India ltd. (UCIL)� extract uranium and process Uranium: yellow
cake (Magnesium diurnate)
-YK then sent to Nuclear Fuel Complex (Hyderabad) for fuel fabrication (make
Uranium dioxide)
-NFC sends fuel to all nuclear reactors of India
Fission reaction of Uranium:
-Free Neutron hits nucleus of Uranium atom - split it � release of 2 or 3 neutrons
+ energy
-Fission of 1 Ur atom = 200 Mev energy
-Fissile Materials:The heavy elements which have ability to fission in an excited
stage
Ex. Uranium-233 (233U),�Uranium -235�(235U), plutonium-239 (239Pu), and plutonium-
241 (241Pu)

Composition of Natural uranium:

-Natural Uranium-Fertile Ur238- Have to absorb neutron = fissilei i.e Plutonium
-Natural Uranium-Fissile Ur235- need 3-4% enrichment

*Heavy Water Reactor

-Fuel: natural Uranium. Coolant: deuterium oxide. By products: plutonium,tritium
(more amount). Need frequent re-fuelling. Less heat generates.
Free neutron collide with hydrogen in the water � and slow down them.If
water heated � expand � less dense � less collision � less slowing down .
Thus, Heavy water heated with pressure in PHWR
*Light Water Reactor
-Fuel: enriched Uranium 235. Coolant: distilled water. By-products: plutonium,
tritium. More energy per Uranium unit. But need expensive enrichment facilities
Absorb more neutrons than needed. Enrichment of uranium fuel becomes
necessary.
-reactors which use slow down neutrons by their repeated collision with moderator
are called thermal reactors.
-PHWR is a thermal reactor using heavy water as moderator and coolant.
-if more than one neutron is available for reaction-fission-super critical
-If, exactly one neutron is available- fission is constant -critical
-If, less than one neutron is available-fission decreases-sub critical
-increase in the number of neutron-to get high power of reactor
-decreasing the number of available neutrons-To reduce power level of reactor

*Thorium reserve in India

-in india Kerala beach sand: monazite,Coastal areas of TN, Odisha, AP
-in world:Brazil,Aus,USA,egypt
-India have large riserve but not a fissile material,can�t produce energy,Thorium
need to be converted into Uranium 233 using other fissile material

*Zirconium:
-Uranium dioxide generate heat while undergoing fission + fission products.
products are radioactive. Not allowed to mix with coolant water.
-Hence the UO2 pellets are contained in Zirconium alloy tubes with both the ends
sealed.
-Sources:Chavara, Kerala beach sand,Manavalakuruchi, TN
in world:Australia (largest),South Africa,china

*Helium
-Inside zirconium covering � Helium gas is added. Helium gas increase conduction
heat from Uranium pallet to zirconium cover.
-Petroleum gas fields is source of Helium
-In india not explored yet. Monazite sands � Helium as by-product. Water of hot
spring contains Helium

*Re-processing of fuels
-Depleted Uranium (about 98%) recycled.
-Neutrons are absorbed in atoms of non-fissionable uranium- Plutonium (about 0.4%)
formed
-BARS repreocess the used fuel of PHWRs at Trombay, Tarapur and Kalpakkam to
extract reactor-grade plutonium for use in the fast breeder reactors.

*Fast breeder reactor

-500 MW plant At Kalpakkam(TN). Fuel � Plutonium-Uranium mixed oxide. Coolant �
liquid Sodium. Control material -Boron carbide
-Breeder reactor -> They breed more fuel than they consume. i.e more U233 or Th232
-Plutonium will produce energy and Uranium additionally produce plutonium
-Usual nuclear reactors uses 1% of uranium fuel and FBR use 40-70% uranium fuel
-The reactor is built by BHAVINI (Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidhyut Nigam ltd), PSU under
DAE
-The technology is developed by IGCAR (Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research)
-Plan to build 5 FBR of 2500 MW
-Thorium based reactors can be constructed only after successful operation of FBR
for 30-40 years

*Indian Nuc-reactors and IAEA:

-India has 20 Nuclear power plants in operation. 10 are under IAEA safeguard,6
reactors of RJ, 2 of GJ and 2 of MH
-Kundankulam nuclear plant is also under IAEA safeguard=> that�s why they can
import Uranium fuel
-nuclear reactors of UP, KN, TN (kalpakkam) and MH are running on Indian Uranium
reserve, which is not enough compared to demand
-Kudankulam LWR:First nuclear reactor of India to generate 1000MWe, Beneficiary:
TN, KR, KN, Puducherry
NPCIL will sell electricity to all them at a fixed price. All the unallocated
electricity will belong to central govt.
-Kazakastan largest producer of Uranium,canada,Aus
-India meets 40% of its uranium requirement through imports (2013)
-Foreign Nuclear plants in ind:USA-Mithi Vardi (GJ) and Kovadda (AP). France-
Jaitapur (MH). russia-Kundankulam (TN)
-Expensive to construct � long gestation period for reactor to become critical

*Nuclear liability law in India

-act permits operators (NPCIL) to make suppliers liable for damage for faulty
reactor or parts
-India is signatory to International convention on supplementary compensation and
not retify.The private companies do not have capacity to bear the burden of large
scale damage of nuclear accident
-tax-payers money will be spent in case of accident, due to faulty supply from
suppliers
-A law will set aside nuclear insurance pool of Rs1500 crore. One tier of the pool
will cater operators. Tier2 and 3 will cater suppliers
-govt. will be liable for another Rs1100 crore and residual damages compensate by
ICSC. India will be able to use the fund only after it ratifies

