‫‪Continental Drift‬‬

‫‪In the early 1900s, Alfred Wegener, a German scientist, made a strong case for continental drift.‬‬
‫‪Continents can be made to fit together like pieces of a picture puzzle. The similarity of the Atlantic‬‬
‫‪coastlines of Africa and South America has long been recognized. The idea that continents were‬‬
‫‪once joined together and have split and moved‬‬
‫‪apart from one another.‬‬
‫‪Wegener reassembled the continents to form a‬‬
‫‪giant supercontinent "Pangaea" and thought‬‬
‫‪that the similar rocks and fossils were easier to‬‬
‫‪explain if the continents were joined together,‬‬
‫‪rather than in their present, widely scattered‬‬
‫‪positions.‬‬

‫ُرفضت نظرية االنجراف القاري لسنوات عديدة‪ .‬فلم يؤمن الجيولوجيون أن األدلة التي‬
‫قدمها فيجنر إلثبات النظرية كافية‪ .‬ورغم القبول اآلن لفكرة أن الصفائح التي تحمل القارات‬
‫تتحرك‪ ،‬إال أن تلك الفكرة كانت من أكبر االعتراضات التي لم يجد لها فيجنر حلا حين‬
‫سأل عن طبيعة القوى التي تدفع وتحرك تلك الصفائح؟ دافع الجيولوجي البريطاني آرثر‬ ‫ُ‬
‫هولمز بشدة عن نظرية االنجراف القاري واقترح أن الوشاح يحتوي على خليا حمل‬
‫وتحرك القشرة األرضية‪ .‬أظهرت الخرائط الجيولوجية‬ ‫ّ‬ ‫حراري تبدد الحرارة إشعاعياا‪،‬‬
‫في تلك الفترة وجود جسور يابسة عملقة تمتد بين المحيطين األطلسي والهندي ربطت‬
‫بين التشابه في الحياة النباتية والحيوانية وانقسام قارة آسيا في العصر البرمي‪ ،‬ولكنها‬
‫فشلت في الربط بين المثلجات في الهند وأستراليا وجنوب أفريقيا‪ 1953 .‬أى قبل خمس‬
‫سنوات من تقديم صامويل كاري لنظرية الصفائح التكتونية‪ ،‬رفض الفيزيائي شيدغر‬
‫نظرية االنجراف القاري لعدة أسباب‪:‬‬
‫أولها أن الكتل العائمة في أي مجسم أرضي دائر ستتجمع عند خط االستواء وتستقر عنده‪،‬‬
‫وهذا يُفسّر تواجد فواصل جبلية بين أي قارتين‪.‬‬
‫ثانياا‪ ،‬أن الكتل العائمة في األوساط السائلة كالجبال الجليدية في المحيط‪ ،‬البد أن تكون‬
‫خاضعة لتوازن قوى بمعنى أنه يجب أن تكون قوى الجذب وقوى الطفو في حالة تعادل‪،‬‬
‫لكن أظهرت قياسات الجاذبية أن العديد من المناطق ال تخضع لهذا التوازن‪.‬‬
‫ثالثاا‪ ،‬هناك صعوبات في تفسير سبب تج ّمد مناطق في القشرة األرضية‪ ،‬وبقاء مناطق‬
‫أخرى في حالة سائلة‪.‬‬
‫قدم الجيوفيزيائى جاك أدلة زلزالية تدعم نظرية الصفائح التكتونية التي حلت محل نظرية‬
‫االنجراف القاري وذلك باستخدام البيانات التي تم جمعها من محطات زالزل والتي تم‬
‫جمعها من جنوب المحيط الهاديء‪ .‬ومن المعروف اآلن أن هناك نوعان من القشرة‪ :‬قشرة‬
‫قارية وقشرة محيطية‪ .‬القشرة القارية أخف وزناا وتختلف في تكوينها عن القشرة المحيطية‪ ،‬ولكن كلهما يتجاوران فوق دثار لدن‪.‬‬
 ‫‪Plate Tectonics‬‬
‫‪- Plate tectonics theory regards the earth's crust as broken plates that are freely moved on the‬‬
‫‪molten zone of earth mantle.‬‬

‫‪- Convection current is one of the most possible cause for the motion of the plates.‬‬

‫يرى العلماء أن تيارات الحمل الدورانية هي مصدر القوى التي تعتمد عليه نظرية الصفائح التكتونية التي في تفسيرها لحركة القارات‬
‫ونموها وتكوين الجبال وأحواض الترسيب‪ ,‬حيث تنشأ تيارات حمل في منطقة األثينوسفير المرنة نتيجة حدوث تغير في درجة الحرارة‬
‫في باطن األرض‪ ,‬مما يؤدي إلى وجود تيارات حمل دورانية على شكل خليا دائرية وأن الجزر البركانية التي تقع في وسط األلواح‬
‫المحيطية التي تعتبر مناطق خالية نسبيا من النشاط التكتوني‪ ,‬وذلك ألنها تقع فوق بقع ساخنة في المناطق العليا من لب األرض‪ ,‬وتعمل‬
‫الحرارة الصاعدة من هذه النقطة وبذلك تندفع المادة المنصهرة إلى السطح مكونة جزرا بركانية مثل جزر هاواي التي تقع في وسط‬
‫المحيط الهادي‪.‬‬
‫كانت الحرب العالمية الثانية سببا غير مباشر في تقدم األبحاث الخاصة ببنائية األرض فقد كانت أجهزة السونار ‪ Sonar‬التي مهمتها‬
‫كشف الغواصات المعادية عن طريق انعكاس الموجات الصوتية صاحبة النصيب األكبر في توافر كم هائل من البيانات واالكتشافات التي‬
‫غيرت كثيرا من المفاهيم العلمية والتي أدت في نهاية المطاف إلى صياغة نظرية األلواح البنائية والتي تعرف أحيانا باأللواح التكتونية‬
‫‪ Plate Tectonics‬ومن أهم هذه االكتشافات ‪ :‬ـ‬

