2018PHY1B Prac Guide-Final

PHYSICS 1 PRACTICALS : SEMESTER 2
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
PHYSICS 1 PRACTICALS
2018 GUIDE (SEMESTER 2)
(this guide comprises 58 pages)
SURNAME (Family name): …………………………… Initials : …….…..

Student Number : ……………………………
Course (1B01 ? What Eng. ? ) : …………………………………….

Day : …………………………….
Group (A or B ?) : …………………………
Physics text book should also be brought to the prac sessions

for consultation and reference.
Practicals coordinator is … Prof Aletta Prinsloo (office C1 LAB 127)

011-5592346 , E-MAIL : alettap@uj.ac.za
Consultation hours, strictly 11:00 – 12:00 every day
Lab technician is … Mr Pieter Gouws (office C1 LAB 142)

011-5592338 , E-MAIL : pieterg@uj.ac.za
Consultation hours, strictly 12:00 – 13:00 every day or at prac sessions
Important NOTICES are posted at the PRAC VENUE and on ULINK
2018 Version 3.1
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2018 GUIDE FOR PHYSICS 1 PRACTICALS (the first 30 pages are introductory
revision material on prac format and data analysis, similar to the first semester)
1. INTRODUCTION
As a reminder , practicals are important because you will …
(i) discover in a real setting and on your own some of the Physics laws
that you will learn in lectures this semester ;
(ii) be exposed to the work of an experimental physicist, and learn about
general experimental procedures, so as to take data accurately and to
“troubleshoot” (ascertain what are the possible problems) ;
(iii) interpret data and report your “discoveries” (i.e., results ) in a clear,
concise and understandable way.
Practical classes for Physics 1 students in the second semester take place at the following
times (1B01 and 1G10B students ):
Wednesdays 13h00 – 17h05
Thursdays 08h50 – 13h00
Fridays 13h00 – 17h00*
*NOTE: SPECIAL SESSION ONLY WITH PERMISSION FROM PROF PRINSLOO
 Students will do practicals on one of these week days (i.e. not on all days).
 Practicals will also not be every week, as the lab sessions alternate with tutorial
sessions.
 In total, students will perform 4 experiments and 1 practical test in each semester.
 For semester 2 the focus will be on electricity/electrical-circuits experiments and
optics and waves experiments. You’ll get to do electromagnetism experiments in a
second year physics course, if you progress to that route.
 The venue, C1LAB 227, for the practicals is the Physics first-year laboratory, which
is on the second floor of the C1-Lab building (i.e., above the Physics department
offices), next door to room C1-Lab 221.
How the practical mark will be calculated

Experiments: You do 4 experiments, for which the reports will be marked
- Your average mark for these contributes 70% towards the Practical mark
Test: During the last few weeks of the semester, you will write a (60 min -90 min) test.
You will perform an experiment for the test, analyse data and report results – all of this
done independently.
- Your practical test mark contributes 30% towards the Practical mark
The practical mark is later combined with your theory mark (semester tests, assignments,
etc.) to determine the Semester mark.
- The Practical mark contributes 30% to the Semester mark
The semester mark is combined with the exam mark (50/50) to give you your Final mark.
NB : You need at least a 50% overall mark in Pracs to gain entry to the final exam.
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3
Which practicals will you do?

- You will do certain practicals listed on the next page, cycling through each of
them in every alternate week.
- Unless otherwise impossible, you will work in teams of two. You may choose a
partner (from your prac group), alternatively we will match you with someone.
A list of students doing Physics practicals has been prepared. This list will be placed on
Edulink, as well as on the windows of the prac venue. On that list the following
information is given:
o On which day of the week you are doing Physics practicals
o Whether you are in Group A or Group B
This will be determined by your surname –
Surnames beginning with A–Mn are in Group A, while
surnames beginning with Mo–Z are in Group B.
For PHY1G10B students the group allocation will be determined by
whether students are also doing Chemistry pracs.
o Exactly which experiment you will be doing on any particular day
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LIST OF EXPERIMENTS , SECOND SEMESTER 2018

PHY1B01, PHYEB01 and PHY1G10B
EXP NAME COMMENTS
L NEWTON’S RINGS Optics/waves

M EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS Electricity/electronics
(discharging capacitor)
N e/m OF AN ELECTRON Electromagnetism
O INDEX OF REFRACTION (PRISM) Optics
P METER BRIDGE AND POTENTIOMETER Electrical circuits
Q RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY Electricity / circuits
Test PRAC TEST Hands on , done
independently
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Rules and conventions in the practical classes.

 As the student numbers in the classes are often large, there are certain rules which
you must please obey in order to ensure order during the classes.
 The practical classes begin promptly on the prescribed times. No student is
allowed in the laboratory before or after these times.
 The duration of the practical classes is three hours. During this time you must
complete your experiment with all the calculations and you must hand your work in
for evaluation. Please place your report in the correct pigeon hole (marked according
to experiment number) in the shelf placed in the laboratory for this purpose.
 Please do not carry apparatus from one table to the other without permission of the
demonstrator. Stop watches, thermometers, micrometers and vernier calipers may be
obtained from the lecturer and you have to sign for it.
 No electrical circuit is to be switched on before it is checked by a demonstrator.
Switch everything off after you have finished using it.
 Please be careful with gas and Bunsen burners. Make sure they are switched off after
usage.
 Please leave the apparatus in neat order after completion of your experiment. Switch
off all electrical equipment and disconnect the leads.
 Report any problems with apparatus (apparatus out of order, etc) without delay to a
demonstrator.
 Handle all apparatus with respect.
 Please do not smoke in the laboratory and keep noise levels down.
 Please let a demonstrator sign your report before you hand it in.
 Please bring with you to the practical: a pen, pencil, rubber and ruler, a pad
with standard A4 paper for writing your report, a couple of sheets of graph
paper (photocopies are acceptable) and a calculator
IMPORTANT
You will not be allowed to do the practical if you:
1. Are LATE – the lab will be locked 10 minutes after the start of the
practical.
2. Do NOT have your pre-practical report with you.
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Preparation
The experiment that you are going to do is designed to demonstrate certain experimental
techniques and physical principles. It is very important to realize that they are not
necessary designed to serve as illustration of the theory that you did in the theoretical
lectures. There will indeed be some of these type of experiments but also experiments
based on theory that you have not yet met with in the lectures. You will also do
experiments in which the experimental results are used to make certain deductions from
which a theory may be developed. Since you will meet certain concepts and theories for
the first time in the practical physics course, it is necessary that you prepare well for each
experiment before you come to the laboratory.
Use the following guidelines in your preparation:

(i) Use a few minutes each week before you leave the laboratory to look at the
experiment that you have to do the next week. In this way you will be aware of some
of the concepts used in the practical notes on your next experiment.
(ii) Read the practical notes carefully at home. Consult text books and other library
references on theory and concepts which are unknown to you. Contact your lecturer
beforehand if necessary.
(iii)The demonstrator will give a short discussion before you begin with your experiment.
He or she will ask questions to test whether you have prepared for the experiment, i.e.
to test whether you know the aim of the experiment and whether you know how to
carry it out. If it appears that you are not prepared, you may be refused further
participation in the experiment.
(iv) Inadequate preparation leads to an unnecessary waste of time with the result that you
will be unable to complete your experiment in the allocated three hours. Preparation
and execution of the experiment should not take you more than 3 to 4 hours.
Marking
The following will be taken into consideration when marking your work:
(a) Neatness and general lay-out.
(b) Data (with the necessary units) and tabulation.
(c) Graphical representation and conclusion from graphs.
(d) Accuracy of results and determination of the experimental error.
(e) Answers to questions.
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TYPICAL MARKING SCHEME AND WEIGHTING FOR

PHYSICS-1 PRACS , 1B01 AND 1D01
THIS IS A GUIDE
SECTION MAX MARKS

PRE-PRAC REPORT, 5
OVERALL NEATNESS AND LAYOUT OF
PRAC REPORT
AIM 2
THEORY & BACKGROUND, 8
METHOD & APPARATUS
RESULTS : TABLES , GRAPHS, 20
CALCULATIONS
DISCUSSION & ERROR ANALYSIS 10
CONCLUSIONS AND ANSWERS TO 5
QUESTIONS
TOTAL 50
NAME and Signature of DEMI : Date :
Pre-practical report (must be provided to us before you enter the

venue)
Must conform to the format below (this is an EXAMPLE or GUIDE)
Date :
Surname (family name) : Jacobson Initials : C. E.
Student number:- 200910810
Experiment:- No. 22 – The Venturi Effect
Aim:-
[… in 2–4 lines, give the aim of the experiment]
Theory:-
[… in 5 – 10 lines, give the relevant theoretical background and formulae to be used]
Experimental procedure:-
[… in 10 – 15 lines, list the main experimental steps that you will follow]
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Practical report (typically 4 - 6 A4 pages including graphs)

Must conform to the format below ( this is an EXAMPLE or GUIDE )
Surname (family name) : Jacobson Initials : C. E.

