surveying & Transportation Eng’g.@ 323 nsp——— ying & Transportation UNITS OF MEASUREMENT most-Used Equivalents in Survey Works: = 1 pole = 1 perch = 16.5 ft ; anes chain = 100 ft = 4100 links 4 Gunter’s chain = 66 ft = 100 Gunter's links (Ik) rods = 4 mile 4 acre = 100,000 sq. (Gunter’s) links = 43,560 ft? {rood = % acre = 40 sods + hectare-= 10,000 m* = 2.471 acres 1 arpent = about 0.85 acre a 1 statute mile = 5280 ft = 1609.35 m 1 mi’ = 640 acres 1 nautical mile = 6080.27 ft = 1853.248 m 1 fathom = 6 ft ‘ 1 cubit = 18 in 1 vara = 33 in 1 degree = =, circle = 60 min = 3600 s 1 grad (grade) = 34; circle = ;1, quadrant Imil= siq circle = 0.05625° 1 military pace = 2.5 ft THEORY OF ERRORS When a numbe T of measurement: i een made th Nts of the same quantity have Probabiliiy cindy, Must be analyzed x, ility and the theory of errom After al systematic Scanned with CamScanner324 m Surveying & Transportation Eng’g. - errors and mistakes | have been eliminated ensating) errors are investigated to determine the most probable value (mean) and other critical values. MosT PROBABLE VALUE sum of all individual measurement n= total number of measurements made Where: Residual, v Residual or deviation is the difference between any measured value of a quantity and its most probable value. v=X-X PROBABLE ERROR The probable error is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from the most probable value, defines a range within which there is a fifty percent chance that the true yee of the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the imits thus set. - Probable ; robable Error of any Single Measurement a a Scanned with CamScannersportation Eng’g. ® 325 surveying & Tran pable error of the Mean: ro P servations of the squares of the residuals = number of ob: n . were: Sy’ = summation SV INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ERRORS sum of Errors Probable error of the sum | PE, = +/PE?+PE,’ + “PE, Where PE,, etc = probable error of each measurement Product of Errors Probable error of the product | PE,= ty(Q,PE,) +(Q,PE.)" Where Qu Q; = measured quantities si PE, = probable error corresponding 0 each quantity measured Precision | Precision= PEm : mpv Scanned with CamScanner326 m Surveying & Transportation Eng’g. Standard Deviation - Given the following data: anit 5,7, 2, 3, 5,2, 7,2, 12 The MEDIAN is the middle value when all data are arrangeq in decreasing or increasing order. Pt 5, 2, 2, 2,3, 5, 7, 7 12 > (9 terms) The median is the 5" term = 3 Note: When there is an even number of values, the median ig defined as the mean (average) of the middle two values The MODE is the value that occurs most frequently. The value “2” occurs three times, therefore, is the mode. The RANGE is the difference between the maximum and minimum values. Range = 12 - (-5) = 17 The VARIANCE is defined by: DOK BF | n = { | Variance = T he STANDARD DEVIATION is: r eee L_ SD= Jvariance = fue xy | = n - Where: X = value of an observation X = most probable value = 2X/n y _— Scanned with CamScannersurveying & Transportation Eng’g.@ 327 =, = pull when the tape is of length Lo a\e cross-sectional are of the tape £ = modulus of elasticity of the tape = 200 GPa for stee! Sag Correction (Negative error) we 247? = weight of tape per linear m or ft nsupported length of tape T = pull during eagurement ef w Slope Correction (Negative error) | hn? | e=_- 2S N= difference in ati $= inchnnd Bae between the ends of the tape Scanned with CamScanner330 & surveying & Transportation Eng’g. Corrected or True Distance of a Line TD = MD + Error a) TD = true or corrected distance of the line MD = measured distance Error = total error Error=exN | ne MO ly e = error per tape length (+) if too long and (-) if too short N = number of tape lengths L, = length of tape Reduction to Sea Level When horizontal measurement 1s done at high elevations the sea-level distance can be found by the following relationships Scanned with CamScanner ~rveying & Transportation Eng’g.