*Making of steel
-Iron mined (impure)-Heating of iron ore for purification-oxygen blows through
melted iron � lowers its impurities-there metals are added to make various steel
-First induatri policy 1948-Divide into four catogory 1)monopoly of the Government.
2)six industries which included, among others, coal, iron and steel.
-The first such plant was set up at Rourkela in Orissa in Public sector
-Weight of raw material is higher than final product- steel.That�s why located near
sources of raw materials
-Raw material:iron,coking coal,limestone,manganese,chromite
-Rourkela-Odisha-Germany. Bilai-MP-Russia. Durgapur-WB-UK. Bokaro-Bihar-Russia

Port based steel plant:

-1st Vishakhapatnam steel Plant,AP. Export to Japan

Market based:
-Located near consumption market
-Mini still plant. <10,000 ton annually.
-Steel from sponge iron is sell to mills(Sponge iron is produce to remove oxegen
from iron ore)
-Mini steel plants produce mild steel + alloy steel + stainless steel
-account for 30% of steel production in the country

-India is one of the largest crude steel producer in the world(Solidification of

liquied steel)
-India is the largest producer of sponge iron in the world
-India annual production of steel = 71 ml ton (2014), China = 700 ml ton
-Per capita finished steel consumption in India = 39 kg, world avg. =150 kg
-100 ml ton of production by 2019-20. Need avg. yearly growth of 7% and $65 bl fund

Challenges:
-Non-availability of metallurgical coking coal � high ash content
-nickel, molybdenum- not available
-Falling prices, stagnant demand � over-supply

Potential:
-India has high quality iron reserve (hematite) [4th largest reserve]
-3th Largest pool of technical man power
-Make in India, Housing for all by 2022, roads- railway -infra

*Cement industries:
-Avg. per capita cement consumption in India = 110 kg (2003-04), world avg. (240
kg)
-Raw material:Lime-stone,Silica and aluminium,Slag from steel plant and Fertilizer
plant,Sea-shells,Gypsum and bausite
-Location near lmestone. 1.5 ton of limestone require to produce 1 ton of cement
-Ash of burnt coal is mixed with limestone to make clinker
-MP-Chhattisgarh:Largest limestone reserve Vindhyan rocks.
-RJ :2nd largest limestone reserve Aravalli
-AP-Telangana :3th largest limestone reserve Telangana plateau
-GJ :Mostly Coastal areas
-India-2nd largest producer of cement (after China).
-Traget: ~ 40 million tonne per year

*Giography of china
-Basin:Qaidam,Turfan,Dzungarian
Dzungarian Basin:
-North,Dry region,Surrounded by steppe grassland,Uighur population
Tarim Basin:
-Drained by Tarim river,Lop Nur lake- nuclear testing center of China
Qaidam Basin:
-salt marshy land. Large Petroleum reserve. Wheat cultivation using irrigation
-Qinghai � China�s largest producer of Lithium. More than 30 salt lakes
Hwang He basin:
-Hwang He (yellow river)� perennial river. Highest sediment carrying river in the
world � cut loess plt.
-Flood prone- shifting course due to silting. Important for wheat cultivation
Yangtze basin:
-Half of the China�s agro-produce. Sichuan basin � rice bowl of China
-35% population of China. Intensive agriculture. Irrigation � 3 gorges dam
Manchurian basin:
-Rich black soil. Long winter season. Major soya bean growing area.in spring wheat,
sweet potato,�corn (maize)
-Live stock grazing. petrolium,coal,iron,lumbering,paper industry
Shandong peninsula:
-Iron-ore and Gold is abundant

*Climate of China:
-China type and Laurentian type

China type:
-Rainfall throughout the year.summer �intense heating of central Asia.south east
monsoon
-In winter -> north-west monsoon-snow fall and rain on windward side of the
mountains. Siberian plateau � HP anticyclone.
-Rainfall is also due to local storms � typhoons (China) in late summers

Laurentian type climate:

-summer � intense heating of land � rainfall - wind from pacific
-Winter � anti-cyclonic condition in the heart of Asia � cold wind blows out � snow
fall in mountainous area
-High rainfall-Evergreen vegetation-Broad leave. grass, ferns, bamboos, palms

*Agriculture
-10-15% of China is arable. Intensive agriculture. Rice cultivation � largest rice
production
-Largest producer of rice, wheat, cotton, ground nut, rapeseed, silk

*Important Minerals of China

Coal reserve(3rd largest after USA,RUSSIA):Shanxi: 2/3th China�s coal
Iron (3rd largest):after Brazil,russia,china and india
Rare Earth (monopoly):
Tin: largest producer of Tin and Manganese.Gejiu, Yunnan � Tin capital of the world

rare earth:produces more than 90% of the world's supply of rare earth.use in
Monazite, Zircon,missile defence systems,wind turbines,camera lenses
-lanthanum -oil refineries
-yttrium-Used in military jet engines
-Baotou city inner side of mangoliya RE is found
-Processing one ton of rare earths produces 2,000 tons of toxic waste,include radio
active substances like, Thorium
-Ground water reserve have become toxic
-India second largest reserve of RE in KR, Odisha and TN account for nearly 95% of
the country�s production
-Japan-India agreement on rare earth in 2014,Japanese assistance in refining and
processing

*Industrial regions of China

Mukden triangle:
-Good reserve of crude oil and natural gas
Beijing-Tianjin region:
-Tianjin � highest per capita GDP of China,hub of shipping and logistics
Yangtze basin:
-Sichuan basin(Rise),World�s largest power station,Three gorge dam,Highest
navigable river in China
-Shanghai�steel, textile, ship building
Guangzhou- Macau region:
-On pearl river,Earliest SEZ of China,Close to Hong Kong and Macau

*Goegraphy of Japan
-island:Hocaido,Honshu,Shikoku,Kyunshu,Ryuku
-Japan at the junction of 3 plates. Ocean-ocean collision � volcanic mountains in
Japan
-80% of Japan rugged topography. Most of the population live on eastern coast.
-No large river system in Japan