‫‪ -‬الخنادق المحيطية ‪Oceanic Trenches‬‬

‫وهي أجزاء منخفضة من قاع المحيط تتميز بأنها توجد عند بعض أطراف المحيطات بجوار القارات غالبا ويفصلها عن القارات أقواس‬
‫جزر ‪ Island Arcs‬أي مجموعة جزر على شكل قوس وعندها تحدث الزالزل والنشاط البركانى ومن أمثلة الخنادق الجزر التي‬
‫تصاحبا تلك الموجودة في أندونسيا‪.‬‬
‫ال بازلت ويوجد تحته صخور كالجابرو والسربنتينيت‪ .‬ويعلو طبقة البازلت قشرة رقيقة من رسوبيات المحيط‪ .‬وبتحديد عمر رسوبيات‬
‫المحيط عن طريق دراسة محتواها الحفرى أمكن التوصل إلى أن أقدم هذه الرسوبيات هو أبعدها عن حيد منتصف المحيط بينما أحدث‬
‫الرسوبيات هي القريبة من الحيد‪ .‬وهذا االكتشاف من األدلة القوية على نظرية انتشار قاع المحيط‪.‬‬

‫‪ -‬تمدد وانتشار قاع المحيط ‪Sea Floor Spreading‬‬

‫يرجع األصل في ابتكار هذه النظرية إلى وشاح األرض‪ .‬ويمثل حيد منتصف المحيط مكان نشأة جزء جديد من قاع المحيط فهو مكان‬
‫ارتفاع تيارات الحمل ألعلى حاملة معها مادة جديدة من الوشاح إلى قاع المحيط‪ .‬وينتشر قاع المحيط الجديد انتشارا أما القارات أو الكتل‬
‫القارية فيتم حملها فوق الوشاح المتحرك بفعل تيارات الحمل وأثناء نزول القشرة المحيطية إلى الوشاح مع تيارات الحمل النازلة ألسفل‬
‫عند الخنادق المحيطية حيث يتم لصق جزء من رسوبيات قاع المحيط إلى تيارات الحمل وبالتالى معدل حركة وانتشار قاع المحيط يبلغ‬
‫حوالي ‪2-1‬سم في السنة ومعنى هذا أن قلمحيط كله يستبدل كل ‪ 300-‬مليون سنة ولذلك تعتبر القشرة المحيطية أحدث دائما من القشرة‬
‫القارية المتواجدة منذ بليين السنين‪.‬‬

‫‪- Three types of boundaries exist between these plates based on the type of motion occurring‬‬
‫‪, and‬هدامة ‪, convergent‬بناءة ‪between the adjacent plates. These boundaries are divergent‬‬
‫‪transform.‬‬
Divergent Plate Boundary

https://geology.com/nsta/divergent-plate-boundaries.shtml

- Constructive Plate Margins

- Two Plates move away from each other.

- Divergent Boundary involves the formation of Oceanic Crust.

- The divergent boundary is marked by high heat flow, basaltic volcanism, shallow earthquakes
rifting, mid-oceanic ridges and sea floor spreading.

- Divergent Plate Boundaries cause the development of Rift Valleys and Mid-oceanic ridges.

- East Africa Valley and Mid Atlantic Ridge are classic examples of divergent boundary.

- Mid-ocean ridge (MOR) is a giant undersea mountain range that extends around the world.
The ridge is made up mostly of basalt, it is more than 80,000 km long and 1,500 to 2,500 km
wide. It rises 2 to 3 km above the ocean floor.

- Rift Valley is a low area of land between hills or mountains, typically with a river or stream
flowing through it created by the action of a geologic rift or fault. When the tensional forces are
strong enough to cause the plate to split apart, a center block drops between the two blocks at
its flanks, forming a graben. The most extensive rift valley is located along the crest of the mid-
ocean ridge system and is the result of sea floor spreading.
So, Rift valley is an extension runs down the crest of the ridge. It is to 2 kilometers deep and
several kilometers wide. Rift valley is
characterized by:
1- shallow-focus earthquakes from 0 to 20km
2- high heat flow 3- Basalt eruptions
kilometers

- Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is
formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge "the sea
floor moves at a rate of 1 to 24 cm/year".
Convergent Plate Boundary

- Destructive Plate Margins

- Two Plates move toward each other.

- An area on Earth where two or more lithospheric plates collide. One plate eventually slides
beneath the other causing a process known as subduction.

- Convergent Boundary is marked by destruction of ocean floor, development of subduction

zones, mountain range with volcanoes, great deep earthquakes and tsunamis.

- Subduction zones are areas where one lithospheric plate slides (subducts) beneath another at
the convergent boundary due to lithospheric density differences. Subduction zones are often
marked by an abundance of earthquakes, convergence with the opposing plate, and bending
at the oceanic trench. Earthquakes have been detected to a depth of 670 km. The relatively
cold and dense subducting plates are pulled into the mantle and help drive mantle convection.

- Oceanic trenches are topographic depressions of the sea floor, relatively narrow in width, but
very long. These oceanographic features are the deepest parts of the ocean floor. Trenches
are generally parallel to a volcanic island arc.

- Three types of convergent boundary:

1- Continental-Oceanic convergent boundary: If an oceanic plate converges with a plate

capped by a continent, the dense oceanic plate subducts under the continental plate.

2- Oceanic-Oceanic convergent boundary: A plate capped by oceanic crust can move toward
another plate capped by oceanic crust, in which case one plate dives (subducts) under the
other.
3- Continental-Continental convergent boundary: If the two approaching plates are both
carrying continents, the continents collide and crumple, but neither is subducted.
Transform Plate Boundary

- Conservative Plate Margins

- Plates slide horizontally sideways past each other.

- Transform motion can occur on a shallow focus earthquake marked by single fault or on a
broad group of parallel faults.

- Earthquakes resulting from motion along transform faults vary in size depending on whether
the fault cuts through oceanic or continental crust and on the length of the fault.

- The San Andreas fault in California and the Alpine fault of New
Zealand are two examples of transform boundary.

Fracture zones are major lines of

weakness in Earth’s crust that cross the
mid-oceanic ridge at approximately right
angles.
The rift valley of the mid-oceanic ridge is
offset in many places across fracture
zones. Shallow-focus earthquakes occur
on fracture zones but are confined to
those portions of the fracture zones
between segments of the rift valley. The
portion of the fracture zone that has
earthquakes is known as a transform fault.
 Earthquakes
Earthquake is the shaking of earth`s surface in the horizontal and or vertical patterns creating
seismic waves.
Seismicity (seismic activity) is the earthquake activity which express the frequency, type, and
size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time.