® 331 Su gee n of figures: tio By prope : De Dr or D= DR R R+h R+h Correction, AD = Dn- D = horizontal distance at an altitude of h (above sea level), m 3 D= Actual or Corrected dist. at the su h=altitude of observation, m R= radius of earth, m face of the earth Approximate formula: i 2 Correction, AD = or nv A } Reduction Factor, k= 1—h/R D=D,xk EFFECT OF EARTH’S CURVATURE AND REFRACTION Na = 0.0675 K’ y = 1000 K tano in kilometer whi i ere K is the distanci Scanned with CamScanner332 Surveying & Transportation Eng’g. ’ LEVELING a Level line | a A FS Hl — * Elev. of A venient: | Datum Elev. of B HI = Elev. of A+ BS Elev. of B= HI- FS Difference in elev. = FS - BS Where’ HI = height of instrument BS = backsight FS = foresight WEIGHTED AVERAGE IN LEVELING Example: Lines of levels are run from station A to station B over three different routes. The route length and difference in elevation between A and B are given in the following table Difference in Scanned with CamScannerSurveying & Transportation Eng’y. = 433 lue of the elevation of station am : ermine the most probable oe station A is at elevation 50.522 solution Weighted average = sw 425.34 g, + 424.12 0) a + oe + 95 Weighted average = 425.2162 m Elevation of B = 50.523 + 425.2162 = 475.739 m 426,45 7), Weighted average SENSITIVITY OF BUBBLE TUBES The division of bubble tubes are usually spaced at 2-mm intervals. the student would often wants to know how much ae readings will be affected if the bubble were off center. ah 7 \ el tube (bubble) wie wu wv R = Radius of curvature of the tube L ah e | oR Scanned with CamScanner334 @ Surveying & Transportation Eng’g. i rvature of the bubble tube — ware ce displacement of bubble from center, usually jp, number of spaces | 0 = horizontal distance from instrument to rod \h = error in vertical reading ERROR DUE TO NON-ADJUSTMENT OF TRANSIT TELESCOPE The error in horizontal angle when the axis of the transit telescope is not horizontal. [ Error, E=e tan 0 Where: e = angle of inclination of the telescope axis. usually in minutes or seconds 9 = observed vertical angle of the object E = error in horizontal angle in minutes or seconds When two observations are made. the total error may be expressed as: Error = e (tan 6; — tan 02) Where 0, = first vertical angle 8, = second vertical angle TRAVERSE : = The survey procedure known as traversing !S fundamental '0 much survey measurement. The procedure consists of a a variety of instrument combinations to create polar vector in space, that is ‘lines’ with a magnitude (distance) us direction (bearing) These vectors are generally ont ous ct and create a polygon which conforms to Scanned with CamScannerSurveying & Transportation Eng’g.m 335 tical and geometrical rules (which can be used mathe fieldwork and computations). The equipment i, chet rally consists of something to determine direction like a ge theodolite, and something to determine distance $s oF Seat ager or Electromagnetic Distance Meter (EDM). LATITUDE AND DEPARTURE OF A LINE North Latitude is (+) Departure South Latitude is (-) East Departure is (+) West Departure is (-) Line AB Distance > Latitude 8 = bearing Latitude = Distance x cos 0 Departure = Distance x sin 0 Distance = ,/(Latitude)? + (Departure) CLOSED TRAVERSE Fora Closed traverse, = North latitude = © South latitude ‘| 2 East departure = 2 West departure Scanned with CamScanner336 & surveying & Transportation Eng’g. East Departures 3 g 3 3 5 5 5 g £ c 5 a Zz w West Departures ERROR OF CLOSURE h latitudes For any closed traverse where the north and sout fe are not equal and the east and west departure are not ed Scanned with CamScannersurveying & Transportation Eng’g. @ 337 Le. North Lat. South Dep. 4D = ¥ East Dep. - ¥ West Dep Error of Closure: e= fal’+ad? Relative Error = Error of closure 2 Perimeter of traverse Angular Closure The sum of the internal angles of a polygon (traverse) 1S given by the rule: Za = 180°(n— 2) ] where n is the number of sides of the traverse, and a is each eel angle. Any variation from this sum is known as the ae josure and must be accounted for, either through ty en (if it is an acceptable amount) or elimination comnputedtna of the