Climate:
-Hokkaido � Laurentian type. Rest of Japan temperate monsoon � China type
-Rainfall from south east monsoon in summer.north west monsoon in winter� dry wind
from Siberia � become moist from east china sea
-Only 20% of land suitable for agriculture. Wet paddy and terraced paddy
-Indoor farming

*One of the largest fishery sector in the world

-Flourishi fish sectro:Meeting of cold current Oyashio and warm current Kuroshio.
Indented coastline. Shallow continental shelf. Temperate waters
-Whale is a chief source of protein in Japan.After, WWII, destruction of Japan�s
infra, whale consumption increased
-International Whaling Commission�s global moratorium on commercial hunting in 1986
-Japan hunting whales in Southern Ocean (Antarctic Ocean) since 2005 in the name of
scientific research
-2010: Australia filed a case in ICJ claiming, Japanese whaling program is not
scientific.Japan had caught more than 3000 whales since 2005, but the scientific
output
was limited.
-Japan is world�s largest importer of coal and Natural gas
-2nd largest importer of oil
-Coal � Ishikari coal field in Hokkaido,petrolium reserve,iron ore reserve,Copper ,
-Hokkaido is 1/4th of Japan�s agriculture land. Timber industry, tourism.
-Iron from India, Australia
-Yokohama � world�s finest natural harbour
-Tokyo � electrical and engineering goods
-Nagoya Plain:Leading textile producing region,automobile capital of Japan
-Kyoto � old capital of Japan, ancient city

*Strength of Japan:people�s attitude,Knowledge hub,Availability of natural ports,

Cheap HEP
*Weaknesses of Japan:Ageing population,High population density,Prone to earthquake,
volcanism and Tsunami.
Shikoku � only island without volcano

*Giography of Russia
-5 times bigger than India. total 8 time zones
-Access to Sea:Barent sea,Kara sea,Baltic sea,Black sea,caspian sea,bering sea,Sea
of Okhotsk,and sea of japan
-Important ports:Murmansk � ice free port � Barents sea. St. Petersburg � Baltic
sea. Rostov � Black sea. Vladivostok � Japan sea (less population)
-Crimean Peninsula in black sea
-Yamal Peninsula in north
-Urals mou:One of the oldest mountain range in world. not continue-many gap.
Highest peak of Urals � Narodnaya. Extension into Arctic sea as Novaya Zemlya
Coal reserve,Gold, platinum, chromite, bauxite.Semi-precious stone
-Western Siberian Plain :swampy and marshes. Russia�s most extensive land region.
Major Source of Natural gas
-Central Siberian Plateau:Winter � anti-cyclonic condition. Sparsely populated.
Steppe,mixed deciduous, Taiga, Tundra, Perma frost. Paper and pulp industry
-Siberian plt is Large deposits of gold, diamond

Rivers and Lake in Russia:

-Most rivers are navigable but only in summer and freez in winter
-Lake Baykal � largest fresh water lake of the world (by quantity of water)
-Don river:Drains into Sea of Azov(North to black sea) and Rostov city. Volga- Don
canal [connects Black sea with Caspian sea]
-Volga river:Most important water way
-Ob-Irtysh river:Largest river of Russia by volume. Ob-Irtysh � Vasugnya swamp (one
of the largest swamp)
-Yenisei river:from lake baikal
-Lena river:From Lake Baykal(above mangoliya)

Climate:
-Influence of Continentality. Verkhoyansk � one of the coldest inhabited place in
the world
-Russia - Artic climate most prevalent. Taiga and Tundra climate
Agriculture:
-Limited growing period. 40% pasture and meadows.Wheat, Oil-seeds, cotton -
important
-Potato � very important

economy:
-6th largest in PPP. World�s largest reserve of natural gas and largest exporter of
crude oil.
-Today oil, gas and minerals account for 80% of Russia's export earnings
-World�s second largest coal reserve. world�s second largest arms exporter
-Largest diamond producing nation
-2nd largest coal reserve in the world. 5th largest Iron production in the world.
World�s 40% of nickel
-Moscow � port of 5 seas: Baltic, Black, Caspian, white, Lake Ladoga. Moscow
largest city of Russia
-St. Petersburg � financial hub. 2nd largest city in Russia. oil and gas trade,
electronics and IT manufacturing,
-Volga region:oil refinery and steel production,
-Trans-Siberian Railway:Longest in the world (8960 km). St. Petersburg to
Vladivostok. Branches to Mongolia, China and North Korea

Largest
*Coal Reserve:USA,Russia,china
*Iron reserve:Brazil,Russia,China,india
*Natural gas reserve :russia,Iran,qatar
*Thorium:Brazil
*Zirconium:Austrelia
*Crude oil and sponge iron:India

*Giography of Myanmar
-Shan Plateau:Rain shadow region,Millet,Tin, Tungsten, lead and sulphur reserve
-Rakhine Basin:natural gas project
-Tenasserim region of Myanmar. Tin, Tungsten and Iron ore mines

*Thailand
-Korat Plateau:Shifting cultivation,Rubber plantation,Nickel, lead, zinc reserve

*Philippines
-7500 islands. Manila located on largest island � Luzon.
-Manila- HQ of Asia Development Bank and IRRI

*Indonesia
-largest in world:13500 islands
-4th most populous country in world
-Java � most populated island in world
-2/3th area under forest,cleared for rubber and oil palm plantation
-Coffee is grown on volcanic mountains, west Java

*Malaysia
-Western peninsula more populated than eastern plain
-Most cities are on western side
-Tin reserve, oil and gas reserve, Rubber plantation and fishing

*Singapore
-Highest population density in the world
-Port of call
-Located on important SoC- strait of Malacca(between the Malay Peninsula
(Peninsular Malaysia) and the Indonesian )
-highly educated labour force to attract MNCs

fact:
*Tropic of Cancer passes through only Myanmar in SE Asia
*Only Indonesia has land south of equator in SE Asia
-Indonesia predominately in southern hemisphere
-Equator passes through Sumatra and Borneo (x Java)

