Electricity

Electricity is a form of energy that can be carried by wires and is used for heating, lighting, and to provide power for
machines. Electricity can be defined as the collection or flow of electrons in the form of an electric charge.

Electric Charges Electric Forces

Discovered by Benjamin Franklin Formed as a result of the interaction of electrical charges.
Electrons have negative charge Like charges repel – repulsive forces
Protons have positive charge Unlike charges attract - attractive forces

Coulomb’s Law
Electrical force is directly proportional to the product of the
electrical charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance. Mathematically F = k q1q2 / d2.
o F is the electrical force,
o K is a constant and has the value of 9.00 x 10 9 Newton
meters2/coulomb2
o q1 represents the electrical charge of object
o q2 represents the electrical charge of object 2,
o d is the distance between the two objects

Measuring Electric Charges

The fundamental charge is the electrical charge on an
electron and has a magnitude of 1.6021892 x 10-19C
The electrical charge(q) is a discrete quantity and it is always
measured as q=ne where e is the fundamental charge
Conservation of charge is a fundamental principle which
states that charge can neither be created or destroyed but
can only move from one atom to another.

Electrostatic Charges
The charge of an ion created by the movement of
electrons from atom to atom.
Loss of electrons result in positive cations.
Gain of electrons result in negative anions.

Charged By
Friction – Transfer of electrons between objects in
contact.
Contact – Transfer of electrons with contact with a
charged body.
Induction – Charge redistribution in objects.

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 Electric Fields
Physical field that surrounds electrically charged particles
and exerts force on all other charged particles in the field.

Mapping Electric Fields

Positive Test Charges
Used by convention to identify the
properties of an electrical field. The
vector arrow points in the direction of
the force that the test charge would
experience.
A map of the electrical field can be created by bringing a
positive test charge into an electrical field. When brought
near a negative charge the test charge is attracted and
when brought near a positive charge the test charge is
repelled.
Vector arrows are drawn to indicate the direction of the
electrical field and is represented by drawing lines of forces
or electrical field lines. These lines are closer together when
the field is stronger and farther apart when it is weaker.

Static Electricity
Static electricity is defined as an electrical charge
caused by an imbalance of electrons on the surface
of a material. Electrostatic charge is most commonly
created by the contact and separation of two similar
or dissimilar materials.
When two objects rub against each other electrons
transfer and build up on an object causing it to have
a different charge from its surroundings. As
electrons collect on an object, it becomes negatively
charged. As electrons leave an object it attains a
positive charge.

Real Life Examples

Combing transfers electrons form the hair to the
comb by friction, resulting in a negative charge on
the comb and a positive charge on the hair.
Often whenVan youDe Graaf
remove clothes from the clothes
dryer, they seem to stick together. This is because
some of Thethe van
clothes havegenerator
de Graaf gained electrons byball)
(large silver
rubbing against
depositsother clothes.
electrons Theball.
on the clothes
Whenlosing
a person
electrons places
become positive.
their hand onThe negative
the ball clothes
and the machine
are attracted to the positive clothes.
is turned on, electrons are transferred to and
collected on the person touching the silver
ball.