Student number:- 200910810
Date:- Thursday, 5 February 2009
Experiment:- No. 22 – The Venturi Effect
Aim:-
[… in 2–4 lines, give the aim of the experiment]
Method:-
[… in 10–15 lines, give details of the experimental procedure, in more depth than in the
pre-prac report. Sketch of apparatus can be included. Mention formulae to be used]
Experimental Results:-
[… in this section you should
- write down the measurements that you obtained (use tables where there are
many);
- plot graphs ;
- calculate whatever quantity you are required to determine (show example
calculations) ;
- where appropriate, calculate averages, uncertainty, etc ;
- keep this section concise, tidy and organised ]
Discussion:-
[… the most important section, as it is here that you analyse the results you obtained. It
should be 10-15 lines long :
- What were the findings of this experiment ( results from graphs ) ?
- Are your results in line with expectations, i.e., is your result consistent with what
you were expected to get according to theory ?
- How reliable is your result? Are there significant sources of error and uncertainty
that may have affected your answer ? ]
Conclusion:-
[… in 4–8 lines summarise the main findings of the experiment. Quote final results and
error estimates. The “Conclusion” is a response to what was written in the “Aim” ]
Specific Questions:-
[… if you were required to give answers to specific questions, do so here at the end of the
report]
Note : The report is written in the third person, past tense (e.g. “the ball was
dropped” rather than “I/we drop(ped) the ball” ; “ The heater was immersed fully
in the water and …” )
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If you have a query regarding prac marks or information on the lists then
you normally make the query in the format below. Do so on an A4 sheet
of paper or on the paper slips provided in the prac venue.
This should be passed on to the pracs co-ordinator or to the lab
technician.
PHYS-1 PRACS , STUDENT QUERY
Date : ____________________
FAMILY/SURNAME ________________________________ Initials ______________
Student num : __________________ What course (1A01, 1B01, 1C01 or 1D01 ) ? _________
Prac Day : _______________ Group (A or B) : ________________
What is the query ?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
===============================================================
If you can’t make it to a prac session (sick notes)
IF YOU ARE UNABLE TO MAKE IT TO A PRAC SESSION TO WHICH YOU HAVE BEEN
ALLOCATED THEN YOU NEED TO PROVIDE IN WRITING …
1. YOUR FULL DETAILS : NAME, STUDENT NUMBER , WHICH COURSE

(1B01 OR 1D01 ) ;
2. DETAILS OF THE PRAC SESSION YOU MISSED (e.g., date, which prac ?) ;
3. PROOF OF WHY YOU MISSED THE SESSION TO WHICH YOU WERE
ALLOCATED (e.g., valid doctors certificate ) ;
SLIP IT UNDER MY OFFICE DOOR, RM-127, WITHIN ONE WEEK OF THE SESSION
THAT YOU MISSED.
Failure to provide, or comply with, all of the above information will

result in ZERO (or a negative mark -25%) being allocated for your prac
mark.
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2. NOTATION AND UNITS
Very large and very small numbers can be written down as in the next table:
Prefix Symbol Factor by which the unit
is to be multiplied
giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo k 103
milli m 10-3
micro  10-6
nano n 10-9
pico p 10-12
For instance: 0.0000005889 m =588.9×10-9 m = 588.9 nm

58890000 = 5.889×107.
We use SI units (“Systeme Internationale”) throughout.
Basic units
Quantity Units Symbol

length meter m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current Ampere A
temperature Kelvin K
light intensity candela cd
A series of reduced units follow from the basic units. Examples are velocity (m.s-2),
acceleration (m.s-2), force (mass×acceleration or kg.m.s-2 or also called a Newton, N,
work (force × distance or N.m , also called a joule, J), etc.
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3. GENERAL INFORMATION ON GRAPHS
a Normally the independent variable is plotted on the X-axis and the dependent variable
on the Y-axis.
b The point of intersection of the X- and Y-axes may be at the origin, but not
necessarily so. The intersection should be chosen sensibly such that the useful part of
the curve fills the page as far as possible.
c The unit scale should be chosen such that the graph fills the page as far as possible;
the units should be convenient. For instance 3¼ for a unit is not convenient.
d A useful guide to choosing the unit is to consider the maximum minus minimum
value and divide by the number of blocks/ticks on the scale.
e Points on the graph are indicated by a point with a small circle around it (in pencil).
f Give the graph a title. Mark the coordinates along the axes by indicating the
quantities and their units. Draw the axis in ink and the graph as a smooth curve in
pencil. The smooth curve should pass as close as possible through the experimental
points, such that there are equal number of points (the total distances to points above
and below the curve should be equal) on both sides of the curve. Use a ruler where
necessary.
g Put data for the graph in a table.
The straight line

A commonly observed graph is that of a straight line given by the equation
y  mx  c . (1)
The two constants that characterise the line are m, the slope of the line, and c, the intercept
on the y-axis. m is the increase in y per unit increase in x:
y
m  . (2)
x
10
6 y
y
4
2 x
c
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
x
12
The intercept on the y-axis, c, is the value of y when x = 0. If c = 0, the line passes through
the origin and y is said to be proportional to x. If c  0 then y is said to be linearly dependent
on x.
Sometimes y  f (x) is not a linear function of x . f (x) may then be determined from
the form of the curve, for instance:
(a) y  kx n
Take logarithms of this equation.
Thus log y  n log x  log k , which is in the form y  mx  c.
Log y vs. log x gives a straight line from which k and n may be determined.
(b) A  A0 exp( kt)
 ln( A / A0 )  kt,
Thus ln( A / A0 ) vs. t gives a straight line graph with gradient  k .
Other examples of linearising the data
The straight line is the simplest curve to fit to a set of data, and one should try to arrange the
data so that a straight line can be drawn through the plotted points. For instance, the
function
k
y  c
x
1
can be transformed into a straight line by plotting y versus , as shown below.
x
7.5
7 7
6.5 6.5
y (units)
6 6
y (units)
5.5
5.5
5
5
4.5
4.5 4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
4 -1 -1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 x (units )
x (units)
Note how difficult it is to determine the constants k and c from the graph on the left,
whereas the values of k and c follow immediately from the slope of the straight-line graph
on the right, and its intercept with the y-axis.
13
As another example, consider the function
y  ax 2
which can be plotted as a straight line by plotting y versus x2, as shown below.
50 50
40 40
y (units)
30
y (units)
30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
2 2
x (units) x (units )
The error in a result determined from a straight line graph
The general form of the straight line is y  mx  c
The errors in m and c are determined from the experimental graph as follows:
(i) Draw the “best” straight line through the experimental points. This straight
line must be drawn in such a way that, for points not on the line, the sum of
the distances from the line to points above is to be equal to the sum of
distances to points below the line. Determine m and c for this line; call it m0
and c0 .
(ii) Draw two “ worst (extreme) case” straight lines through the experimental
points. The maximum and minimum slopes are a matter of subjective
judgement. The best criterion to use is to ask yourself: "What are the
maximum and minimum slopes that I can put through this set of
points which are not obviously and/or ridiculously wrong ?". See
examples shown in the next figures :
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Determine ( m1 , c1 ) and ( m2 , c2 ) for these two “extreme case” lines. The results for m
and c are then
 m  m2  c c 
m  m0   1  and c  c0   2 1  .
 2   2 
An experimental result does not mean much without an experimental error.