*Rivers in SE asia
Salween River:
-Origin � Tibet north of Lhasa
-Largest river of Myanmar. Drains into gulf of Mottama (Martaban) below myanmar

Mekong River:
-Origin � Tibet � Khingai, Yunnan.
-Boundary between Myanmar and Laos, Laos and Thailand
-Delta of Mekong known as Cochin China
-Pass through Chaina,myanmar,thailand,Laos,combodia,vietnam
-Longest river of SE Asia. Life line of Cambodia.
-Its valley is famous for rice cultivation
-IMP city:Vientiane (Capital of Laos),Phnom Penh (Cambodia)

Red river (Hong):

-Originates from Yunnan plateau, China. Drains into Gulf of Tonkin
-It carries Irregular volume of water and large amount of silt.

Irrawaddy River:
-Originate within Myanmar
-2 head ward stream Mali and Nmai.Tri is Chindwin (Patkai Bum, Manipur). The Indian
states along the Patkai Range are Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland
The Patkai Ranges are a part of Arakan Mountains
-Rice bowl of Myanmar. Teak trees. Mouth of Irrawaddy: petroleum reserve, Tungsten,
Lead, Silver, Zinc

Chao Phraya River:

-Lifeline of Thailand and Navigable
-Rice cultivation and Teak forest on its banks
-IMP city:Bangkok (Thailand)

Hong river
-IMP city:Hanoi (Capital of Vietnam)

*climate in SE asia
-Mainland-south west Monsoon
-Island nations -Equatorial climate
-Tropical cyclones in late summer
-Cyclones are frequent in Philippines and Vietnam. Philippines- world�s highest
disaster risk country
-Poverty and poor infrastructure increase vulnerability

*Agriculture :
-Main source of livelihood except in Brunei and Singapore
-Wet-paddy cultivation
-Major export crops of there region are cacao, coffee, and spices
-Rubber and palm oil are significant in Malaysia, Indonesia, and southern Thailand
-Coconuts and sugar are important in the Philippines
-Cocoa- equatorial crop:Indonesia one of the top producer.Vietnam and Philippines
also grow Cocoa
-Opium Poppy:important in parts of Myanmar and Thailand. Used to make narcotic
drugs like heroin + also used in medicinal purpose
-Agro-advancement in Malaysia and Thailand but very little in Cambodia, Laos, and
Vietnam
-Hunger malnutrition in Cambodia because of crop failures and internal strife.

*Important Minerals of SE Asia

Crude oil reserve of Myanmar:
-Major gas producer of SE Asia. Oil- onshore Salin basin (Minbu) and Yadana
-Myanmar-China pipeline:2009, Burma and China decided to construct twin crude oil
and gas pipelines running
-Crude oil reserve in Indonesia:sumatra. One of the largest exporter of natural gas
-Crude oil and Natural Gas reserve of Malaysia
-Petroleum reserve of Vietnam:3th Largest crude oil reserve in Asia
-Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia - more than half of world Tin production

-In Thailand, Myanmar and the Philippines, textiles�industries

-chemical industry in Thailand and Indonesia

Giography of West-asia
-Arabian peninsula is Largest peninsula in the world
-Mountain:
Turkey:Pontus AND Taurus
Iran:Elburz and Zagros
Oman:Jabel-al-akhdar
-Upland:only two that is anatolian platue and platue of iran
-Salt Deserts:Dasht-e-Kavir and Dasht-e-lut in Iran
-sand Desert:An Nafud,Rub-al-Khali in Soudi arab
-Syrian desert

River:
-Euphrates � Armenian Highlands
-Tigris � Lake Hazar
-Combined stream at lower course at Al-Qurnah = Shatt �al- Arab(Iraq) and not
touch to Iran
-Famous for palm cultivation
-Ancient Mesopotamia civilization
-city on Tigris: Mosul and Bagdad of Iraq
-city on Euphrates: Ar Ramadi, An Nasiriah of Iraq
-City on Shatt-al-Arab � Basra(Iraq)
River Karun:
-tributary of Shatt-al-Arab. Largest river of Iran. Ahvaz � city. worst air
pollution in the world (WHO 2011).
River Jordan:
-Origin from Mt.hermon in labonon. flow in dead sea
-boundry touch with:west bank of israel and jordan
-Navigation not possible � highly meandering, shallow and seasonal flow
-Christians, Jews, and Muslims alike revere the Jordan
Dead Sea:
-Dead Sea part of Rift Valley
-located on An arm of Great African rift valley � Jordan rift valley
-lowest point on land surface
-Second most saline lake in the world after lake Van

*Palestine- Israel conflict

-Before WWI, west Asia was under Ottoman empire
-Most of Jews lived in eastern and central Europe
-At the end of 19th century, beginning of Arab nationalism and Zionism.
-re-establish Jewish nation of Israel in Palestine
-1859- 1880s widespread persecution of Jews in Europe and Russia
-Jewish National fund was created � started buying lands in Palestine
-After WWI Ottoman empire came under British rule
-1916- Sykes- Picot agreement Jordan, Israel, Palestine territory to British
-1917- British occupied Palestine region
-By 1948 British mandate expired and State of Israel established in 1948
-Egypt occupied Gaza strip and Jordan west bank
-1967, Israel occupied West bank from Jordan and Gaza strip from Egypt
-Golan heights- part of French mandate of Syria after WWII. After 1944, became part
of independent Syria
-Golan Heights � internationally recognized as Syrian territory but occupied by
Israel since 1967

*Important lakes:darya-e-namak and lake urmia in iran. lake van in turkey

-Lake Urmia = Largest fresh water lake of Iran
-Lake Darya �i- namak = salty lake � salinity 200. shrunk by 90%. Lake attracts
migratory birds. Salt storm � increase salinity of surrounding soil