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Water Pressure Analogy
Water pressure and voltage behave in similar ways.
The pressure of the water flowing through the pipes can be
compared to the voltage (electric potential) flowing through the
wires of the circuit.
Electric Potential
The electric potential is defined as the amount of
work energy needed to move a unit of electric
charge from a reference point to the specific
point in an electric field.
The source of the electrical potential is the
voltage source.
Bringing a like charge particle into this field will
require work since like charges repel each other
and bringing an opposite charged particles into
the field will require work to keep the charges
separated. In both of these cases, the electrical
potential changed.
Electric Conductors
Materials that allow the free movement of
electrons easily.
e.g., Metals
Electric Semi-Conductors
Materials whose conductivity lies in between
those of conductors and insulators.
e.g., Silicon, Arsenic, Germanium, etc.
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Current Electricity
Current or dynamic electricity is defined as an
electrical charge in motion. It consists of a
flow of negatively charged electrons from
atom to atom through a conductor in an
electrical circuit.
The flow of electricity in current electricity has
electrical pressure or voltage. Electric charges
flow from an area of high voltage to an area of
low voltage.
Electric Current
Electric current (I) means the flow of charges
and is measured in Amperes (A).
It is the charge that flows, and the current is
defined as the flow of the charge.
Electric Circuits
An electrical circuit contains some device
that acts as a source of energy as it gives
charges a higher potential against an
electrical field.
The charges do not work as they flow
through the circuit to a lower potential. The
charges flow through connecting wires to
make a continuous path. A switch is a
means of interrupting or completing the
circuit.
Electric Insulators
Materials that do not allow the free movement of
electrons easily.
e.g., Wood, Rubber, etc.
 Magnetism
Magnetism is the properties and interactions of magnets. Magnets produce magnetic forces and have
magnetic field lines. Magnets have two ends or poles, called north and south poles. At the poles of a magnet, the
magnetic field lines are closer together. Unlike poles of magnets attract each other and like poles of magnets repel.
Magnets
An object which is capable of producing
magnetic field and attracting unlike poles
and repelling like poles.
Magnetic Fields
A magnet that is moved in space near a
second magnet experiences a magnetic
field that can be represented by field
lines.
The strength of the magnetic field is
greater where the lines are closer
together and weaker where they are
farther apart.
Magnetic Domain
Regions where groups of atoms are
aligned like the poles of a magnet. All
of the domains of a magnetic
substance tend to align themselves in
the same direction when placed in a
magnetic field. These domains are
typically composed of billions of atoms.
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Magnetic Substances
Ferromagnetic
Eq. nickel, cobalt, iron
Diamagnetic
Eq. gold, mercury, zinc, table salt
Paramagnetic
Eq. wood, aluminum, platinum and oxygen
First Magnets
The earliest magnets were found naturally in the mineral
magnetite (Fe3O4) which is abundant the rock-type lodestone.
o Discovered by Greeks in 600 BC.
o Named as “magnet” because of its origin in Magnesia,
Turkey.
o Used by sailors as a compass for navigation and sea
exploration in 1050 AD.
Types of Magnets
Permanent magnet eq. Lodestone (black metallic ore),
ALNICO (aluminum, cobalt, nickel).
Artificial Magnet eq. electromagnet
A device consisting of a coil of insulated wire wrapped
around an iron core that becomes magnetized when an
electric current flow through the wire.
Earth’s Field
The Earth’s magnetic field is
thought to originate with
moving charges. The core is
probably composed of iron and
nickel, which flows as the
Earth rotates, creating
electrical currents that result in
the Earth’s magnetic field.
The north geographic pole is a
SOUTH POLE and the south
geographic pole is a NORTH Magnetic Declination
POLE.
o The angle formed between
the north geographic pole
the north magnetic pole.
 Electromagnetism
A branch of physics that deals with the interaction and the relationship between electricity and magnetism. Ranks

Electromagnets
nd
2 among the four fundamental forces of the universe in terms of relative strength.
Conception of Electromagnetism
When an electric current is passed through a During the 17th and 18th centuries, electricity and
coil of wire wrapped around a metal core, a magnetism were developed as separate sciences and were
very strong magnetic field is produced. This is believed to be unrelated.
called an electromagnet.

Brief History of Electromagnetism

o Hans Christian Oersted (1777 – 1851)
First to find the connection between electricity and
magnetism.
o Andre Marie Ampere (1775 – 1836)
Theory of electrodynamics, relating to the force that one
exerts upon another by its electromagnetic effects
o Michael Faraday (1791 – 1867)
Established the basic concept of electromagnetic fields in
physics.
o James Clark Maxwell (1831– 1879)
Maxwell’s Four Equations, used as the basis for the
electromagnetic theory. Predicted the connection between
electricity and magnetism.
Laws of Electromagnetism
o Heinrich Hertz (1777 – 1851)
Proved the existence of electromagnetic waves first
Oersted’s Law Biot-Savart Law
predicted by Maxwell.
o Hans Christian Oersted
o An electric current passing through a wire o Jean-Baptiste Biot
creates a magnetic field around it. o Felix Savart
o The magnetic field lines encircle the current- o The strength of the magnetic field is directly
carrying wire in a plane perpendicular to the proportional to the magnitude of the current.
wire. o The strength of the magnetic field at any
o If the direction of the current reverses, the point is inversely proportional to the distance
direction of the magnetic field reverses. of the point from the wire.
Ampere’s Force Law
Right Hand Rule
o Andre Marie Ampere
o A method used for correctly predicting the
o If the currents in two parallel conductor’s
relationship between the direction of the
magnetic field around the conductor and the flow:
direction of the current flow through the  In the same direction, then opposite
conductor magnetic field, conductors attract.
 Opposite direction, then same direction
magnetic field, conductors repel.
Right Hand Rule #1
Lorentz Force Law
o Thumb is the direction of the current flow
o Hendrick Anton Lorentz
o Fingers are in the same direction as the
o FFC
magnetic field.
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 Right Hand Rule #2 Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule
o Thumb is the North Pole. o John Ambrose Fleming
o Fingers are in the same direction as the o CFF
current flow.
Right Hand Rule #3 Faraday’s Law of Induction
o Thumb is the current flow. o Michael Faraday
o Fingers are in the same direction as external o An electromotive force is induced when there
magnetic field. is a change in the magnetic flux in the coil.
Lentz’s Law
o Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz
o The induced current generates its own magnetic field which is always opposing the change in
external magnetic field.