Causes of earthquakes:
The sudden release of energy stored in the rocks beneath Earth’s surface (lithosphere) under
the influences of tectonics induced stress or movement on a fracture plane. When a rock breaks,
seismic waves of energy are released and sent out through the Earth producing an earthquake.
So, earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of geological faults but also by other events such
as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear tests.

Focus is the point within the Earth where seismic waves first originate of the earthquakes.
Rupture begins at the focus and then spreads rapidly along the fault plane.
Epicenter is the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus.

Two types of seismic waves are generated during earthquakes:

1- Body waves are seismic waves that travel through the Earth’s interior, spreading outward
from the focus in all directions.
There are two types of body waves:
P-wave is a compressional (or longitudinal) wave in which rock vibrates back and forth parallel
to the direction of wave propagation.
S-wave is a slower, transverse wave that travels through near-surface rocks.

2- Surface waves are seismic waves that travel on Earth’s surface away from the epicenter, like
water waves spreading out from a pebble thrown into a pond.
Most earthquakes occur along faults whereas the others induced a new fracture.
Seismometer is used to measure seismic waves.
Seismograph is a recording device that produces a permanent record of Earth motion detected
by a seismometer.
Seismogram is the paper record of vibration and is used to measure the strength of the
earthquake.

Magnitude of earthquakes is the amount of energy

released during shaking. Magnitude represents the
maximum seismogram motion and can normalized as
distance function as in the figure. Two magnitude scales as
Richter and Moment.

Earthquakes damages
1-Earthquakes kill people and destroy cities.
2-P waves are the 1stto arrive and produce a rapid up and
down motion.
3-S waves arrive next (2nd). They produce a pronounced
back and forth motion. This motion is usually much stronger
than from P-waves. S waves cause extensive damage.
4-Surface waves lag behind S waves. Ground writhes like a
snake.
5-Liquefaction where seismic waves liquefy water filled
sediments
and turn water from sediments into a mobile fluid and
causing land slump or flow.
6-tsunami waves.

Tsunami
Is the sudden movement of the sea floor upward or downward during a submarine earthquake
which can generate very large sea waves. They usually are caused by great earthquakes
(magnitude 8) that disturb the sea floor, but they also result from submarine landslides or
volcanic explosions.
 Tectonics and Non-Tectonics Structures
Tectonics: connected with external and regional processes that generate a characteristic set of
structures in a region.

Structural Geology: defines the earth deformation its geometry, patterns and distribution which
form some geologic features and structures.

Structural geology and Tectonics relate to the building and resulting structures of the Earth’s
lithosphere.

Primary Structures: the structures that formed during or shortly after the deposition
(sedimentary) or the formation (igneous) of rocks.

Secondary Structures: are the structures that developed after the rocks formed.

o Non-tectonic Structures
1-Gravitational and slumping structures
Sediments may be deposited on an inclined slope at which gravity may pull the sediments
down-slope under storm or earthquake or sediments instability. The downslope
movement is helped by fluid pressure.
•If sediments that move down-slope are soft, they may produce a slurry of clasts
suspended in a matrix called debris flow. When the debris flow comes to rest, it forms a
poorly-sorted conglomerate
•If the sediments are compacted sufficiently before they are flowed by gravity, they
maintain their cohesion, and produce what is called slumping structures.
•These structures include folds, normal faults and thrust faults.

2-Salt structures (Halokinesis)

The deformation is completely driven by density contrasts between the salt and its
overburden. Pure halite has the relatively low density of 2.160 g/cm3, this makes salt less
dense than most carbonate and sandstone rocks forming the overburden. Salt has
practically no porosity even at different depths in Earth, it has a nearly constant density
value. On contrary, the sedimentary rocks have porosity and their density increases with
increasing burial depth.
At that point a gravitationally unstable situation is established which can result in flow of
salt upward toward the surface.

3- Impact Structures
These structures are formed by meteoritic impact and are usually have a circular or
elliptical outline. They are characterized by shatter cones structures (cone shape
fractures with epics at the point of force and the base is away from it).

Primary Volcanic Structures:

- Pillow Lava: lava of pillow shaped structures that are attributed to the extrusion of the lava
under water.
- vesicular texture. ‫حويصلت‬
 Stress and Strain
Force Stress Strain = Deformation = Geologic Structures

Force: - Strength or energy as an attribute of physical action or movement.

- Interaction that tends to change the position of a body.

Stress (σ): is the force acting on a subjected area which cause a deformation of rocks. "σ
=F/A"

Basic Types of Stress

•Compression - a stress that acts to press or squeeze rocks together.
•Tension - a stress that acts to stretch rocks or pull them apart.
•Shear - a stress which acts tangential to a plane through a body, causing two contiguous rocks
to slide past each other.

Strain (Deformation): all changes that produced in response to the stress.

the fractional distortion that results because of the acting force
(deformation).
Translation – change in position
Distortion – change in shape
Dilation – change in volume
Rotation – change in rotation

Strain quantities can be measured by:

•Length change (longitudinal strain)
•Volume change (volumetric strain)
•Angular change (angular strain)

- The shortening takes place by compressive stress.

- The lengthening takes place by tension stress.
- The folds and thrust (reverse) faults tend to decrease the length of earth's crust.
- The normal faults, dikes, veins, and extensional fractures tend to increase the length of earth's
crust.
- The tensions tress acts perpendicular to the traces of normal faults.
- The compression stress acts perpendicular to the fold axes or the traces of reverse faults
 Stress-Strain Relationship

Three phases of deformation:

- Elastic
- Plastic (Ductile)
- Brittle (Rupture)

O-A: Elastic Deformation.

- Temporary deformation when the
stress is removed, the rock returns to it
original state (size and shape).
- It represents highly ductile rocks.

A: Elastic limit, Maximum Stress within a

solid material that can arise before the
permanent deformation, beyond it the
rock will no longer back to its original
state even when the stress is removed.
Yield strength: is the stress at which a
material begins to deform plastically.

A-C: is the plastic deformation stage that

take place before rupturing of the
rocks.