observations. An angular closure is magnetic for traverses performed with either theodolites or when Tacs larger misclosure could be expected caleulated” a magnetic compass, but in any case it must be and removed. The reduction. of magnetic Compass beari waa local attra 9s to angles also eliminates the effect of BAL, Intutive 1 CLOSED TRAVERSE ut difficult 14 - The intuitive method is commonly used understandin 0 explain. It is based on the Surveyor's i. Nowled gern of the measurement process, and an Steep count ent that a line measured through dense bush ty is likely to have more accumulated random Scanned with CamScanner338 msurveying & Transportation Eng’g. = a na line of similar length measured a oro plains. ‘Also, lines measured in the rain, afer flat _junch or just before quitting for the day may not be measurey with the same degree of care as those at other time: throughout the day. The Surveyor would perhaps adda few - centimeters or SO to one of these suspect lines ang recompute the misclosure. Compass Rule — (Bowditch Method) The correction to be applied to the latitude (or departure) of any course is to the total absolute correction in latitude (or departure) as the length of the course is to the perimeter of the traverse. ; 7 Length of Course [Ni Six | Perimeter of Traverse Length of Course |Evep el ~ Perimeter of Traverse Transit Rule — The correction to be applied to the at ion in (or departure) of any course is to the total correc’ latitude (or departure) as the latitude (or departure) of t! at course is to the arithmetical sum of all the latitudes (or departures) of the traverse. Nuc = Sa | Nac * Scatl | Eben — Wop | Eber +|Woel Scanned with CamScannerSurveying & Transportation Eng’g.m 33 How to Apply these Corrections : Ifthe sum of the North Latitudes is great the South Latitudes, the correction is subtracted" Nort Latitudes and added for South Latitudes and vice ieee Ifthe sum of the East Departures is greater than th the West Departures, the correction is subtracted fone Departures and added for West Departures and vice versa. AREA OF CLOSED TRAVERSE After balancing the traverse by applying either the compass tule or the transit rule, the area may be computed using the Double Meridian Distance (DMD) Method or the Double Parallel Distance (DPD) Method. DMD Method 14. The DMD of the first course is equal to the departure of that course. : 2. The DMD of any other course is equal to the DMD of the previous course plus the Departure of the previous course plus the Departure of the course itself. 3. The DMD of the last course must be numerically equal to the departure of the last course but opposite in sign. 4. The double area of each course is equal to the product of the DMD and the Latitude of the course. Double Area = DMD x Latitude 5. The area of the traverse is one-half the absolute value of the algebraic sum (consider the sign) of the double areas of all the courses. Area = 3|ZDouble Areas| ] Scanned with CamScanner340 m Surveying & Transportation Eng’g. DPD Method 1. ae 3. 4. The DPD of the first course is equ; of that course. eee departure The DPD of any other course is equal to the previous course plus the Latitude of the prey: course plus the Latitude of the course itself "Yous The DPD of the last course must be numerically to the Latitude of the last course but opposite inc! The double area of each course is equal tot, product of the DPD and the Departure of the coure, the Dpp of Double Area = DPD x Departure 5. The area of the traverse is one-half the absolute value of the algebraic sum (consider the sign) of the double areas of all the courses. | Area = 3| Double Areas| | MISSING DATA The missing elements of a traverse polygon that can be solved for are as follows: 4. Bearing and length of one side . id 2. Bearing of one side and length of adjacent side 3. Bearing of two adjacent sides | 4. Bearing of two non-adjacent sides 5. Bearing of one side and length of one : adjacent side : 6 noma of two sides (adjacent or non-adjacen!) : ale oe d as there tcc] Jements can be determine! Only two missing ies in a traverse network. only two redu Scanned with CamScannerSurveying & Transportation Eng’g.