Motor Principle
When the current passes through the armature, it turns into an electromagnet with north and south poles.
The interaction between the armature’s magnetic field and the external magnetic field causes the
armature to turn
Because of the split ring of the commutator, the direction of the current flow reverses for every half turn,
causing the direction of the armature’s magnetic field and polarity to reverse as well.
This causes the Lorentz force acting on the armature to reverse, creating a continuous motion.

Generators
A dynamo that has a rotating magnet inside a
coil.
Rather than move a magnet inside of a coil we
can turn the situation around. This time we will
move a coil inside of a magnetic field.
Most generators produce A.C. electricity
consequently they are sometimes called
alternators.
Electromagnetic Induction
When a conductor moves through a permanent
magnetic field a voltage is induced in the
conductor.
When a magnet spins inside a coil of wire the
magnetic field at any place in the coil is
changing. The changing magnetic field induces a
current in the wire. coil.
A.C. Generators
o Moving a coil in a circle between two magnets
produces an induced electric current in the
coil.
o One circle = one wave
o When the coil is turned through one complete
circle one complete sine wave of alternating
current is produced.
Generator Theory
As the coil turns it cuts across the magnetic field, an
EMF (Electro-Motive Force) pushes free electrons
along the wire, this is an induced electric current.

Electromagnetic Waves
Induced voltage can be increased by using a An A.C. is transmitted through the brushes to the
stronger magnetic field, using more coils of wire rest of the circuit.
or by moving the generator faster.

Electromagnetic waves or EM waves are waves that are created as a result of vibrations between an electric field
and a magnetic field. In other words, EM waves are composed of oscillating magnetic and electric fields.

EM Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum is
a continuum of electromagnetic
waves arranged according to
frequency and wavelength.
It is a gradual progression from
the waves of lower frequencies to
SCIENCE Q2 REVIEWER | Lance Christian Pascua the waves of highest frequencies.
These waves do not have an
exact dividing region between
them.
 Electromagnetic Waves
Radio Waves
o Heart rate monitors Micro Waves
o Microwave Ovens
o Cell phone communication
o Bluetooth Headsets
o Global Positioning System (GPS)
o Satellite Communication
o Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
o Terrestrial Communication
o TV broadcasting, AM and FM broadcast radio
o Broadband Wireless Internet
signals
Visible Light
Infrared o Only type of EM wave able to be detected by
o Endoscopes the human eye
o Remote controls o Artificial Lights
o Thermal imaging o Optical Fibers
o Night vision goggles o Screens in Electronic Devices

UV Light
o Black lights X=rays
o UVB Radiation in sunlight o Airport security scanner
o Security images and markings on money o Medical Imaging for diagnosing bone
o Sterilization of Medical Equipment fractures.
o Moderate doses may damage cells.
o May cause skin cancer
Gamma Rays
o Radiotherapy in the treatment of tumorous cancers.
o Sterilization of surgical equipment as they easily penetrate through most materials.
o Released by nuclear reactions in nuclear power plants, by nuclear bombs, and by naturally
occurring elements on Earth.

Electric Motors
An electric motor is all about magnets and magnetism: A motor uses two magnets to create motion. Opposites
attract and likes repel. Inside an electric motor, these attracting and repelling forces create rotational motion.