B: Ultimate strength, maximum stress

which can be placed prior to the
breaking of the material.

C: Fracture stress point "Rupture

Strength", the stress at which a
material break via fracture (faulting).

O-C: Short elastic deformation stage

followed by rupture, without plastic
deformation. It represents highly
brittle rocks.

Stress-strain diagram differs in form for

various rocks that are classified as either
ductile or brittle.
- Ductile "Plastic" Deformation:
Folding, Stretching
- Brittle "Elastic Deformation:
Faults, Fractures
Shear

Shear is the response of a rock to deformation usually by compressive stress and forms
particular textures. Shear can be homogeneous or non-homogeneous, and may be pure shear
or simple shear. Study of geological shear is related to the study of structural geology, rock
microstructure or rock texture and fault mechanics. The process of shearing occurs within brittle,
brittle-ductile, and ductile rocks. Within purely brittle rocks, compressive stress results in
fracturing and simple faulting. The mechanisms of shearing depend on the pressure and
temperature of the rock and on the rate of shear which the rock is subjected to. The response
of the rock to these conditions determines how it accommodates the deformation.

Shear zone is a highly deformed tabular zone

surrounded by less deformed banks or shoulders.

A shear zone is a very important structural discontinuity surface in the Earth's crust and upper
mantle. It forms as a response to inhomogeneous deformation partitioning strain into planar or
curviplanar high-strain zones. Intervening (crustal) blocks stay relatively unaffected by the
deformation. Due to the shearing motion of the surrounding more rigid medium, a rotational,
non-co-axial component can be induced in the shear zone. Because the discontinuity surface
usually passes through a wide depth-range, a great variety of different rock types with their
characteristic structures are produced.

The main macroscopic indicators are striations (slickensides), slicken fibers, and stretching– or
mineral lineations. They indicate the direction of movement.

• asymmetric folds.
• foliations.
• imbrications.
• Crystallographic preferred orientation.
• pressure shadows
• pull-apart.
• quarter structures.
• shear band cleavages.

Shear zones can occur in the following geotectonic settings:

extensional setting — low-angle
transcurrent setting – steep to vertical.
compressive setting – low angle.
subduction zones.
Base of recumbent fold nappes.
strike-slip zones, transform faults, thrust sheets.
metamorphic core complex detachments.

The importance of shear zones lies in the fact that they are major zones of weakness in the
Earth's crust, sometimes extending into the upper mantle. They can be very long-lived features
and commonly show evidence of several overprinting stages of activity. Material can be
transported upwards or downwards in them, the most important one being water circulating
dissolved ions.
Simple Shear Stresses and related Structures
Pure Shear Stresses and Related Structures

Anderson's Theory

- Anderson made the assumption that, since there is no shear stress at the Earth’s surface
(shear stress cannot occur in fluids), one of the principal stresses has to be vertical,
implying that the other two are horizontal. Depending on which of the three principal
stresses is the vertical one, Anderson defined three regimes.

- Anderson’s classification is strictly valid only in coaxial deformational regimes, where

lines parallel to instantaneous stretching axes (ISA) and principal strain axes do not
rotate.

.‫ هو تمثيل محاور الجهد فى مستويين أو ثلث مستويات‬:‫الشكل االهليجى‬

S1, S2, S3
‫بيمثلو محاور الجهد األساسية اللى بتأثر على الصخور وتكون التراكيب‬
‫الجيولوجية بناء على ترتيب محاور الجهد‬
σ1: Axis of greatest (maximum) principal stress.
σ2: Axis of intermediate principal stress.
σ3: Axis of least (minimum) principal stress.

‫ والمتوسط (االزرق) واالصغر‬vertical ‫هنا أكبر محور جهد أساسى هو ال‬

‫ هيبدأ‬rock ‫ ال‬... ‫ بيأثر‬stress ‫ أكثر‬S1 ، horizontal )‫(االصفر‬
‫فى اتجاه أصغر‬displacement ‫ دى ويحصله‬stresses ‫يستجيب لل‬
.Normal Fault ‫محور جهد وبالتالى هيتكون‬

‫ وهيتكون‬S3 ‫ هيبدأ يتحرط فى اتجاه‬rock ‫ هى اللى هتضغط وال‬S1 ‫هنا‬

.Reverse Fault
Left Lateral Strike Slip Fault ‫ هيتكون‬S2 ‫ مكان‬S1 ‫لو ال‬
 • Anderson’s stress model is strictly applicable if we assume that the deforming rock is
isotropic (homogeneous throughout fault surface) and that structural deformation is
coaxial (the stress axes do not rotate).

• In reality, rock types exhibit different mechanical strengths and inherit pre-existing
fractures, and in the larger frame of the Earth’s crust, stresses may rotate. Nevertheless,
Anderson’s elegant model provides a basic scheme for studying the geomechanics of
faulting

The strain is represented by folds, , joints, fractures, faults, foliation, lineation and other
deformations depending on:
- Rock Properties (minerals, discontinuities, etc.)
- Lithology
- Type of applied stress
- Stress rate
- Time, Depth, Pressure, Temperature
- Igneous Intrusions
- Preexisting weaknesses
 Structural Geology
Structural Geology is the study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock units with respect
to their deformational histories. The primary goal of structural geology is to use measurements
of present-day geometries to uncover information about the history of strain deformation in
rocks to understand the stress field and the important events in the past regional geology and
the structural evolution od the area. And therefore, use it in economic geology: petroleum,
groundwater and mining. Folded and faulted rock strata form traps for the accumulation of all
fluids.

Ductile Deformation
Ductility refers to the capacity of a rock to deform to large strains without macroscopic fracturing.
Such behavior may occur in unlithified or poorly lithified sediments, in weak materials such as
halite or at greater depths in all rock types where higher temperatures promote crystal plasticity
and higher confining pressures suppress brittle fracture.

Folds

Folds
Folds are bends or curvatures developed in the rocks a result of stresses, pressures and plastic
deformation. Folds in rock vary in size from microscopic to mountain sized.

The process of development of folds in the rocks is called folding.

Causes of Folding
1- Layer parallel shortening.
When a sequence of layered rocks is shortened parallel
to its layering, such as box folds.

2- Fault related Folding

Many folds are directly related to faults, associated with their propagation, displacement and
the accommodation of strains between neighboring faults.