*Aral Sea:
-Used to be 4th largest lake in the world
-Feed by Amu Darya(south) and Syr Darya(north)
-Irrigation for Soviet cotton industry.Uzbekistan � top cotton producer �
irrigation from Amu Darya
-boundry with uzbekistan and kazakstan
-Amu Darya ceased to reach Aral sea
-Volume of water of Syr Darya declined to Aral sea
-Due to concentration of pesticides and fertilizers � saltier � death of fishes

*Important Straights
-Bosphorus
-Countries bordering Black Sea:Romania,Bulgaria,Ukraine, Russia,Georgia,Turkey(BRRU
GT)
-Countries bordering Caspian Sea:Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Iran and
Azerbaijan(KITAR)
-Tropic of cancer passing Soudi arab,UAE and oman

*Important Straights
-Gulf of suez:northern end of the Red Sea, to the west of the Sinai Peninsula.
-Gulf of aqaba
-bab-el-mandeb strait:between Yemen on the Arabian Peninsula. north to Djibouti and
Eritrea. connects the Red Sea to the Gulf of Aden
-Strait of hormuz
-Straights around Turkey:Bosphorus strait,Sea of Marmara,Dardanelles strait,Aegian
sea

*Climate of West Asia

-Mediterraneand,Tropical,Arid/desert,Arid to semi-arid climate
-depend upon desalination of sea water
-Desertification of soil
-Importers of food grains
-Mediterranean:Fruit orchards,Turkey � Olives,Lebanon � Fruits and Olives,Israel -
Jaffa oranges, organic farming
-Qanat system of Irrigation in iran:Taps underground mountain water source,Series
of tunnels from the source to places of irrigation
-Tal-Ya Irrigation in Israel:Plastic trays Collects Dew � and funnel it to the
plants,Saves water
-India- Israel cooperation in agriculture agreement 2008.learn Techniques like,
vertical farming, soil solarisation, protective farming (use of green house and
poly
houses)
-sol solarization:sun's power to control pests such as bacteria, insects, and weeds
in the soil,The process involves covering the ground with a tarp, usually a
transparent polyethylene cover, to trap solar energy

*Mineral reserve
-More than half of the world�s oil reserve and 40% of natural gas reserve
-largest natural gas reserves in the world:Russia,Iran,Qatar
-Oil reserve of Saudi Arab:100 major oil fields.Ghawar oil field � largest oil
field in the world
-Oil reserve of Iraq:largest is Rumaylah field,Majnoon field
-Oil reserve of Iran:Largest is Ahvaz,Marun,Aghajari
-India � 4th largest energy consumer Following China, US and Russia
-India - 4th largest LNG importer: after Japan, South Korea and China
-India Top sources of Crude Oil is iran
-Russia is the latest country to begin supplying long-term LNG to India after US,
Australia and Qatar.Till two years ago, the country depended solely on Qatar for
long-term supplies.

*Giography of Africa
Mt:Atlas in north

Plateaus:
-Katanga Plateau:Farming, ranching,Uranium
-Ethiopian Plateau:Lake Tana (Source of Blue Nile), cooler despite close to equator
-Great Karoo:Semi-desert region(South end)
-Bie Plateau:Important for copper
-Adamawa Plateau:Savannah vegetation, Bauxite deposits
-Zambia and Zimbaave platue:

Deserts:Sahara,Libya,Nubian desert in north. Namib,kalahari desrt in south

-Sahara:Largest hot desert � subtropical HP zone,Tuareg tribes
-Nubiyan desert:Separated by Libyan desert by Nile river,rocky desert
-Namib desert:Off-shore trade wind + cold Benguella current, sandy desert
,Hottentots tribes
-Kalahari Desert:Rain-shadow effect of namib desert, stony-rocky desert. Bushmen
tribe (oldest surviving tribal group of Africa)

Basin:Chad,sudan and congo basin

Plain:Sahil in central and Veldt in south

River:
-River Nile Origin :Lake victoria,Northward river, Longest river,Cotton
cultivation, Petroleum at mouth, navigable, irrigation. Aswan dam, lake Naseer.
Port Said and Alexandria at mouth. Cairo, Giza, Khartoum cities
are on River Nile
-River Congo Origin: Katanga Plateau. Trib-Urumqi,Kasai. Boyoma water fall.
Crosses equator twice
-River Zambezi Origin: Katanga Plateau, famous Victoria fall
-River Niger Origin: Loma mountains,Important river of west Africa
-River Orange Origin: Drakensberg, its tributary �Vaal is famous for gold
deposits
-River Limpopo Origin: high Veldt, crosses tropic of Capricorn twice

-The Victoria lake rests between three countries namely, Kenya, Uganda and
Tanzania.

Islands of Africa:
-Mauritius. Reunion - France. Comoros-France. Seychelles. Madeira - Portugal.
Canary - Spain. Cape Verde

Islands between Africa and Latin America:

-Ascension Islands� UK military base
-St. Helena Islands � exile of Napoleon
-Tristan De Cunha Island � most remote island of the world
All of them �British overseas territories

Climate of Africa:
-in north: Mediterranean climate- Desert- Savannah climate- Equatorial Rainforest
climate
-In south: Mediterranean climate - Temperate grasslands Veldt- Desert- Savannah
climate- Equatorial Rainforest climate