Therefore, always determine the experimental error in your measurements and
show it in your result.
Here is another example …

12
10
8
y (units)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
x (units)
Note the error bars on the data points. These are from the error estimates  y and
 x (see Section 6) , and gives the range of each data value. Worst lines are drawn as
dashed lines.
15
4. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
The number of reliably known digits in a number is called the number of significant
figures. There are three significant figures in the number 18.8, two in 18 and four in 18.80.
Likewise there are three significant figures in the number 0.0188, two in 0.018 and four in
0.01880. The rule when dealing with numbers that are less than 1 is to drop all the
leading zeros and to count all the digits which are left. To understand this consider writing
these numbers in scientific notation ,
1.88E-2 , 1.8E-2, and 1.880E-2 and you notice that leading zero’s are not important, as is the
case when you are dealing with numbers greater than 1.
Writing a number as 18.20 implies an error of approximately  0.01 ; all decimal places
beyond the second place are unreliable ( i.e., smaller than the error).
Certain rules must be followed when combining values with different numbers of significant
figures in calculations.
Adding and Subtracting: when several numbers are to be added or subtracted, the result
should contain as many decimal places as in the number with the fewest.
e.g. 18.3 + 2.04 + 0.004 = 20.344 = 20.3
Since the result is reliable only to 0.1 (from the 18.3) it should be quoted to 1 decimal place
only.
Multiplying and dividing: when numbers are multiplied or divided the result should be
given with one more significant figure as in the number with the fewest.
e.g. 18.3  2.04  0.004 = 0.149 = 0.15
Quoting a number like 0.004 implies an error of 0.001, which is accurate to 25%, while the
other two numbers used are much more accurate. The numbers 18.3 and 2.04 have three
significant figures, but 0.004 has only one. The answer should not be given to more than
two significant figures. The accuracy of the final answer, determined from a maximum
error analysis, should be comparable to the accuracy of the least most accurate number used
in the product.
When making measurements, or doing calculations, you should not have more digits in the
final answer than the number of significant figures. One figure more in calculations is an
acceptable policy. A useful general rule is to give your final answer to no more
significant figures than in the least accurate of your original measurements (this
depends to some extent on how your values have been combined in reaching the final
result).
“The strength of a chain comprising a number of links
is determined by the strength of the weakest link”
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5. INTRODUCTION TO THE VERNIER SCALE
The idea is to explain to you how to read vernier instruments as well as the principles
on which it is based. With a meter stick one can measure accurately to 1 mm. A
vernier scale will increase the accuracy. It is an auxiliary scale next to the main scale
as shown in figure 1.
Figure 1
In the simplest case 10 vernier divisions correspond to 0.9 cm, giving a length of 0.09
cm for each vernier division. The difference in length between a division on the main
scale and one on the vernier scale is thus 0.10 – 0.09, ie. 0.01 cm.
Let the vernier scale be moved to the position shown in figure 2.
Vernier scale
Main scale
Figure 2
The position of the zero of the vernier scale is somewhere between 15.0 and 15.1 cm.
The vernier division 7 coincides exactly with a mark on the main scale (the 15.7
mark). There is thus 0.01 cm between the vernier division 6 and the 15.6 cm mark;
0.02 cm between the vernier division 5 and the 15.5 cm mark, etc. There is thus 0.07
cm between the zero of the vernier and the 15.0 cm mark on the main scale. The
position of the zero is thus 15.07 cm on the main scale (fixed scale). The position was
thus determined with an accuracy of 0.01 cm by determining the division on the
vernier that coincide with a mark on the main scale.
Other types of vernier scales are shown in figures 3, 4 and 5. Make sure that you
understand the principles involved in each. An arrow in each figure indicates the
position where the vernier and main scales coincide
Figure 3 Reading: 7.165
17
With a vernier one can read tenths of a millimeter accurately.
Figures 4 & 5 show verniers for the measurement of angular readings in degrees
and minutes. The angle can be read to the nearest minute . Recall sixty minutes is
one degree (60’=1) .
Figure 4 Reading: 43 22’
Figure 5 Reading: 64° 45′
In general, n–1 main scale divisions are divided in n equal parts on the vernier scale
and measurements can then be taken accurately to 1/n of a main scale division. The
smallest division of the instrument, 1/n, is known as the step.
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Vernier calipers
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
The main scale (a) of the vernier caliper above is divided into mm. The vernier scale (b) is
9mm long, and is divided into 10 divisions. This means that each vernier scale division is
9
10
mm long, and the vernier caliper can read accurately to 101 mm (0.1 mm).
The micrometre screw gauge Main scale
vernier
Rod A of the micrometer is fixed, and P can be moved backwards and forwards by rotating
the ratchet head, K'. Always rotate the screw using K' rather than K. This means that
the device will always be tightened to the same extent, and will never be over-tightened.
The pitch of the screw which drives P is usually 0.5mm, which means that if K is rotated
through one complete turn P will move through exactly 0.5mm. The circular scale H is
divided into 50 divisions. Each division therefore represents 0.01 mm. The distance AP can
be read off to 0.5 mm on the main scale S. The rest of the reading is then taken on H.
The absolute accuracy of the reading of a vernier is given by a division of the vernier scale.
For the vernier caliper described above this is 0.1 mm, and for the micrometer screw gauge
0.01 mm.
e.g. , 3.50 + 0.44 = 3.94 mm
19
6. ERROR ANALYSIS (also refer to your notes of the first semester, here is
another way of re-casting those ideas )
REFERENCES:
1. “Laboratory Physics” by H. F. Meiners, W. Eppenstein, K. H. Moore.
2. “ A Laboratory Manual of Physics” by F. Tyler.
3. Text book of the theoretical course.
4. “ Experiments in Physics” by D. W. Preston
6.1 Types of experimental errors
All measurements are to a certain extent unreliable, i.e. it is impossible to determine the
exact length, mass, etc. of a body. The exact value is within certain boundaries, for
instance M = (19.4 ± 0.1) gram, and the closer the boundaries are together, the better the
accuracy of the measurement. The difference between the exact and observed value of an
observable, is known as the experimental error. For practical purposes the mean value of
a number of measurements is taken as the exact value.
There are two types of errors, namely (1) random errors and (2) systematic errors.
Random errors are variable in size and sign and may be reduced to a minimum by
repeated measurement. Systematic errors give values that are consistently either too
large or too small. The following are examples of random errors.
(i) Reading errors
The reading error with a meter ruler is ± 0.5 mm (see paragraph 6.2 ) when
one has to estimate between two markings on the scale. Repeating the
measurement generally gives an estimate that differs from the previous
measurements. The readings oscillate around a mean value, i.e. we have a
random error. An instrument with more divisions, for instance with a vernier
scale, will increase the accuracy.
(ii) Setting errors
Examples of these are encountered when the position of a screen on an optical

bench is to be determined
20
∆x is the distance through which the lens may be moved without changing the
observed focus on the screen. The positions of the object, lens and screen may
be read to within ± 0.5 mm on the meter ruling of the optical bench. The lens
may however be moved through 1 cm (for example) without changing the
observed focus on the screen. The setting error is a random error, since
repetition of the experiment will always give a different position of the lens
which varies around a mean position.
The range of positions of the lens, ∆x, in which the image remains in focus, is
taken as twice the setting error, i.e., setting error = ∆x/2.
The following are examples of systematic errors:
(i) Instrumental errors
These errors are due to inaccurate instruments; in the length of the

meter ruler exactly 1m, is the current 1A when the ammeter registers
1A, etc. These errors may be estimated by calibration with standard
instruments.
(ii) Personal errors
Such errors occurs when the observer consistently takes the

measurements too early or too late or too high or too low, etc. Parallax
errors are examples of this. By being careful and by comparison with
other observations, one can minimize these types of errors.
(iii) Theoretical errors
These errors are for instance due to wrong assumptions. The simple
pendulum is an example. For small angles on the assumption sin    ,
theory gives for the period T0 of oscillation
21
L
T0  2 ,
g
where L is the length of the pendulum and g the acceleration due to

gravity.
The following table gives the percentage difference between T0 and the true
value T calculated without making the assumption sin    .
 (deg rees) T  T0
% difference ( 100)
T0
1 0.002
3 0.017
5 0.048
10 0.191
15 0.430
30 1.741
Notice how the difference becomes appreciable at high angles   5 .
6.2 Determination of the experimental error
The following rules are used to determine the error in experimental

measurements.
Rule 1. The error in a measurement with a certain instrument is taken as

half of the smallest division that can be read on the instrument. For
instance, the error in a single measurement with a meter ruler is ± 0.5
mm (Why?)
Rule 2. Take a series of measurements (at least five) for the observable
with the instrument. The scattering of the measurements around the
mean value is important. The range, for this scatter is taken as half of the
difference between the largest and the smallest measured values.
Rule 3. The largest of the two errors given by rules 1 and 2, is taken as
the final error in the measurement.
22
Examples
(a) Consider the following measurements of the length of a sample with a