3- Fault bend Folding

Fault-bend folds are caused by displacement along a non-planar fault. In non-vertical faults,
the hanging-wall deforms to accommodate the mismatch across the fault as displacement
progresses. Fault bend folds occur in both extensional and thrust faulting. In extension, listric
faults form rollover anticlines in their hanging walls.[10] In thrusting, ramp anticlines form
whenever a thrust fault cuts up section from one detachment level to another. Displacement
over this higher-angle ramp generates the folding.
4- Fault propagation Folding
Fault propagation folds or tip-line folds are caused when displacement occurs on an existing
fault without further propagation. In both reverse and normal faults this leads to folding of the
overlying sequence, often in the form of a monocline.

5- Detachment Folding

When a thrust fault continues to displace above a planar

detachment without further fault propagation, detachment
folds may form, typically of box-fold style (Triassic
Evaporites).

6- Folding in shear zones

Folds in shear zones can be inherited, formed due to the orientation of pre-shearing layering
or formed due to instability within the shear flow.

7- Folding in sediments
Recently-deposited sediments are normally mechanically weak and prone to remobilization
before they become lithified, leading to folding. To distinguish them from folds of tectonic
origin, such structures are called syn-sedimentary (formed during sedimentation).

8- Flow Folding
. When rock behaves as a fluid, as in the case of very weak rock such as rock salt, or any rock
that is buried deeply enough, it typically shows flow folding.

9- Igneous Intrusion
The emplacement of igneous intrusions tends to deform the surrounding country rock forming
folding as with the upper surface of Laccolith.
Fold Terminology "Fold Elements"

1- Crest (Apex) and Trough:

The crest is the highest point of the fold surface. The trough is the lowest point in the fold.
Crest Surface is a plane connected all the crests.
Trough surface is a plane connected all the troughs.

2- Limbs
Flanks of the folds sloping side from the crest to the trough.

3- Inflection Point
The midpoint of the limb.

4- Hing Point (Fold Axis)

The point of minimum radius of curvature (maximum curvature) for a fold.

5- Hinge line
The line that join all the hinge points.

6- Axial plane
An imaginary plane containing all of the hinge lines of the fold and divides the fold into two limbs.

7- Plunge of the Fold:

An attitude of the fold axis.
The axis of the fold may be horizontal, vertical or inclined with respect to other parts of the
fold. So, fold axis is the line, and plunge is the angle which this line makes with horizontal.

Fold Terminology in Two Dimensions

The fold surface in a profile can be divided into hinge and
limb portions. The limbs are the flanks of the fold and the
hinge is where the flanks join together.
The hinge point is the point of maximum curvature for the
fold.
The crest of the fold is the highest point of the fold surface,
and the trough is the lowest point. The inflection point of a
fold is the point on a limb at which the concavity reverses;
on regular folds, this is the midpoint of the limb.
Classifications of Folds

Classifications of folds based on:

1) Fold Closure
- Anticline - Anticlinorium
- Syncline - Synclinorium
- Antifromal Syncline
- Synformal Anticline

2) Symmetry
- Symmetrical Fold
- Asymmetrical Fold

3) Plunge of Fold Axis

- Horizontal Fold
- Vertical Fold
- Plunging Fold

4) Orientation of Axial Plane

- Upright Fold
- Recumbent Fold
- Inclined Fold
- Reclined Fold
- Overturned Fold

5) Interlimb Angle
- Gentle Fold
- Open Fold
- Close Fold
- Isoclinal Fold
- Tight Fold
- Fan Fold

6) Shape of Hinges
- Chevron Fold

7) Number of Hinges
- Box Fold
Types of Folds

1- Anticlines
- Anticline is an upward arching fold (convex upwards in the direction of the youngest
beds).
- Oldest beds are in the core (center).
- The rock layers (limbs) dip away from each other from the hinge line (axis) of the fold.

2- Synclines
- Syncline is a downward arching fold (convex downwards in the direction of the oldest
beds).
- Youngest beds are in the core (center).
- The rock layers (limbs) dip toward each other for a common center toward the hinge line.

✓ Antiform: convex up
✓ Synform: convex down

3- Plunging Folds
- Folds in which the hinge lines are not horizontal.
- Plunging anticlines and synclines are distinguished from one another by directions of
dip or by relative ages of beds.
- Plunging anticline contains the oldest rocks in its core, and the V points in the same
direction as the plunge of the fold.
- A plunging syncline contains the youngest rocks in its center or core, and the V or
horseshoe points in the direction opposite of the plunge.
4- Dome (Structural Dome)
- A structural dome is a structure in which the beds dip away from a central point. In
cross section, a dome resembles an anticline and is sometimes called a doubly
plunging anticline.
- Nonlinear, strata dip away from center in all directions, oldest strata in center.

5- Basin (Structural Basin)

- The beds dip toward a central point in cross section, it is comparable to a syncline (doubly
plunging syncline). A structural basin is like a set of nested bowls. If the set of bowls is
turned upside down, it is analogous to a structural dome.
- Nonlinear, strata dip toward center in all directions, youngest strata in center.

6- Open Folds
- Have limbs that dip gently.

7- Isoclinal Fold
- Limbs are nearly parallel to each another.
8- Upright Fold
- Fold that has vertical axial planes. However, where the axial plane of a fold is not vertical
but is inclined or tipped over, the fold may be classified as asymmetric.

9- Overturned Fold
- The axial plane is inclined to such a degree that the fold limbs dip in the same direction.

10- Recumbent Fold

- Recumbent Fold Is an overturned fold to such an extent that the limbs are essentially
horizontal.

11- Monocline Fold

- Monocline (Monoform) is a step-like fold in rock strata consisting of a zone of steeper dip
within an otherwise horizontal or gently-dipping sequence. It consists of three limbs.
It is formed by differential compaction over an underlying structure, particularly a large
fault at the edge of a basin due to the greater compactibility of the basin fill, the amplitude
of the fold will die out gradually upwards. Or, by mild reactivation of an earlier extensional
fault during a phase of inversion causing folding in the overlying sequence. As a form of
fault propagation fold during upward propagation of an extensional fault in basement into
an overlying cover sequence. As a form of fault propagation fold during upward
propagation of a reverse fault in basement into an overlying cover sequence.
12- Homocline Fold
- A homocline involves strata dipping in the same direction, though not necessarily any
folding

13- Box Fold

- A fold in which the broad, flat top of an anticline or the broad, flat bottom of a syncline is
bordered by steeply dipping limbs. It consists of three limbs.