@ 341 7 Bearing and Length of One Side: Missing side KO E c This is the simplest of all cases because the unknown side is the closing line. (Lat)missing side = - & Of latitudes of known sides EP) missing side = - £ Of Departure of known sides Distance = (Lat)? + (Dep) tan (Bearing) = ee a 2 Bearing of One Side and Length of Adjacent Side: Scanned with CamScanner342 m Surveying & Transportation Eng’ with reference to the figure, the of side a, and bearing of side e. ™SSI%9 data are tangy With lengths and bearings i the closing line f can bacon since the bearing of € is known. os os sing sina’ o> 0+a+6= 180°: 0= e a — = —;e= sind sina’ ides b, c, a Angle « nd d Known, Can be solved With angle 4 and bearing of side e known, the beari side a can be determined serllha 3. Bearing of Two Adjacent Sides: sing dala we ad know", the mis! With reference to the figure. bearings of sides € and a. c, an With lengths and bearings of sides b. © the closing line f can be solve?. Scanned with CamScannerSurveying & Transportation Eng’ With sides e, a, and f known in triangle EAB and 0 can be cee by cosine law and pate With bearing of the closing line f know i f e and acan be determined. m, the bearings of 343 . Bearing of Two Non-Adjacent Sides: Unknown Bearing a Closing line With reference to the)Unknown Bearing ys of sides a and d are missing. Shift side e to BF and solve the closing Ine ie for polygon DCBF (shaded area). Shift sit el Oe triangle DEF with three known sides, and so St and ¢. With bearing of closing side i bearings of sides a and d can be solved. Scanned with CamScanner344 8 Surveying & Transportation Eng’g. Q a. 5. Bearing of One Side and Li Adjacent Side: ength of One Non. Unknown Bearing a Unknown Length With reference to the figure, the bearing of side 4 and length of side d are missing. Shift side e to BF and solve the closing line f ioe polygon DCBF (shaded area). Shift side a to EF to triangle DEF. ae i wn, With closing bearing of closing side f and side d kno angle 0 can be solved. f _a - — = — a= _ sina sind O+at = 180°: 6=- — Scanned with CamScanneri surveying & Transportation Eng sing sind ‘ With known $ and bearing of side f, the bearing of side a can be solved. gth of Two sides (Adjacent or Non-adjacent) 6, Len Example: A closed traverse has the following data: Line Distance Bearing AB 179.00 N 47° 02'14"E BC 258.20 s 69° 35° 59"E cD 2 $ 39° 35° 17" W DE 2 S 87° 29' 48" W EA 145.41 N 24° 48’ 09” Ww Find the lengths of side CD and DE. Solution: [Dstanes | beating TTattode | Departure | T0214 Tm | P00 | rarare | 0 | ee ee ee Pe eearosw [2 fs Se Tr zy 2 oan 122 — 90 — 0.706 - 0.04368! 642x + y = 3754.58 q ; y +132 =0 *(1) "Dep = ep = 131 + 242 — 0.6373% — 0.999y - 61 =0 X* 1.56 76y = 489.565 9.565-1,5676y > &4- (2) 1 7.642(489.565 — 1.5676y) + y = 3754.58 Scanned with CamScanneri . | 346 m Surveying & Transportation Eng’g. = 3754.58 Note: This is also applicable if the unknown sides are non. adjacent. AREA OF CROSS-SECTIONS AND VOLUME OF EARTHWORKS The area of any irregular plane figure (such as the one shown) can be found approximately by dividing it into a number of strips or panels by a series of equidistant parallel chords (offsets) hy, hz, ..., h., the common distance between the chords being d. AREA BY TRAPEZOIDAL RULE a Assuming each strip as a trapezoid, then the area IS: Area = ; [b, + 2(h, +h, +..)+h,] Scanned with CamScannersurveying & Transportation Eng’g.™ 347 mPSON’S ONE-THIRD RULE Y SI AREA B ate than the previous because it is more accurate : dis Using this rule, there must be an s n must be odd. this Met curved side. f offsets, thu Area = ¢ [Phy + 2ERoag +4 E Maven + Mo] AREA BY COORDINATES Janar (convex or concave The area of a PI bev (Xa, Y2)s (Xs Yas o-o4 (oe Ya) IS: ) with vertices iy Ya) (xs, Ys) (Xv Yo) (%s, ¥5) Cntr You) Area= 4 (i Xe), XX _ x Y; Yo| |¥2 Ys Yn Yt a st a Ky Ma Ma Kae Ma o% TY Ya Yag¥a Ye. Yay Avea= 4 + + + + 2 Xt Yo — Xo Ya + Xp Ya —X3 Yo tee + Xn 1X1 Yd Area = 4 Scanned with CamScanner