meter ruler.
60.2 ± 0.5 mm
60.0 ± 0.5 mm
60.0 ± 0.5 mm
60.2 ± 0.5 mm
60.3 ± 0.5 mm
(i) The error in a single measurement is ± 0.5 mm.
60.3  60.0
(ii) The range error is  0.15 mm  0.2 mm
2
(iii) Case (i) gives the largest error. Thus
 300.6 
L  0.5  mm
 5 
= (60.1 ±0.5) mm
Note, we do not write (60.12 ± 0.5) mm. The 2 here in the second
decimal place is not significant as the calculation of the mean
value must not be done more accurate than the accuracy of the
measurement (the error already appears in the first decimal place).
We retain only the significant figures in the final answer (digits
whose values we are sure about).
(b) The diameter of a bar is measured with a micrometer as
Diameter (d) in mm
3.513 ± 0.005
3.552 ± 0.005
3.501 ± 0.005
23
3.500 ± 0.005
3.538 ± 0.005
The range is the largest for this case. Thus
17.604
d  0.026
5
 d  (3.52  0.03)mm
6.3 Experimental error in calculations
If the error in a measurement is determined as explained above, how is the error

determined in a calculation using the measurement? For instance, in the equation

V  D 2 L , D and L are measured and the error in each is estimated. How is the
4
error in V determined ?
Two methods can be used. The first, the so called direct method, is rather lengthy. Use
this method in the case of complicated expressions or calculations. The second takes
longer to explain and to understand, but the error is determined more quickly than with
the direct method. Both methods overestimate the error slightly (and give the maximum
error estimate). Statistical analyses are necessary for best estimates of the errors. For our
purposes in the first year course, the two techniques explained below are adequate.
(a) The direct method (use this for complicated functions or cases)
Here we calculate the largest and smallest values using the largest and smallest
values for the observables. The error in the calculation is then:
error = ½ ( largest calculated value – smallest calculated value)
Example: A and D are measured with errors as follows:
A = 60.0 ± 0.2 and D = 35.0° ± 0.1°.
24
sin
 A  D
What is the error in n where n 2 ?
A
sin
2
From the equation the largest n is obtained when A is a minimum and D a

maximum, namely
Amin = 59 .8 and Dmin = 35.1°.
sin
 59.8  35.1
Thus nmax  2  1.47784
59.8
sin
2
Similarly
sin
 60.2  34.9 
nmin  2  1.47129
60.2
sin
2
Therefore
1
n   nmax  nmin   0.003
2
Note that the same value of A is used in the nominator and denominator. The
mean value of n is
sin
 60  35
nave  2  1.47455
60
sin
2
1
  nmax  nmin 
2
Therefore n  1.475  0.003
25
(b) The “other” (error propagation) method involving combining quantities by

addition , subtraction , multiplication and division (for simple
expressions or cases)
Consider the following result of a measurement: Measured quantity or average

value x with error estimate x
x  x ( remember, first semester)

x
We define f  as the fractional or relative error.
x
x
The percentage error is 100%.
x
(i) The error in a sum
If z  x  y
z+z=  x  x    y  y  ,
Then z   x  y  .
The error z in the sum z , is the sum of the errors x  y .
(ii) The error in the difference
Consider z  x  y
Then the largest value of the difference is
zmax =  x  x    y  y   x  y  x  y
and the smallest value is

zmin =  x  x    y  y   x  y   x  y 
 zmax  zmin  2  x  y 
1
or x  y   zmax  zmin   z.
2
The maximum error z in the difference z is the sum of the errors x  y .
26
(iii) Error in the product
If z=x.y , where x and y are measured or average values and x and y are the error
estimates of x and y , and we would like to find the error z of the product. The
fractional errors are f1  x and f 2  y .
x y
Then z  z   x  x  y  y 
= xy  xy  yx  yx
neglect small terms yx, recall z  xy
z  xy  yx, divide by z
z xy yx
fractional error  
z xy xy
z y x
  as we had in the first semester
z y x
The fractional error in a product is the sum of the fractional errors . That is , the
percentage errors add in a product.
Furthermore :
if z  x n (exponents)
then it can be readily shown that
z x
n
z x
(iv) Error in a quotient
x
If z  , where x and y are measured or average values and x and y are the error
y
estimates of x and y , and we would like to find the error z of the product.
27
 x 
x 1  
 x  x 
1
 x  x  x   y 
z  z    1 1
 y  y  y 1  y  y  x   y 
 y 

now use the binomial approximation (see maths course)
x  x   y 
z  z  1   1   ... and proceed as we did for "products"
y x  y 
neglecting small terms x.y. We will get...
z x y
 
z x y
So again, the fractional error in a quotient is the sum of the fractional errors ;
that is , the percentage errors add (remember, first semester ) .
As previously mentioned the above techniques overestimate the error (they

give the maximum possible uncertainty) , and statistical methods are needed for
determining the errors more accurately.
 Statistical analyses show that better approximations to the above give:
absolute errors …
z   x    y 
2 2
Addition: .
z   x    y 
2 2
Subtraction: .
Fractional errors …
2
z  x   y 
2
Multiplication:      .
z  x   y 
2
z  x   y 
2
Division:     
z  x   y 
28
Example:
The density of a cylindrical bar is needed.
Given: Diameter d = (5.02 ± 0.05) mm
Length h = (6.10 ± 0.05) cm
Mass M = (8.013 ± 0.001) g
M
Density D 2
   h
d
2
The mean density is

8.013
DO   6.64 g / cm3 .
  2.5110 
1 2
 6.10
According to the error in quotients (division) and products, the fractional (or
relative) error in the density is
D 0.001 0.05 0.05

  
D0 8.013 5.02 6.10
 0.028 i.e., about 3%
Thus D  0.187 g / cm3 . The final result is thus D   6.6  0.2 g / cm3.
The error in the density appears in the first number following the decimal point. It is
therefore necessary to do the calculation only to this accuracy. If a calculator was used,
you would have found a series of numbers following the comma. Many of these numbers
are meaningless as the error already appears in the first number following the comma.
Remember to show only the significant numbers.
The error calculation may be simplified , by making meaningful estimates. In the

above example …
29
D 0.001 2  0.05 0.05

  
D 8 5 6
 0.0001  0.02  0.008
 0.0281
 0.03
D  0.03 6.6

 0.198
 0.2 g / cm3
The error was calculated here by using mental arithmetic. Think when you
calculate the error, so that you do not make the error calculation
unnecessarily complicated involving more work than doing the experiment
itself !
The same result as above can be obtained by using the direct method. Here we have
8.014
DMAX 
  4.97 / 2  102  6.05
2
 6.828g / cm3
8.012
DMIN 
  5.07 / 2  102  6.15
2
 6.453g / cm3
DMAX  DMIN
D   0.188  0.2 g / cm3
2
and D  D0  D   6.6  0.2  g / cm3
30
EXPERIMENT L
WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT WITH THE AID OF

NEWTON’S RINGS
1. AIM
The aim is the determination of the wavelength of a sodium (Na) light source by
using interference effects or interference rings, known as Newton’s rings.
( refer to the introductory notes on verniers in your prac manual and read through the
section on statistical error analysis which you will require in this prac )
2. METHOD
The apparatus is assembled as in figure 1. A plano-convex lens is placed on a flat

glass plate or base.
Figure 1 Microscope
Na lamp
Beam-splitter /
reflector
lens
glass base
Light from the Na-light source is incident on a thin glass plate that makes an angle of
45 with the horizontal. The light rays are shown in the figure. Due to the thin film of
air between the lens and the flat surface of the glass plate, an interference pattern,
consisting of concentric dark and bright rings, is formed. The interference pattern is
observed by a travelling microscope.
3. THEORY
Consider light incident on say point D (and B) in figure 2 below. Note that ray 1 has
a reflection at the glass-air interface (at D) and there is no phase change . Ray 2 has
31
a reflection at the air-glass interface (at B) and there is a phase change of  (i.e.,
/2). Furthermore there is an optical path difference of 2BD=2t between rays 1 and
2 , where t is the thickness of the air-film (between lens and glass base). A
combination of these effects determines whether ray 1 interferes constructively or
destructively with ray 2 (i.e., whether a bright or dark ring is seen, respectively).
Also note that the incident rays are near-parallel to the line DB, but have been
exaggerated to be off-parallel from DB for the purposes of illustration in the figure.
Figure 2a Figure 2b observer

r
2
1
Consider the circle in figure 2 where the hatched part of the circle represents the
plano convex lens. Let the thickness of the air film at B be given by t =BD = AF and
let the diameter of the dark ring at B be given by D = BC = ED.
If R is the radius of curvature, on which the profile of the lens falls, then from simple
geometry of intersecting chords of a circle :
AF x FG =  FD 
2
t  2R  t    D 2
2
Or
Since t < < R we have:

D2
t (1)
8R
Keep in mind that there is a phase shift of  for the reflection at B. Thus if B and C
fall on a dark interference ring, we have
2t  n (2)
where n is an integer (consider figure above) , also called the order n of the
interference ring.
32
From (1) and (2): D2  4Rn (3)

Under ideal conditions (optically smooth and dust–free surfaces) we expect to see a
dark spot at the centre of the ring pattern, corresponding to m = 0 when t = 0 (eq. 2).
In practice there are usually dust particles between the lens and the glass plate, and the
minimum thickness of the air film will not be zero (at A in figure 2 above). This also
means that the order of the first ring may not be 1, and in fact cannot be determined.
To eliminate this problem in determining the order n of the rings , we rather measure
the difference in diameters of the n-th and (n + m)-th dark rings, because we can
readily distinguish between different rings (i.e., the m value) . Then from (3):
Dn2  4Rn and Dn2m  4R(n  m)
Dn2 m  Dn2
or  (4)
4mR
If the value of R is given and D is measured then  may be determined.
4. EXPERIMENTAL
Look up your introductory notes to familiarise yourself with reading the vernier.
Make sure you are familiar with the vernier, practice a few readings, and
confirm with your DEMI.
Be careful with the plano-convex lens, it’s delicate and expensive !
Move the crosswires of the microscope to the 20th dark ring on the left hand side of the
pattern and record the position of the vernier. Now move to the 19th dark ring on the
left and record the reading. Readings must be taken on 20 consecutive dark ring,
moving inwards. Do not move the microscope back at any time, since this results in
"backlash", and consequent errors. Move across the center to the other side of this
ring you have last recorded and on the right of the center, take measurements on the
same 20 consecutive fringes moving outwards from the center. Again, beware of
backlash errors.
Record the data as in the table on the next page (arrows indicate the sequence in
which you record your data, i.e., start measuring, say, the 20th ring on the left
side).
The wavelength is obtained from , eq. 4 , using m=10 :
D(2n 10)  Dn2

 (5)
40 R
33
where R is the radius of curvature of the lens. Use R = 50 cm .
Use eq. (5) and your table of values to find the wavelength  (in nm) of the Na
lamp. Use this to find the mean value of  and the standard deviation which will
represent the statistical (random) error estimate of  (see additional info at the
end) .
Table 1 : Measured diameters of Newton’s rings

Microscope Microscope
No of Reading Dn+10 No of Reading Dn D2 n+10 -
Ring Ring D2n
Left Right Left Right
20 D10+10 10 D10
19 D9+10 9 D9
18 etc 8 etc
17 7
16 6
15 5
14 4
13 3
12 2
11 1
Note that the last column is D2 n+10 - D2n , which is related to the difference in
diameters squared of rings that are spaced m=10 rings apart, eq (4).
Questions
(i) Make sure to compare your measured value of  with the accepted value for the light
emitted by the Na lamp, by consulting your text book or the Web. If there is a big
discrepancy with the accepted value, try to suggest a reason for the error.
(ii) Briefly explain , with the aid of the above-mentioned equations, how this method of
Newton’s rings may be used to find the radius of curvature R of a new (or any) plano-
convex lens introduced into the set-up in figure 1.
(iii) Ask your demonstrator to flip the lens over on to its flat side facing down against the
glass base (carefully ! the lens is delicate and expensive). Briefly describe (sketch)
and try to explain, in terms of interference fringes, what you see though the
microscope. Can you think of an important application of this idea ?
34
References: F. Tyler: A laboratory manual of physics.

Textbook used for the theoretical course.
Appendix (useful information , statistics ) :
The mean for n measurements is given by
n
1
<x> =
n
x
i=1
i ,
where xi are your various measurements.
The standard deviation  is the root–mean–square deviation of the observations from the
mean. It may be thought of as the average deviation from the mean for the series of n
measurements, and is given by :
n

i 1
i
2
 
n 1
Where i = xi – <x> is the i–th residual, and n is the number of observations.
Can you think of why we use (n-1) in the formula rather than n ?
Can you think of why we use the square of the residual  i2 , rather than just i ?
grh/ah July-2009/June-2012
35
EXPERIMENT M
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS IN NATURE
1. INTRODUCTION
We are familiar with ordinary logarithms where the basis is 10. The ordinary logarithm
of N is the exponent y in
N y  log N
y
10 or
In the case of natural logarithms we use the basis e where

1
e  lim(1 x) x
 2.71828
x 0 (1)
and write
ex  A or x  ln A (compare with log N for the basis 10).
These logarithms play an important role in mathematics and in nature.
For x = 0, A = 1, and ln 1 = 0. If x = 1, A = e and ln e = 1.
If x→-∞, A→0 and ln 0 = -∞.

Values of ln A are given by your calculator or they may be calculated from the relation
ln A = 2.303 (log A) which is deduced as follows:
Consider ex = A and take logarithms to basis 10 on both sides. Then
x log e  log A
or ln A log e = log A, because x =ln A
1
 ln A = log A = 2.303log A
log e
The function x defined by

y  e x  exp( x) (2)
is known as an exponential function and is shown graphically in figure1.
1
y  ex
Figure 1
0 X
36
Consider for instance the function:
y  a exp(-b x ), (3)
in which y decreases exponentially with x . When x  0 , y  a and as x  , y  0 . It

is shown in figure 2.
Y
a
Figure 2
 y  y
From (3) we have ln   = - bx . We can thus obtain b from a graph of ln   vs. x.
a a
Differentiation of y=ln x
Consider y = ln x
Then y + ∆y = ln(x + ∆x)
Or ∆y = ln(x + ∆x) – In x
 x 
= ln 1  
 x 
Thus
y 1  x 
= ln 1  
x x  x 
1 x  x 
= ln 1  
x x  x 
x
1  x  x
= ln 1  
x  x 
dy y 1
 = lim  (ln e) from (1)
dx x 0 x x
1
=
x
37
d 1
So (ln x)  (4)
dx x
Note that (4) allows you to find the error estimate in ln(x) :
  ln  x    1x x , where x is the error estimate in the quantity x.
From (4) we have
dx
 x
 d (ln x)
= ln x  c
B 1
also  A x
dx = ln B  ln A
B
= ln
A
In nature we have several examples of the following:
The rate of change (decrease) of an observable A is proportional to the observable itself,

i.e.
dA
 kA (5)
dt
where k is a constant of proportionality, known as the decay constant.
Examples are the (i) decay of radioactive material, (ii) discharge of a capacitor, (iii) flow
of liquid out of a burette, (iv) cooling of an object, (v) decrease in the amplitude of a
pendulum, etc.
From (5):
A t
A0
dA / A   kdt
0
38
A
 ln   kt
A0
or A  A0 e(  kt )  A0 exp(kt ) (6)
where A0 is the original value of the observable A at t = 0 (see figure 3). The observable
thus varies exponentially with time.
A
A 0
Figure 3
2. EXPERIMENT: The discharge of a capacitor through a resistance

Do some brief background reading on capacitors in your text book.
A capacitor C is discharged through resistor R. The initial charge on C is Q0. The

charge after time t is given by Q=Q0 exp(-kt) . From theory (see your text book) we
have k = 1/(RC).
Q0
If t = RC =TC , known as the time constant of the circuit, then we have Q ,
e
that is , Q has dropped to 1/e of its initial value.
3 volt
source 1
2
Multimeter on
- 3 volt scale
C
+
C , e.g. , 470  F, 16 volt (note polarity)
39
Construct the circuit as in the figure. Move the switch to position 2. This will charge
the capacitor. Quickly switch to position 1 (C now discharges through the voltmeter).
Q1 : The capacitor discharges through the resistance R of the voltmeter. What sort of
magnitude of resistance do you expect this to be : 10 k , 100 k , 1 M ?
Once the capacitor starts discharging you are required to measure the voltage V (across
capacitor and therefore across resistor R) as a function of time t. So measure the time
(begin the stopwatch on the instant when the switch is flipped to position 1) for every
0.25 volt down to a lowest value of 0.5 volt after starting from about 3 volts. You
should have several data points for the decay curve.
Repeat this for two different capacitors , say, 470 µF and 100 µF.
The charge Q on the capacitor at any given time t is …