14- Ptygmatic Fold

- Folds are chaotic, random and disconnected. Typical of sedimentary slump folding,
migmatites and decollement detachment zones. Ptygmatic folds generally represent
conditions where the folded material is of a much greater viscosity than the surrounding
medium.
Summary
Fold, in geology, undulation or waves in the stratified rocks of Earth’s crust. Stratified rocks were
originally formed from sediments that were deposited in flat horizontal sheets, but in a number
of places the strata are no longer horizontal but have been warped. Sometimes the warping is
so gentle that the inclination of the strata is barely perceptible, or the warping may be so
pronounced that the strata of the two flanks may be essentially parallel or lie nearly flat (as in
the case of a recumbent fold). Folds vary widely in size; some are several kilometers or even
hundreds of kilometers across, and others measure just a few centimeters or less. The tops of
large folds are commonly eroded away on Earth’s surface, exposing the cross sections of the
inclined strata (see also erosion).

Folds are generally classified according to the attitude of their axes and their appearance in
cross sections perpendicular to the trend of the fold. The axial plane of a fold is the plane or
surface that divides the fold as symmetrically as possible "Fold vergence is the rotation of the
axial surface from the symmetric fold style into the asymmetric style. So, the vergence trend
indicates to the direction of tectonic stress formed these folds". The axial plane may be vertical,
horizontal, or inclined at any intermediate angle. An axis of a fold is the intersection of the axial
plane with one of the strata of which the fold is composed. Although in the simpler types of folds
the axis is horizontal or gently inclined, it may be steeply inclined or even vertical. The angle of
inclination of the axis, as measured from the horizontal, is called the plunge. The portions of the
fold between adjacent axes form the flanks, limbs, or slopes of a fold.

An anticline is a fold that is convex upward, and a syncline is a fold that is concave upward. An
Anticlinorium is a large anticline on which minor folds are superimposed, and a Synclinorium is
a large syncline on which minor folds are superimposed. A symmetrical fold is one in which the
axial plane is vertical. An asymmetrical fold is one in which the axial plane is inclined. An
overturned fold, or overfold, has the axial plane inclined to such an extent that the strata on one
limb are overturned. A recumbent fold has an essentially horizontal axial plane. When the two
limbs of a fold are essentially parallel to each other and thus approximately parallel to the axial
plane, the fold is called isoclinal.

Many folds are distinctly linear; that is, their extent parallel to the axis is many times their width.
Some folds, however, are not linear but are more or less circular in plan. A dome is such a fold
that is convex upward; this means that its strata dip outward from a central area. A basin is a
circular fold that is concave upward—i.e., the strata dip inward toward a central area. The long
linear folds that are characteristic of mountainous regions are believed to have resulted from
compressional forces acting parallel to the surface of Earth and at right angles to the fold (see
also mountain). Some geologists believe that many folds are the result of strata sliding from a
vertically uplifted area under the influence of gravity. The push exerted by an advancing glacier
also may throw weakly consolidated rocks into folds, and the compaction of sedimentary rocks
over buried hills gives rise to gentle folds. In nature, folds are rarely produced by a single process
but by a combination of processes.

Economic potentiality of folds "Oil Industry and Mining Industry":

1- Hydrocarbon entrapment in anticlines
2- Groundwater aquifers in syncline
3- Crest-fractured ore fillings
Examples of Folds
Folding Mechanisms

Folding of rocks must balance the deformation of layers with the conservation of
volume in a rock mass. This occurs by several mechanisms.
Folding mechanism is influenced by temperature, pressure, fluid, and rock properties
during the deformation.
The end shape of a fold is may be a produced of one or more-fold mechanism.

Folding mechanisms include:

• Bending
• Buckling
• Passive (ductile) flow
• Flexural slip
• Passive slip
• Kinking
• Flexural flow

1) Bending

- Bending involves forces applied and acting at high angles across the layers that
may or may not have competence contrasts.
- The layers in bending are bent like an elastic beam the has been supported at the
ends and loaded in the middle.
- Bending is an active folding process that mostly produces very gentle folds with
large interlimb angles.
- They are common in continental interiors-cartons-where vertical forces may be
directed at high angle to the originally horizontal bedding, producing the broad
domes and basins.
- In bending mechanism layers can go flexural slip.
2) Buckling

- Buckled Folds form by buckling, where force is applied parallel to layering in rocks.
- At low temperature, the result of buckling mechanism is parallel concentric folds. ‫طيات متحدة المركز‬
- At high temperature and pressure, layers may no longer control the shapes of the folds and
the resulted type of fold may be similar like folds.
- Buckling usually produce shortening in earth layers and growing in thickness.
- Buckling may be accompanied by flexural slip act early in the fold formation and buckling
accompanied with flexural flow dominated later as a result of tighten and pressure increases
during progressive deformation.

3- Passive Flow

- Passive flow folds: are similar folds that involve plastic deformation. The layering acts only as
a displacement marker.
- It involves uniform ductile flow of the entire rock mass.
- In passive flow there must be low ductility contrast between layers.
- Passive flow folds form in metamorphic rocks with low mean ductility and ductility contrast.
- Layering, foliation, gneissic banding serving only as a strain marker.
4- Flexural Slip

- Flexural Slip acts usually in low temperature and pressure found at shallow depth within the
Earth Crust.
- Flexural slip usually accompanies the bending and buckling mechanisms and is recognized by
slickensides or fibers on bedding surface.
- Layers maintain their thickness through slip past one another (book pages).
- Flexural slip folds: occur also in parallel concentric folds which formed by buckling or bending.
Slip in these folds is characterized by slickensides, fibers. They have constant layer thickness.
- It includes formation of parasitic folds (S, Z, M, and W) inside the most ductile beds in the
folded sequence.
- Parasitic or small size fold on the limb of big size fold can be used to determine the position as
they have Z sense of rotation clockwise in one limb and S sense of movement anti-clockwise
in the opposite limb. W and M sense of movement are found at the hinge of the big size fold.