Principles Key Components

All types of electric motors have three key
To keep the disk spinning, the external magnet
components: A rotating element (rotor) with
must be reversed as soon as magnet (B) passes
magnets. A stationary magnet that surrounds the
by. Once the magnet has been reversed, magnet
rotor. A commutator that switches the
(B) will now be repelled and magnet (C) will be
electromagnets from north to south at the right
attracted. As a result of the push-pull, the disk
place to keep the rotor spinning.
continues to rotate counterclockwise.

Magnetic Fields of Coils

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o The most common form of electromagnetic
device is a coil with many turns called a
solenoid. A coil takes advantage of these two
 Commutation
o The process of reversing the current in the
electromagnet is called commutation and the
switch that makes it happen is called a commutator.

Parts of An Electric Motor

Armatures or Rotors
o The armature is an electromagnet made by
coiling thin wire around two or more poles of
a metal core.
o When you run electricity into this
electromagnet, it creates a magnetic field in
the armature that attracts and repels the
magnets in the stator. So, the armature spins
through 180 degrees. To keep it spinning, you
have to change the poles of the
electromagnet.
Brushes
o Conducts electrical current between the
stators and motors of a motor or generator.
o Commutator and brushes work together to let
current flow to the electromagnet, and also to
flip the direction that the electrons are flowing
at just the right moment.
Commutators
o Commutator is simply a pair of plates
attached to the axle. These plates provide
the two connections for the coil of the
electromagnet.
o The contacts of the commutator are attached
to the axle of the electromagnet, so they spin
with the magnet.
Axles
o Contains part of the main power source that
provides the ability of direction of the motor.
Field Magnets
o Provides a magnetic field that enables the
inner coil wire within a motor to rotate.
DC Power Supply

Reflection
The bouncing of light rays off an object. The phenomenon by which a ray of light changes the direction of
propagation when it strikes a boundary between different media through which it cannot pass.

Regular Reflection Irregular Reflection

Specular Reflection Diffused Reflection
It is defined as light reflected from a smooth It is produced by rough surfaces that tend to reflect light in
surface at a definite angle. all directions.

Law of Reflection
o The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the
normal line to the reflecting surface all lie in
SCIENCE Q2 REVIEWER | Lance Christian Pascua the same plane; and
o The angle of incidence is equal to the angle
of reflection.
 Path of Reflected Light
We describe the path of light as straight-line rays.
Reflection off a flat surface follows a simple rule:

Angle in (incidence) equals angle out (reflection)

Angles measured from surface “normal”
(perpendicular)

Real Images
Image is made from “real” light rays that converge
at a real focal point so the image is REAL.
Can be projected onto a screen because light
actually passes through the point where the image
appears.
Images are always inverted.

Virtual Images
NOT REAL because it cannot be projected
Image only seems to be there.

Mirrors
A mirror is a reflective surface that bounces off light, producing either a real image or a virtual image. When an
object is placed in front of a mirror, the image of the same object is seen in the mirror.

Plane Mirrors Ray Diagraming

A plane mirror is a smooth or highly polished A plane mirror makes an image of objects in front of the
surface that reflects light in order to form an mirror; the image appears to be behind the plane in which
image. It is a flat, polished, and reflective surface the mirror lies. An image is formed by reflection when two
that produces a virtual image of the real object.  or more reflected rays of a point meet at a single point.
The image is formed at the point of intersection of the
reflected rays.

Characteristics of Images
o Image is always virtual
o Image is the same size as the object
o Image is the same orientation as the object
o Image is the same distance from the mirror as
SCIENCE Q2 REVIEWER | Lance Christian Pascua the object.

Uses And Applications

 Ray Diagraming -DM
Ray 1 is drawn from the top of the object parallel to the principal axis
and is reflected away from the focal point, F.
Ray 2 is drawn from the top of the object toward the focal point and is
reflected parallel to the principal axis.
Ray 3 is drawn through the center of curvature, C, on the back side of
the mirror and is reflected back on itself.

Ray Diagraming - CM
Ray 1 is drawn from the top of the object parallel to the
Concave Mirror Convex
principal axis and is reflected through the Mirror
focal point, F.
It reflects light inward to one focal point. It is used
Ray 2 tois drawn from the top of the object through
Convex mirrors reflect light outwards. the focal point
Therefore,
focus light. and is reflected they
parallel to the principal axis.
are not used to focus light.
Also known as converging mirror, it has a reflectingRay 3 is drawnAlso through
knownthe center mirror,
diverging of curvature, C, and
it is a curved is
mirror
surface that is recessed inward (away from the back on
reflected itself
in which the reflective surface bulges towards
incident light). the light source.