Agriculture in Africa:
-cotton in Egipt,Wheat in Veldt plain region
-Oil Palm, rubber, Cocoa,Coffee,tobaco,
-Mediterranean agriculture
-Subsistence farming,Low productivity (except Nile basin and Mediterranean
region),Only 6% of farmland in Africa is irrigated
-cultivable lands (excluding forest areas) in Africa are 3 times larger than the
land currently cultivated
-Area suitable for agriculture � sparsely populated Ex. Sudan
-Low access to fertilizers
-Major threat under climate change
-Traditional African crops losing ground (cotton, palm oil, cocoa, coffee),High
taxation on exports of these crops
-Boom in mining and oil products, quick and easy foreign money
-70% agro-export = cocoa,Then coffee, tea, cotton, sugar and fish
-Only 25% of cocoa and 6% of cotton is processed in Africa
-Problem:the central African region contains almost 50% of the continent�s water
resources BUT less than 20% of its population.
Major political problems,inequitable distribution of these land resources.
,management of the Nile waters,conflict in eastern DRC
conflicts between pastoralists and farmers in the Sahel,management of Lake Chad�s
waters and land reforms in Southern Africa.
Land grabbing by foreign investors. Foreign investors � technology and high
productivity but expulsion of local people,Frequent drought in Sahel and east
Africa

Mineral reserve of Africa:

-Uranium:Niger, Namibia, Libya
-Gold:Sudan
-Iron:Algeria
-Diamond:Angola
-Coal,platinum:South africa

-ONGC Videsh: Libya, Nigeria, Mozambique, Sudan and South Sudan

-Reliance (Gulf Africa Petroleum corp.): one of the largest petroleum marketing
and trading Co. in Africa
-Coal india lmt:in south africa

Indian Diaspora in Africa:

-British rule from 1896-1901 Indian were taken to Kenya to lay railway tracks
-�Passenger Indians� � enterprising Indian from GJ coast to Africa
-Indian diaspora (especially Gujaratis) dominates economy of East African nations
-Mostly concentrated in East Africa and African Islands (Mauritius, Seychelles and
Reunion)
*Giography of Ausrelia
-Smallest continent but largest Island
-Discovered by Dutch people = �New Holland�

Mountain:Great dividing range,Blue Mt,Aus Alps,Mc

donnald,reynold,masgrove,Darling,Grey range,new england

Platue:Kimberlay,Antrim
-Arnhern land,Barkely land,
-Cape york peninsula in north and Eyre in south

Desert:
-Grt victoria,Bibson,grt sandy,tanami,simpson

Basin:Grt artesian basin in east

-confined groundwater aquifer (water stored in permeable sandstone)
-Largest and deepest Artesian basin in the world
-Biggest source of fresh water for central Australia
Murray-Darling Basin:
-Darling river originates from Great dividing range
-Temperate grassland � �Downs�
-Dairy farming and wheat production

Climatic regions of Australia:

-North:Tropical monsson,Tropical grassland,humid sub-tropical
Centr:Hot desert
South:Mediterranean climate,Temperate Grassland

Economy :
-main Agriculture � animal husbandry
-Minig,service sector,tourism

Agriculture:
-Tasmania � fruit cultivation
-Wheat in Downs
-Citrus fruits in Mediterranean climate
-Tropical Monsoon = sugarcane, cotton, Tobacco, Maize
-Large pasturelands,

How Australia is important for India?:

-world's largest known reserve of Uranium - important for our energy security using
civil nuc-tech
-India�s import from Australia is cocking coal, iron, copper, gold and natural gas
-Growing number of Indian diaspora in the country

-World largest uranium produced mine is McArthur river in canada

-largest reserve of uranium:Aus,Kazakistan,Russia

Mineral:
-Adani coal mining in Australia:Largest coal mine of Australia
-Export from Hay point and Abbot point to India
-World�s 10% economic gold reserve
-One of the largest diamond Mine � most valuable pink and red diamonds

Troubles in overseas acquisition:

-ONGC Videsh�s $2-3 billion investment in joint petroleum production companies &
pipelines,Major oil fields in South Sudan but pipelines and export terminal in
Sudan
-Sakhalin Island, Russia:Among the Most inhospitable spot on earth,ONGC interested
in Arctic region and Siberian oil fields
-Venezuela:60% stake under state owned co. � political tool,Delay in production due
to red-tapism in Venezuela
-China offers infra development in exchange of acquisition of mines but India
cannot

*Giography of New-Zeland
-between Tasman-sea and Pasific oceon
-Cooks strait between North and south island
-Lake Taupo:Lake Taupo of mt. Tauhara- dormant volcano,Caldera,later filled with
water-Caldera lake

Climate:
-Chaina type in north and Laurentian in south

plain:
Taranaki Plain:in north island
-Volcanic plain,Volcanic peak � Mt. Taranaki
-More than 50% of region has rich pastureland
-sheep and cattle rearing for Dairying, meat imp activities

Canterbury Plain:in south island

-Pastoral farming
-cattle rearing for meat then dairying

*Giography of Europe
Water bodies around Europe
-Gulf of Bothnia,Gulf of finland,North sea,Skagerrak and Kattegat,Baltic sea,Englis
channel,Bay of biscay(btn spai and france)
Islands within Mediterranean sea
-Salearic is,Mallorca,Corsica,serdinia,Sicily,Malta,criti,cyprus
Water-bodies within Mediterranean Sea
-Gulf of Lions(Spain),Ligurian sea(France),Gulf of gabes,gulf of sirte,
-Major
city:Bacelona(Spain),Marseille(France),Algeria,Tunish,Tripoli(Libya),Alecxendria
and Port said in Egip,Izmir(Turkey),Athens(Grees)
Rome and naples in Etaly
-Iberian Peninsula in spain

Rivers of France
-Rhone and Seine
Rivers of Germany:
-Rhine:Important for navigation. Imp cities: Basel (Swiss),
Tri is Ruhr one of the largest industrial region of the world. Ruhr coal field

Important River:
Danube
-Origin from Black forest in Germany. Black forest � block mountain
-Passes through 10 countries-Germany, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia,
Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine
-second longest river, after the Volga
-Flow in black sea

Po:
-Italy�s most widest and fertile plains
-Partially navigable

Cities of Europe beside river

-Paris-Seine river. Frankfurt-Rahine. Venice-Po. Vienna, Budapest-Danube. Berlin-
Elbe