5- Flexural Flow

- In flexural flow some layers flow ductility while others remain brittle and buckle.
- Flexural flow requires moderate-to high ductility contrast between layers.
- Strong layers may not undergo thickness changes but weak layers may go extreme thickness
changes.
- In flexural fold amplitude and wavelength may be controlled by the original thickness, spacing
and strength of the strong layers.
- The products of flexural flow are similar fold.
- Flexural-flow folds: form in rocks from low and moderate metamorphic grade. They are similar
like folds. Some layers maintain constant thickness but others thickened into axial plane and
thinned into limbs, indicating higher contrast in ductility.
6- Kink Folding

- Kink and chevron folds have straight limbs and narrow angular bands (hinges) that dip
steeper or gentler than adjacent beds. They occur on any scale from crystal lattices to amp
scale.
- Kink folds require local slippage (flexural slip) between layers.

7- Passive Slip

- It is the slip along fractures or foliation at an angle to folded layers. Slip in passive slip results
in a new cleavage to accommodates movement parallel to the new surface.
- Passive Slip folds: type of similar folds, form by shearing along planes inclined by layering.
 Rock Foliations
- Foliations ‫التورق‬: the breaking of a rock along closely spaced planes. It's a planar arrangement
of structural or textural features in any rock type but particularly that resulting from the
alignment of constituent mineral grains of a metamorphic rock of the regional variety along
straight or wavy planes. Foliation often occurs parallel to original bedding, but it may not be
ostensibly related to any other structural direction.

- Foliation is separated into two groups: primary and secondary. Primary deals with igneous and
sedimentary rocks while secondary deals with rocks that undergo metamorphism as a result
of deformation.

- Foliation is a planar fabric refers to a repetitive layering in metamorphic rocks during

metamorphism processes and is used as an indicator for the degree of pressure and
temperature agents of the metamorphic rocks. Each layer can be as thin as a sheet of paper,
or over a meter in thickness.
It is caused by shearing forces (pressures pushing different sections of the rock in different
directions), or differential pressure (higher pressure from one direction than in others).
So, rocks exhibiting foliation include the standard sequence formed by the prograde
metamorphism of mudrocks; slate, phyllite, schist and gneiss.

Gneiss, a foliated metamorphic rock.

- Cleavage is a subgroup of secondary foliations and it refers to the ability of a rock to split into
more or less parallel surfaces and associated with fine grained rocks.
For coarser grained rocks, Schistosity is used to describe secondary foliation.
The slaty cleavage typical of slate is due to the preferred orientation of microscopic
phyllosilicate crystals.

" Fabric describes the spatial and geometric configuration of all the elements that make it up.
In structural geology, fabrics may provide information on both the orientation and magnitude
of the strains that have affected a particular piece of deformed rock"

- Foliation, as it forms generally perpendicular to the direction of principal stress, records the
direction of shortening. This is related to the axis of folds, which generally form an axial-planar
foliation within their axial regions.
Measurement of the intersection between a fold's axial plane and a surface on the fold will
provide the fold plunge. If a foliation does not match the observed plunge of a fold, it is likely
associated with a different deformation event.
Foliation in areas of shearing, and within the plane of thrust faults, can provide information on
the transport direction or sense of movement on the thrust or shear.

- In some cases, the foliation planes contain mineral lineation.

 Rock Lineations
- Lineations are linear structural features, or parallel to sub parallel alignment of elongated
linear fabric within rocks.

- Primary lineations occur in undeformed and deformed rocks (lava flow, columnar basalts).
Tectonic lineations occur in deformed rocks (fold axis, mineral stretching).

- There are several types of lineations:

intersection lineations, crenulation lineations, mineral lineations and stretching lineations
"most common".

- Lineation field measurements are recorded as map lines with a plunge angle and azimuth.

- Penetrative lineations are found in rocks deformed in the plastic deformation.

Mineral lineations found on the foliation plane and aligned perpendicular to the compression.

1) Mullions

- Mullion are linear structures occur at the interface between a competent (high viscosity) and
incompetent beds.
- Mullions are closely related to the buckling folding where they form by layer-parallel
shortening and their wavelength is related to the viscosity contrast.
2) Pencil Structures

- Pencil lineations occur as a result of the:

interference between compaction cleavage and a subsequent tectonic cleavage or between
two tectonic cleavages developed at the same time or extension of very thin beds.

"cleavage structures are formed in fine grained rocks composed of minerals affected by
pressure solution. It describes the fine grains distribution, size, strength, continuity"

3) Boudinage

- Boudinage is the process that occur in the folded beds or stretched beds and divided them
into several individual pieces (boudins).
Boudins are sausage like bodies that resulted from a layer-parallel extension.

- It occurs during the buckling folding where there is a viscosity contrast (ductility) between the
folded beds, the competent beds are extended into boudin pieces that are separated by
brittle extension fractures, by shear fractures or by ductile shear zones.

- Sometime, the boudins structures are called as pinch-and-swell structures.

4) Brittle Lineations

- Brittle lineations occur on fracture planes such as the mineral growth in extension fractures
and the slickenside striations of fault planes and the lineations resulting from intersected
fractures.

- Mineral lineations require open fractures (extension fractures).

 Plane Attitude

- Plane attitude: Strike, direction of dip, angle of dip.

- The line of strike is found where an inclined bed intersects the horizontal plane (water in the
figure).

- The dip direction is the direction at which the beds slope and is always perpendicular to the
strike.

- The dip angle is the vertical angle of the inclined bed as measured from the horizontal.
 Brittle Deformation

Joints and Fractures

- Joint: is a fracture dividing rock into two sections that moved away from each other. The joint
does not involve shear displacement, and forms when tensile stress breaks its threshold.
In other kinds of fracturing, like in a fault, the rock is parted by a visible crack that forms a gap
in the rock.