Important Points in Diagraming

o Center of Curvature, C, the center of the sphere whose
surface forms the curved mirror.
o Focal Point, F, where the light rays meet.
o Vertex, V, the point where the principal axis meets the mirror.
o Principal Axis, the straight-line Axis passing through the
center of curvature to the mirror
o Focal Length, f, the distance from the focal point to the
vertex
o Radius of Curvature, R, the distance from the vertex to the
center of the curvature.
Uses And Applications
Concave Mirrors Convex Mirrors
Vehicles Headlights Dental Mirrors
Rear View Mirror
o Concave mirrors are used in o This type of mirror is what the
the headlights of cars to o It is an adjustable reflective
dentist used in magnifying the
produce a parallel beam of device to give the driver a view
area behind your teeth to
light covering a longer of the road, vehicles, and
check on cavities and tooth
distance on the road which objects behind the car.
decay.
makes the road clearly Shop Security Mirrors
visible to the driver. o Also, while in mall
Shaving Mirrors Makeup Mirrors supermarkets and in some
o Shaving mirrors are concave o Mirrors can make it much convenience stores, you may
notice mirrors hanging on
mirror, so that when you easier to see the details of your
corners from which you can
keep your face near to the face and your makeup when
see your reflection and those
focus of the mirror, you get a you don't have the best
of other people.
magnified image. eyesight.

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 Concave Mirrors Convex Mirrors

Refraction
Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from one transparent substance into another.

Index of Refraction
The “light slowing factor”
Glass has n = 1.52, meaning that light travels about 1.5 times slower in glass than in vacuum.
Water has n = 1.33 air has n = 1.00028
Vacuum is n = 1.00000 (speed of light at full capacity)

Refraction at a Plane Surface

Light bends at interface between refractive Indices.
Bends more the larger the difference in refractive
index.

Causes
The refraction of light (or change in the
direction of path of light in other medium)
occurs because light travels with different
speeds in different media.

Lenses
A lens is a transmissive optical device that focuses or disperses a light beam by means of refraction. A simple lens
consists of a single piece of transparent material, while a compound lens consists of several simple lenses, usually
arranged along a common axis.

Concave Lenses Convex Lenses

Thicker at the edges and thinner in the center. )( Thicker in the center than edges. ()
Lens that diverges light rays Lens that converges light rays.
Forms images are erect and reduced. Forms real images and virtual images
depending on position of the object
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 Ray Diagraming – CL
Ray 1 is drawn parallel to the principal axis and then passes through
the focal point on the back side of the lens.
Ray 2 is drawn through the center of the lens and continues in a
straight line.
Ray 3 is drawn through the focal point on the front of the lens and
emerges from the lens parallel to the principal axis.

Ray Diagraming - DL
Ray 1 is drawn parallel to the principal axis and emerges directed
away from the focal point on the front side of the lens.
Ray 2 is drawn through the center of the lens and continues in a
straight line.
Ray 3 is drawn in the direction toward the focal point on the back side
of the lens and emerges from the lens parallel to the principal axis.

Uses And Applications

DSLR Cameras Refractor Telescopes

o DSLR camera uses convex lenses where
light rays pass through.
o These light rays are directed towards the
slanted mirror located near the shutter, and
then reflected from a translucent screen
projected to another mirror until it reaches
the viewer’s eye.
o The image formed by the passing of light
rays, from the object through the lens
directing to the film of the camera, is
affected by the angle of the light entry.
o The closer the lens to the object, the farther
the beams coverage.
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REVIEWER
farther| Lance Christian
the object Pascua
from the lens, the
shorter the distance the light beams
converge.
o Objective lens – it is the first lens that light
from a celestial object passes through. The
light will then be inverted at the focal plane.
o Eyepiece lens – the second lens located
behind the focal plane which allows the
observer to view the enlarged/ magnified
image.
Reflector Telescopes
o These are used not only to examine the
visible region of the electromagnetic
spectrum but also to explore both the
shorter- and longer-wavelength regions
adjacent to it (i.e., the ultraviolet and the
infrared).