Climate of Europe:
-Taiga,British type,Steppe,Mediterian

Agriculture in Europe:
-Agriculture is WHeet,sugar beet,Poteto,wine,
-Viticulture:European countries largest producer of wine and largest consumers as
well. Portugal, Spain, France, Italy
-Port wine,Sherry wine
-Modern dairying. Cows are milked by robotic milking machines
-EU�s end of Milk Quota (2015)
-EU�s dairy: organized, sophisticated, dairy giants (quality norms, brands),Fall in
Indian dairy exports
-Drop in global prices (low cost producers- Ireland and Poland will increase the
production)
-If more competitors in Indian market � less remuneration to Indian farmers
-Indian dairy products cannot get access in EU, USA, China, South Africa and Russia
-Strict quality standards - TBT (Technical Barriers to Trade) of WTO
-Ex. China � requires dairy import certification
-Dairying at world level:Australia, New Zealand and EU nations � fall in farm-gate
prices of milk
-These countries used to export to China but chaina produced its own-fall market of
Australia, NZ, EU
-Australia, NZ, EU pressurizing � access to Indian market for dairy products under
FTA

Coal region:
-Germany:Ruhr,Saar coal field,Minden coal field
-France:Lorraine region
-UK:Most of them now exhausted,2014 � Kellingley and Thoresby closed

Petroleum reserve:
-North Sea,Norwegian sea
-UK, Denmark, Norway, Netherlands
-Brent crude oil:Sweet light crude oil,Sweet = low Sulphur (if high �sour crude
oil),Light = low density (produce higher amount of petrol and diesel after
refining)
-Brent crude � major oil pricing benchmark for Atlantic basin crude oil and other
are OPEC, Urals oil, West Texas intermediate (WTI)
-WTI � most sweet and light crude

Diamond trading at Belgium

-Antwerp diamond district (diamond quarter),District dominated by Jewish and Indian
dealers = diamantaires
-Historically � diamond cutting and polishing,Today only trading 50% of world�s
rough, polished and industrial diamonds traded
-Indians are increasingly dominating in Antwerp diamond trading
-90% of diamond cutting in the world � in Surat

Benelux countries:
-economic union of Netherlands + Belgium +Luxemburg
-Est in 1958-Sec-gen �at Brussels (Belgium)-Later joined ECSC(European Coal and
Steel Community) � EEC(European Economic Community) and = EU
-Benelux Parliament, Benelux court of justice

Northern Europe : physical geo:

-Scandinavia: cultural- linguistic region. Norway, Sweden and Denmark
-Nordic countries: Norway, Sweden, Finland, Denmark and Iceland:Known for Very high
HDI,Known for green technologies � HEP and wind energy for electricity
High latitude � Taiga Climate,Coniferous forest- softwood: lumbering and paper
industries,Denmark: dairy industries
-Norway:99% of electricity produced using HEP and Largest producer of solar grade
silicon and solar cells. Northern Norway � gold and copper
Largest petroleum reserve in western Europe.
-Natural gas from North sea, Norwegian sea and Barents sea
-Sweden:~60% energy from HEP and wave power,~35% energy produced by nuclear,Plans
for fossil fuel free vehicles by 2030 � vehicles running on bio-fuels (bio-methane)
Largest underground mine of Iron ore
-Finland:Energy from HEP, black liquor (by-product of paper industry, forestry),
nuclear technology. Most of industrial wood residue is recycled into energy
production
Pietarsaari � world�s largest biomass based power plant

Manufacturing centers of Europe:

-Spain,France,Germany,Italy,Poland,UK

*Giography of USA
Mountain
-Rocky Mt
-Appalachian Mountains:Old fold mountains (Paleozoic). Source of coal - Both
Bituminous and Anthracite

Western Cordillera of USA:chian of mountain

O-C collision:
-Oceanic plate Farallon subducted under North American plate � 65 ml years ago
,Extensive volcanism and rising of Rockies
-Colorado plateauin(south),Basin- range topography due to faults
O-C transverse boundary:
-15 ml years ago � Farallon oceanic plate almost subducted under North American
plate
-Pacific and N.American plate came into contact
-Farallon plate was moving eastward
-North American plate moves south � south west direction-Result � San Andreas fault
O-C plate collision in recent time:
-Remnant of Farallon plate- Juan de Fuca plate continued eastward movement
-Divergence between Juan-de-Fuca plate and Pacific plate
-Juan De Fuca plate subsiding below North American plate
-Subduction of oceanic plate => Volcanism
-Rising of volcanic fold mt. �cascade range-Rising of Sierra Nevada in last 5 ml
Hot Spot Volcanism in USA:
-Lava flow � between 17-6 ml years ago
-Hot spot beneath the Columbia plateau - North American plate moves south-west
-Columbia-snake plateau:Basaltic lava plateau (like Deccan lava plt). Yellow stone
national park � geysers

Western mountains: resources

-Sierra Nevada �Gold
Cascade range � part of Pacific ring of fire � volcanic rocks � rich in potassium
� potential geothermal power
-Rockies: young fold mountains (85 to 55 ml years ago). Copper, Gold, Lead, silver,
Zinc, Tungsten

Rivers of USA:Western river

-Columbia-snake river:Origin: in Canada. Columbia- one of the largest source of HEP
. Grand coulee dam
Snake �largest tri. Of Columbia. Imp cities: Portland, Salem
located on it
-Colorado:cutting the Colorado Plateau � Grand canyon. Hoover dam � Lake mead
Las Vegas located near lake Mea

Central rivers:
-Mississippi- Missouri:Most imp river system of USA. Imp cities: St. Pittsburg,
Memphis, St. Louis.
Irrigation � Prairie region. Petroleum at mouth. flow in
gulf of maxico