1
Q  Q0 exp(kt )  Q0 exp( t ) , this can also be written in terms of the voltage
RC
across the capacitor
1
V  V0 exp(kt )  V0 exp( t) . (7)
RC
Q2 : Explain how equation (7) is obtained .
Draw two graphs :
1) Voltmeter reading ( proportional to the charge on C ) vs time. From this graph

(decay curve) find the 1/e point , time where the voltage has dropped to V0/e . Use
this to find the time constant TC =RC from eq. (7) and then find the resistance R of
the voltmeter.
2) Linearise eq. 7 , so that by plotting a straight line graph you can obtain the R
value from the slope. See notes in the introduction section. Perform a “worst-
line/best-line” error analysis to obtain an error estimate for R.
You will need to use the value of C as marked on the capacitor. Make an intelligent
guess as to what the error in C is likely to be.
Q3 : Comment on the reasonableness of the value obtained for R.
Q4 : Check if there a voltage rating marked on the capacitor. What is the significance
of this voltage rating ?
40
EXPERIMENT N
THE RATIO OF CHARGE TO MASS (e/m) OF AN ELECTRON
1. AIM
The aim of the experiment is to determine the ratio of the charge to mass (e/m) for an
electron.
2. METHOD
Electrons are accelerated through a known potential difference and are then projected
perpendicularly into an uniform magnetic field. The electrons move in a circle when in
the field. By measuring the radius of this circle, the accelerating potential difference as
well as the magnetic flux density, we are able to determine e/m for the electrons.
3. THEORY
Consider a charge e of mass m moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B. The force
on the charge is given by
F = ev  B or F  e v B sin  , where  is the angle between v and B.
If =90 we have
F  evB (1)
The orbit of the electron in such an experimental setup is a circle. Explain this.
From Newton’s laws :
mv 2
 Bev (2)
r
If the electron is accelerated through potential difference V, we have
1 2
Ve  mv (3)
2
From (2) and (3):
e 2V
 2 2 (4)
m Br
41
The distance between the Helmholz coils, which generate the magnetic field in this
experiment, is equal to the radius of each of the two identical coils. This setup gives a
nearly uniform magnetic field at the center between the two coils.
B = magnetic flux density on the axis midway between the two coils
80 NI
B Tesla (5)
125R
where N = number of turns on each coil
I = current through the two coils in series (amp)
R = radius of each coil (meter)
0  4 107 Wb/amp-m, is permeability of free space.
B can be calculated from eq (5) or from the calibration on the front panel of the
instrument.
Values of N, I, R, V and r are determined and e/m is obtained from equations (4)
and (5).
4. APPARATUS
The three element electron tube is mounted between the Helmholz coils. The tube
contains a heated cathode F (which supplies the electrons), a grid G at a positive
potential with respect to the cathode, as well as a plate P (the anode) in the form of a
disc at a high positive potential V to accelerate the electrons. The grid G is used to
focus the electron beam. The electrons pass through a small hole in the horizontally
mounted anode P ( on which circles are marked with radii 0.5; 1.0; 1.5 and 2cm ) and
enter the magnetic field of the Helmholtz coils with some velocity v ( eq. (3) ). The
anode and the tube are covered with a fluorescent material and the tube furthermore
contains a small amount of inert gas in order to make the electron beam visible.
Reversing switch
5. EXPERIMENT
Field Coils
G F F P
-
High Voltage 6.3 volt
+ 42
Connect the circuit as shown in the figure. Place resistors with inductively turned
windings and meters far away from the Helmholz setup so as not to cause any
interference. Make sure that the magnetic fields of the two coils add to each other.
Please follow the manual supplied with the experiment carefully for the switching-on
procedure.
In a preliminary experiment , send current through the Helmholz coils and adjust it ( up
to 3-5 amp max) so that the electron beam follows a bent trajectory. Adjust (increase)
the accelerating potential V (electron velocity) and the current I through the Helmholz
coils (magnetic field B) until the electron beam is bent into a circle. This gives you the
maximum V and I that can be used to get a circular trajectory with radius r. Your
experiment will consist of measuring a number of radii r and associated B values, all
for V fixed at an appropriately chosen value.
The grid potential G should be adjusted when the anode potential is changed in order to
keep the electron beam in focus.
Record the anode potential V. This should be kept constant. Then record the
current through the Helmholz coils and measure the radius of the circle on which
the electron beam falls. Measure the mean diameter of the Helmholz coils and
record the number of turns on each coil (this will allow you to find B from eq.
(5)). Do the experiment only for the three outer rings on the anode.
Repeat for other circles of the electron beam by varying the current in the Helmholz
coils (i.e., magnetic field strength B) , for example, I = 1.0 , 1.5 and 2.0 Amps , etc .
Try to obtain 5 -7 readings of current I so that a useful curve can be plotted.
You can make a table of I (amps) , B and r (meters), for the constant accelerating
voltage V used . From this table , and equation (4) , plot an appropriate straight
line graph so that e/m can be obtained from the slope. Use the best-line/worst-line
method to obtain an error estimate for e/m.
( Perform some rough checks, by doing some example calculations of e/m from your
data ).
6. QUESTIONS
1. Compare your result with the accepted value of e/m (refer to your text book).
Indicate the various sources of experimental error that may occur in this
experiment (this explains why the points on your graph have scatter around the
best straight line).
2. In the schematic of the apparatus, note that a voltage of ~ 6 V (DC ) is
supplied to the filament F. Explain why this is the case.
43
3. Look up the value of the Earth’s magnetic field. Does it have an important
influence on your experiment (compare it with the values from your Helmholtz
coils). Explain how the influence of the Earth’s magnetic field can be cancelled
with another Helmholz setup.
4. According to the theory of relativity the mass of the electron is a function of
 v2 
speed as follows: m  m0 1  2 
 c 
where m0 is known as the rest mass and c is the velocity of light. Is it

significant to correct for the mass in this experiment ?
GIVEN:
c  3 1010 cm / s
44
EXPERIMENT O
INDEX OF REFRACTION OF GLASS
1. AIM
To determine the index of refraction (n) of glass in the form of a prism by using a
spectrometer.
2. METHOD
The spectrometer consists of a table, which can rotate, on which the prism is
mounted. The collimator (fixed) and telescope, which can rotate around the prism, are
the other parts of the spectrometer and are shown schematically in the figure. The
collimator provides parallel light rays that are incident on the prism and the telescope
is used to observe the light that is reflected or refracted by the prism. Ensure to first
practice reading the angular vernier scale on the spectrometer (see introductory
notes in the prac manual, and consult your DEMI ). Please handle the prism
carefully.
See diagram below, adjust the spectrometer as follows:

a) Focus the eye piece of the telescope on the cross-wires.
b) Obtain the image of a far-away object in the telescope and focus the telescope on
the image.
c) Adjust the telescope in line with the collimator. Illuminate the slit and adjust the
focusing on the collimator for a sharp image of the slit on the cross-wires.
d) Adjust the slit for a narrow opening.
2.1 Determination of the vertex angle (A) of the prism
Collimator Note : this is reflection into the telescope. Ensure

that the APEX A to be measured is placed in the
CENTER of the table
Vernier 1 Record your measurements as follows
A Vernier 1 Vernier 2
TL TL TR TL TR
Telescope Vernier 2 TR
2A 2A = TL-TR
45
Point angle A of the prism on the spectrometer table toward the collimator. Record
the position of the telescope on one of the verniers for the reflected rays on each side
of the prism (TL and TR in the figure). Also do this measurement using the other
vernier.
2.2 Determination of the angle of minimum deviation (Dm)
“straight through” ray