Eastern rivers:
-Hudson river:Partially navigable important for transportation. Flows between New
York city and New Jersey city

Great Lakes of USA:

-The Great Lakes � Superior, Huron, Michigan, Ontario and Erie
-Glacial lakes,Largest fresh water system,Together � they hold 1/5th of the earth
surface�s fresh water

Deserts of USA:
-Great Basin, Mohave,Sonoran and Chihuahuan(Largest)

-USA has 50 states, 9 time zones

Climatic regions of USA:

-British Climate:North western states of Oregon and Washington. Rainfall from
westerlies. Softwood trees with pure strands. Famous for lumbering industries
-Mediter climate:California and some part of maxico Citrus fruit cultivation �
famous Sunkist oranges
-Prairies :Central states of USA + 3 states of Canada. Temperate grasslands.
Flat rolling plains. Nutritious natural grass.
Known for wheat cultivation and animal rearing.
-Gulf type :South East states: from Florida to North Carolina and Arkansas �
Louisiana. Warm due to warm ocean current � gulf stream
Rainfall through out the year and Thunderstorm.
-Laurentian type:North east states. Great Lake region and New England states.
Rainfall throughout the year � warming effect of Gulf stream
Most Industrialized region of USA

Agricultural belts in USA:

-centar:Praries region-Wheat
-Nort-east:Corn(Laurentian)
-South-east:Cotton(Gulf type)
-Wheat and Rice belt (Prairie):South � winter wheat (hard), north � spring wheat
(soft).

Coal Reserve in USA:

-Wyoming(City) and Appalachian main coal producing regions
-Pennsylvania(City) � only Anthracite producing regions

-Major Uranium mining � Wyoming Import from Canada and Australia

-Largest producer of oil and gas in 2014. West Texas Intermediate Benchmark

US petroleum production: effect to India:

-US takeover Russia as largest oil and gas producer and Saudi from largest oil
producer
-Reduction in energy import by US
-Decrease in US imports + Slow down in China = fall in crude prices
-India�s energy consumption increasing � low import bills � boost to out
manufacturing
-Gulf of maxico:Largest sulfur reserve

USA: Industrial regions

-North-west Region:Seattle � aluminum smelting, aircraft manufacturing
Salem � food processing hub
California:San Francisco: financial services (Wall street of the
west). Los Angeles: entertainment, aerospace, port
-South East region:Atlanta-automobile, transport & logistics hub, (HQ of Coca
cola)
-North Eastern :5% of US area, 25% population,HEP from fault line across edges
of Appalachian,Narrow land = No agriculture
-Great-lakes regio:Chicago �FPI

*Canada
-Canadian Shield:Most stable region,Source of gold, silver, cobalt, zinc, copper
and iron ore.
Coniferous forest + swift flowing streams -HEP. Support paper and pulp
industry
-Laurentian plateau:Heavily forested, lakes and swift flowing streams. Large scale
lumbering, paper and pulp industry
-Rivers:Mackenzie,churchill,Nelson,St.Lawrence
-lakes:Great Bear lake,Lake Slave,Lake Winnipegosis,Lake Winnipeg
-Climatic:Tundra,taiga,prairies,Laurentian type and British type
-Lumbering in Canada:British Columbia state (Vancouver) � largest producer of
coniferous trees
Ontario, Quebec states � hardwood deciduous trees
Softwood and Hardwood both
-Uranium Reserve:World�s 22% of known Uranium reserve(Largest reserve:Aus is 30%
than kazakastan)
-World largest uranium produced mine is McArthur river in canada
-One of the largest Nickel producer
-Great lakes region of Canada:Hamilton � steel industry
Toronto � financial capital of Canada
Kingston - education
Montreal � aerospace and electronics (Bombardier HQ)
Quebec � port, paper and wood industry

*South America
-Equator pass:Equador,colombia,Brazil
-Tropic of Capricorn pass:Chile,Argentina,Paraguay,Brazil
-Lake:Titikaka and poopa lake
Highland:Guiana plat,Amazon river basin,Borborema plt,Mato grasso plt,Brazilian
highland
-Guiana Highlands:World�s highest fall � Angel�s fall on Caroni river
-Brazilian highlands:Lava plateau,gold and iron reserve

Grassland and vegetation of north:

-Llanos:Treeless Savannah, Swampy grass
-Selvas:Equatorial Rainforest
-Catinga:Deciduous, thorny scrubland
-Camposs:Tropical grassland
-Serto:Dry scrubland, sparsely populated

Parana region in south:

-Gran Chaco:Hot, semi-arid forest region
-Entre Rios:�Between the rivers�
-Pampas:temperate grassland
-Patagonia:Rain-shadow cold desert
Rivers:
-Amazon river:Equatorial rainforest. Navigable till Manaus. Petroleum at mouth.
deforestation due to cattle ranching and soya beans field
-Parana river system:Numerous water falls in alto Parana then navigable. Wheat
cultivation in Pampas region
-Uruguay river system:Joins Parana river � to form Rio de la Plata estuary. Not
useful for navigation due to numerous rapids

Climatic:
-British type,Mediterian,desert in west from south to north
-desert,temperate grassland,tropical,equatorial in east from south to north

Agriculture:
-Equatorial crops:Cocoa in north brazil. Pineapple in South brazil. Avocado-origin
Amazon basin. Rubber in amazon basin
Coffee � Colombia
-Tropical crops :Sugarcane-Sao Paulo � Sugar bawl of the world.
corn,tomato,potato,tobacco
-Pampas(temperat):Wheat cultivation and cattle rearing. Most of the livestock
rearing in Pampas
-Mediterranean:middle Chile,Viticulture and Wine making

Minerals:
-Coper:Chile-largest producer of copper in the world in Chuquicamata region

Industrial centers :
-Rio de Janeiro:Financial center of Brazil
-Caracas:Financial center of Venezuela