A
Dm
i Note : this is refraction.
Light passes through prism
and bends. Place the
CENTER of the PRISM in
the CENTER of the TABLE
B C
Turn the spectrometer table such that light from the collimator is directed obliquely
(large i value) towards point A on side AB (say) of the prism as shown in the figure
above. Obtain the image of the dispersed light (spectrum) in the telescope. Now turn
the table in such a direction as to decrease the angle of deviation (see figure above ),
where the spectrum moves towards the “straight through” direction. Simultaneously
turn the telescope in such a direction as to follow the spectrum. Keep on decreasing
the angle of deviation up to the point where the moving image reverses direction and
starts moving away from the “straight through” direction. Adjust the telescope cross-
wires carefully to fall on the spectral lines where they reverse direction and record the
position of the telescope for one of the colors (e.g., red). Remove the prism from the
table and obtain the position of the slit in the telescope, “straight through” position.
The angle of (minimum) deviation, Dm , is the difference in position, measured in
degrees, of the telescope for the last two settings. All of this is done using, say,
vernier-1. Repeat the measurements for different colors (e.g., red and violet). Repeat
the measurements using the other vernier. The index of refraction is given by
A  Dm
sin (1)
n 2
sin A / 2
where A is the vertex angle of the prism.
46
Calculate the index of refraction from your results in the form n ± ∆n , where ∆n
is the experimental error. The error ∆n is obtained from the error estimates of A
and Dm , as well as considerations of what are the maximum and minimum
possible values of numerator and denominator, respectively, in eq. (1). See the
example calculations in your notes on error analysis. Repeat the experiment for
light of another colour ( e.g., violet ). Is the index of refraction the same as for the
colour that was used previously ? Explain.
3. QUESTIONS
I. What is monochromatic light ?

II. Attempt to deduce the above equation for n, or explain how you would go about
doing this (consult your text book).
III. Show qualitatively in a graph how the angle of deviation Dm varies with the angle
of incidence on the prism.
IV. Does the angle of refraction depend on the wavelength of the light that is used ?
Are your values obtained for n compatible with accepted values (text book).
Appendix (optional bonus marks)
For an additional 10% bonus marks obtain the refractive index for all the colors that are
discerned ( red, green, blue and violet ). Plot the dispersion curve, which is the refractive
index n versus wavelength λ. Compare this with the dispersion curve in the literature for
flint glass (e.g., check your text book).
grh/ah July-2009/Sept2011
47
EXPERIMENT P
THE METER (Wheatstone-type) BRIDGE AND POTENTIOMETER
1. AIM
The determination of unknown resistance and emf (using potential divider concepts).
( refer to the electrical circuits section of your text book and make sure you are
familiar with the concept of a potential divider )
2. THE METER (Wheatsone-type) BRIDGE
X R (STANDARD)
G
slidewire
l 1 l 2
POWER
SUPPLY
Note : slidewire length l1 + l2 = 50 cm
Resistance of ~20 /m
Construct the meter bridge circuit as shown in the figure above [ hint : always first
lay out the apparatus and wiring exactly as indicated in the diagram. Then make the
connections , taking into account polarity and trying to use standard colors, red (+)
and black (-) ].
Move the knife point on the slidewire contact to get a null (zero) reading on the
galvanometer G or multimeter (so-called balanced bridge circuit). Record lengths l 1
and l 2
. For balance of the meter bridge we have
X l1

R l2
48
X and R are chosen so that l1  l2 .
Record the setting (measurement) error associated with each reading. Calculate the
resistance of the unknown resistor (X) from this relation. Repeat the measurements.
Do it for two different potential differences (from the power supply) over the bridge,
one for 3 volts and the second with a smaller potential difference, say 1.5 V.
3. QUESTIONS
I. Will the value of X depend on the voltage of the power supply ?

X l
II. Deduce the equation  1
R l2
III. What is the error in the determination of the resistance X (from the errors in the
other quantities) ?
IV. How must X compare with R to ensure the highest accuracy ? Explain.
4. THE POTENTIOMETER
Power Supply
O
slidewire
S Standard Cell
G
X Unknown emf
Construct the circuit for the potentiometer as shown in the figure above . Again use
the meter bridge (50 cm) of section-2 above. Note that the slidewire enables you to
have a variable emf so as to balance the unknown emf X , in which case G = 0 V
or 0 amps at balance, as depicted in the equivalent circuit in the figure below.
Variable emf from

slidewire
O
X unknown emf
49
Determination of the emf of the cell
Set the voltage of the power supply on 2 volt. Obtain the balance of the bridge
respectively with S (standard cell) and X (unknown emf). Measure the necessary
distances from O along the slidewire. Repeat the measurement. Also repeat for a
voltage of 2.5 volt. Let lS be the length for balance with S and let lX be the length for
X.
l
The emf of the unknown cell is then given by X  X S , where S is the emf of the
lS
standard cell. Calculate the emf of X. Estimate the error in the emf X from the
various setting (measurement) errors.
GIVEN: Emf of standard cell = 1.02 volts or check with your demonstrator.
5. QUESTIONS
I. Why do we measure the emf of the unknown cell with a potentiometer ?
II. Why are all the positive points connected to O ?
50
EXPERIMENT Q
RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY
 Aim :
Resistivity  , equal to 1/ where  is the electrical conductivity , is an intrinsic property of a
material related to current flow, just as thermal conductivity  is an intrinsic property of a
material related to heat flow. Determine the resistivity of two different materials by examining
the dependence of resistance R on length , using the so-called four-probe method.
 Theory :
If a current (I) is flowing through a wire, measuring the voltage drop (V) across a certain
length L of wire allows us to find the resistance R from Ohm's Law :
V  IR
or solving for R gives:
V
R Eq. (1)
I
This is accomplished by means of the four-probe method to obtain resistance R from the
voltage drop and current flow through the device.
R
I
V
The resistance of a wire depends on the length of the wire, the cross-sectional area (A)
and the resistivity (ρ) of the material
L
R , Eq. (2)
A
where A is the cross-sectional area. Measuring R for different values of L and plotting R
versus L permits you to obtain the resistivity  from the slope if A is measured.
 Equipment setup and use :

(Read and understand this section, and summarize it in your reports )
Apparatus
Resistance apparatus.
Wire conductor set.
Voltage supply.
Banana plug cables.
Voltmeter.
Micrometer.
Figure 1: Connection setup
51
1. Power Supply: Set the voltage of the power supply to zero. Connect it to the power jacks of
the apparatus (see diagram) so that the current will flow from right to left through the wire.
2.Voltage Measurement: Connect Galvanometer Sensor or voltmeter to the jacks on the reference
probe (-) and slider probe (+).
Inserting the sample wire:
Figure 2: Inserting the wire

1. Move the reference and slider probes to the extreme left and right positions so they are parked
on the ramps that will hold them out, off the wire.
2. Loosen the wire clamps.
3. Insert the wire through the clamps and under the probes, as shown in the diagram.
Observe the alignment lines marked near the wire clamps and note that the wire goes through
the front of the left-hand clamp and through the back of the right-hand clamp. (This
configuration causes the wire to be pulled tight when the clamps are closed.)
4. Tighten both clamps enough to secure the wire in place.
5. To remove the wire, park the probes and loosen the clamps.
Taking measurements
1. Turn on the power supply and adjust the applied voltage to established the desired current (I)
through the wire.
2. Place the reference probe on the “0 cm”mark.
3. Move the slider probe to any point on the wire. Read the length (L) in centimetres from the
scale on the apparatus. This is the length of wire over which the voltage is measured.
4. Read the voltage (V).
Method:
 Measurements -- Resistance as a function of length :

You will measure the resistivities of two different materials :
(a) a yellowish wire , which has a smaller diameter than
(b) a dark gray (magnetic) wire.
1. Insert the yellowish wire into the apparatus.
2. Increase the supply voltage until a current of 0.5 A is being drawn. Do not exceed this
value as the wire will heat up and give incorrect measurements.
3. Move the slider probe to 24cm and record the voltage.
4. Take measurements for distances of 20, 16, 12, 8 and 4 cm.
5. Reduce the supply voltage to 0 and switch off the voltage supply.
6. Fill in the following table.
7. Use Eq. (1) to determine R. (ONLY show your calculation for 24cm)
52
8. Plot Resistance vs. Length and fill in your best fit line. Extract the resistivity  from the
slope after calculating the cross-sectional area A (use a micrometer). Use a maximum
error analysis to estimate the error in your resistivity values.
9. Repeat these procedures for the dark grey (magnetic) wire.
Length V R
cm
24
20
16
12
8
4
SWITCH OFF THE VOLTAGE SUPPLY WHEN THE APPARATUS IS NOT

IN USE OR AT THE END OF THE EXPERIMENT
From your graphical analysis and calculations complete the following table :
Colour Resistivity Error Material


.cm %
Yellowish
Dark gray
 Questions :
(i) Explain in your own words what is the difference between resistance and resistivity ?
(ii) The ideal voltmeter has a very high resistance and all wire connections that you use have
some finite resistance. Explain why the four-probe method is useful for measuring resistance
values R accurately. Use the diagram of below.
R
I
 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
V
Material Approximate Maximum
Resistivity Constant
( .cm ) Current
( A)
Copper 1.8 2
Aluminum 4.9 2
Brass 7.0 2
Nichrome 105 0.5
Stainless Steel 79 1
grh/jc July 2012
53
PRACTICAL TEST INFORMATION
1. The practical test is done independently in your last practical session. Please ensure
that you check on which day you are scheduled to do this. The full practical schedule
of all students for this semester will be posted at the practical venue.
2. The practical test description is on the next page. Two sets are normally made
available in the prac venue 2-3 weeks before the prac test, for you to practice and
familiarise yourself.
3. Due to the limited availability of equipment, starting times for the practical test will be
staggered. You will be informed of your individual starting time no more than a week
before the test (posted at the practical venue and/or on Edulink).
4. All students will have about 90 mins total to complete their practical test, including
“hand-on” experimentation, analysis and reporting. You will have about 20 minutes to
assemble the apparatus and take the data, and the rest of the time for analysis and
reporting.
5. Students need to bring with them the following basic stationery: pen, pencil,
calculator, and ruler.
6. Students should NOT bring with them: this practical guide, any books, notes or
other loose pieces of paper.
7. Students will be provided with: an answer book, a piece of graph paper, the
experiment test instructions (similar to what is on the next page) and the equipment
to perform the experiment. The format of your presentation and answers should
be similar to your prac reports compiled during the semester.
8. The following criteria will serve as a guide in marking the test:
a) Correct structure of the report and general tidiness 2 marks

b) Correctness of the data and clear tabulation 5 marks
c) Accuracy, clarity and presentation of graphs 7 marks
d) Correct analysis and calculations leading to final results 4 marks
e) Answers to questions 12 marks
TOTAL 30 Marks
Reminder: the test counts for 30% of your final practical mark
54
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG
PRACTICAL TEST, 2018
TIME ALLOCATED: max 80 minutes in total 30 MARKS
(a) AIM AND OBJECTIVE
In this experiment you will examine the I-V characteristic of a non-ohmic resistor (i.e.,
bulb filament )
(b) APPARATUS AND METHOD
You are provided with a battery (VS) of EMF 3V, voltmeter/multimeter, variable
resistance box (RB), and a bulb ( e.g., rated 6V , 0.35 A, check it ).
Connect the circuit as shown.
(c) TASKS
1. Measure the voltage VR across the resistor and voltage VF across the bulb for
different resistance values RB as shown in the table below. Calculate the
current flowing in the circuit I using Ohm’s law and complete the table. Also
calculate the resistance of the filament RF.
55
RB VR I VF VF
RF 
I
Ohms Units ? Units ? Units ? Units ?
2
4
6
8
10
15
20
30
40
60
80
100
DISCONNECT YOUR CIRCUIT WHEN YOU HAVE

COMPLETED YOUR MEASUREMENTS
2. Plot a graph of VF versus I and draw the best fit line through the data.
3. Consider the region at high current I  200 mA where the lamp is glowing. Find
the gradient from the tangent to the data at this point. This is the dynamic
resistance.
4. What is the power dissipation at this dynamic resistance value ?
5. Explain how you estimate and indicate the value of the cold filament resistance
when there is no current flowing.
6. Explain why this is considered to be a non-ohmic resistor.
7. Why is the dynamic resistance so much higher than the cold filament resistance,
given that this is a tungsten metal filament ?
8. What is the meaning of the rating ( e.g., 6 V , 0.35 A) indicated on the bulb ?
ENSURE YOUR NAME AND STUDENT NUMBER ARE ON ANY GRAPHS
56
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG
PRACTICAL TEST
TIME ALLOCATED : max 80 mins in total 30 MARKS
(a) AIM AND OBJECTIVE
In this experiment you will determine the EMF  and internal resistance r of a cell and
study how the power delivered to a load (external resistance) varies with the load
resistance value.
(b) APPARATUS AND METHOD
You are provided with a battery of EMF  and internal resistance r , ammeter ( about 30
mA max), 0 – 1000 ohm variable decade resistance box RB, plug switch S and connecting
wires. Battery
Connect the circuit as shown.
Record the current I for several S
r S
resistance values RB between
10 and 400 ohms.

I
RA
A
RB
(c) TASKS
(1) The ammeter resistance RA may be assumed to be much smaller than other resistances
in the circuit. So that the external circuit resistance is Rext  RB. By tabulating and
plotting appropriate variables, determine the EMF  , internal resistance r as
well as error estimates of these quantities from the slope and intercept of a
straight line graph. Use the fact that from the circuit equation (Kirchoff 2) it may
be shown that :
 = Ir + IRext. ( hint : divide by I )
(2) The power delivered to the load Rext = RB in the above circuit is
PL = RextI2.
Tabulate and plot PL vs Rext and show that the value of Rext (  Rmax ) for which PL
is a maximum, is at Rext = r. Using the equations above and some calculus, show
that this must be the case (from dP/dRext = 0 ).
57
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PHYSICS 1 PRACTICALS : SEMESTER 2

SURNAME (Family name): …………………………… Initials : …….…..

Course (1B01 ? What Eng. ? ) : …………………………………….

Physics text book should also be brought to the prac sessions

Practicals coordinator is … Prof Aletta Prinsloo (office C1 LAB 127)

Lab technician is … Mr Pieter Gouws (office C1 LAB 142)

Important NOTICES are posted at the PRAC VENUE and on ULINK

2018 Version 3.1

How the practical mark will be calculated

Which practicals will you do?

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS , SECOND SEMESTER 2018

EXP NAME COMMENTS

L NEWTON’S RINGS Optics/waves

Rules and conventions in the practical classes.

You will not be allowed to do the practical if you:

Use the following guidelines in your preparation:

TYPICAL MARKING SCHEME AND WEIGHTING FOR

SECTION MAX MARKS

Pre-practical report (must be provided to us before you enter the

Must conform to the format below (this is an EXAMPLE or GUIDE)

Practical report (typically 4 - 6 A4 pages including graphs)

Surname (family name) : Jacobson Initials : C. E.

PHYS-1 PRACS , STUDENT QUERY

FAMILY/SURNAME ________________________________ Initials ______________

Prac Day : _______________ Group (A or B) : ________________

What is the query ?

If you can’t make it to a prac session (sick notes)

1. YOUR FULL DETAILS : NAME, STUDENT NUMBER , WHICH COURSE

Failure to provide, or comply with, all of the above information will

2. NOTATION AND UNITS

For instance: 0.0000005889 m =588.9×10-9 m = 588.9 nm

Quantity Units Symbol

3. GENERAL INFORMATION ON GRAPHS

The straight line

(b) A  A0 exp( kt)

Thus ln( A / A0 ) vs. t gives a straight line graph with gradient  k .

Other examples of linearising the data

As another example, consider the function

The error in a result determined from a straight line graph

The general form of the straight line is y  mx  c

An experimental result does not mean much without an experimental error.

Here is another example …

e.g. 18.3 + 2.04 + 0.004 = 20.344 = 20.3

e.g. 18.3  2.04  0.004 = 0.149 = 0.15

5. INTRODUCTION TO THE VERNIER SCALE

Let the vernier scale be moved to the position shown in figure 2.

Figure 3 Reading: 7.165

With a vernier one can read tenths of a millimeter accurately.

Figure 4 Reading: 43 22’

Figure 5 Reading: 64° 45′

The micrometre screw gauge Main scale

e.g. , 3.50 + 0.44 = 3.94 mm

1. “Laboratory Physics” by H. F. Meiners, W. Eppenstein, K. H. Moore.

2. “ A Laboratory Manual of Physics” by F. Tyler.

3. Text book of the theoretical course.

4. “ Experiments in Physics” by D. W. Preston

6.1 Types of experimental errors

(i) Reading errors

(ii) Setting errors

Examples of these are encountered when the position of a screen on an optical

The following are examples of systematic errors:

(i) Instrumental errors

FAMILY/SURNAME __________________ Initials

Prac Day : _ Group (A or B) : __