- Fracture: is any kind of separation or break in a rock formation with a small displacement.
Examples are joints or small faults. These divides the rock into two or more pieces.
The fracture can sometimes form a deep, wide crack in the rock. They are usually caused when
the rock is not strong enough to hold up under too much stress. This makes the rock crack
along its weakest point.
Fractures can be used to describe joints and small-displaced faults.
Fractures can provide access for fluids, like water or hydrocarbons, to move into the rock.
Fractures can be classified into:
1- Shear fractures (slip surfaces)
2- Opening or extension fractures (joints, fissures and veins),
3- Closing or contraction fractures

• If a rock is brittle, it will fracture. Commonly, there is some movement or displacement. If

essentially no shear displacement occurs, a fracture or crack in rocks is called a joint. If the
rock on either side of a fracture moves parallel to the fracture plane, the fracture is a fault.

• So, Joint or Fracture is any planar or sub planar discontinuity that is very narrow in one
dimension compared to the other two and forms as a result of stress.
Joint shows no displacement at it both sides, but fracture show small displacement in
centimeters.
Joints and fractures affecting the rocks parallel to each other, where the Joints and fractures
that have the same orientation are defined as SET. Name of this set has the orientation of the
Joints and fractures planes. Such as NE Joint set, NW
joint set, N-S fracture set, etc.
 Faults

- Fault types? Fault plane? Fault zone? Fault trace? Fault breccia? Hanging wall? Footwall?
Fault throw? Fault heave?

- Fault is any fracture plane that shows a measurable and visible displacement at its both sides.
Fault is a planar fracture in rock in which the rock on one side of the fracture has moved with
respect to the rock on the other side.

- Causes: Large faults within the Earth's crust result from the action of plate tectonic forces, with
the largest forming the boundaries between the plates, such as subduction zones or transform
faults. Energy release associated with rapid movement on active faults is the cause of most
earthquakes.

- A fault that runs along the boundary between two tectonic plates is called a transform fault.

- In some faults, the contact between the two displaced sides is very narrow (fault plane) others,
the contact is wide zone (fault zone).

Fault Terminology

- Fault plane is the fault surface that represents the fracture surface of the fault.

- Fault zone is a region, from meters to kilometers in width, which is bounded by major faults
(numerous of faults in area). It refers to the zone of complex deformation associated with the
fault plane, as the faults do not usually consist of a single clean fracture.

- Fault trace or fault line is a place where the fault can be seen or mapped on the surface.
The fault trace is also the outcrop line commonly plotted on geologic maps to represent a fault.

- Asperity is an area on an active fault where there is increased friction, such that the fault may
become locked, rather than continuously slipping as in aseismic creep. Earthquake rupture
generally begins with the failure of an asperity, allowing the fault to move.
The two sides of a fault cannot always glide or flow past each other easily, and so occasionally
all movement stops. The regions of higher friction along a fault plane, where it becomes locked,
are called asperities.
 .‫ الجديدة واتجهاتها‬faults ‫ بتأثر على تكوين ال‬blocks ‫كسور بتبقى موجود فى ال‬: Pre-existing fabric

- Fault Block is a rock mass bounded at least by many faults (two at least).

- Fault Scarp is the formation on the earth due to faulting and earthquakes.

- Hanging wall and Footwall are the two sides of a non-vertical fault.
The hanging wall occurs above the fault and the footwall occurs below the fault.

- Slip is defined as the relative movement of

geological features present on either side of
a fault plane.

- Fault Throw is the vertical component of the

separation "amount of vertical
displacement".

- Fault Heave is the horizontal component of

the separation "amount of horizontal
displacement".

- Branch Line is a line of intersection between two faults.

- Tip Line is the dimension of the fault.

Nature of the movement along fault:

• Transitional movement: no rotation occurred.

• Rotational movement: Rotation occurred.
• Relative movements: in this case, fault never offer any direct
evidence as to which blocks actually moved.
• Slip: The term used to indicate the relative movements of
adjacent points on opposite sides of fault.
• Net Slip: is the total slip along fault.
• Strike slip: is component of net slip parallel to strike.
• Dip Slip: is component of net slip parallel to dip.
• Vertical slip (Throw): amount of vertical movement associated with fault.
• Heave: is the horizontal component of the dip slip.
Classifications of Faults

1‐Geometrical classification

A‐Geometrical classification based on rake of net slip:

• Dip slip fault: net slip is up or down the slip of fault
• Strike slip fault: net slip is parallel to strike of fault
• Diagonal slip fault (Oblique): net slip is diagonally up
or down fault plane

B‐Geometrical classification based on Fault pattern:

Parallel Peripheral Radial Enechlon

C‐Geometrical classification based on value of dip of fault:

• High angle fault: Dip>45
• Low angle fault: Dip<45

2‐Genetic classification

A‐Classification based on movement along fault:

• Normal fault:
• Reverse fault
• Thrust fault: dip<15
• Strike slip fault:
• Dextral strike slip
• Sinistral strike slip

B‐Classification based on absolute movements:

• Normal fault classification: The movement may have five
• Foot wall didn’t move (hanging wall moved up)
• Foot wall moved up (hanging wall remain stationary)
• Both blocks moved up but hanging wall moved slower than foot wall
• Both blocks moved down but the hanging wall moved faster than foot wall

• Thrust fault classification:

• Can be defined in the same way like normal fault classification
• Up thrust: the uplifted block is the active element
• Under thrust: the foot wall is the active element
Types of Faults "based on the direction of slip"

Geologists describe fault movement in terms of

direction of slippage:
dip-slip, strike-slip, or oblique-slip.

- In a dip-slip fault, movement is parallel to the dip

of the fault surface.
- A strike-slip fault indicates horizontal motion
parallel to the strike of the fault surface.
- An oblique-slip fault has both dip-slip and strike-
slip components.

(A) Dip-Slip Faults (Normal and Reverse Faults

- In a dip-slip fault, the movement is up or down parallel to the dip of the inclined fault surface.
The side of the fault above the inclined fault surface is called the hanging wall, whereas the
side below the fault is called the footwall.
The two sides of a non-vertical fault are known as the hanging wall and footwall. The hanging
wall occurs above the fault plane and the footwall occurs below it.
.‫ ثابت‬Foot Wall ‫ وال‬Fault Plane (surface) ‫ هو اللى بيتحرك على ال‬Hanging Wall ‫ال‬

- Normal and Reverse Faults, the most common types of dip-slip faults, are distinguished from
each other on the basis of the relative movement of the footwall block and the hanging wall
block.
1. Normal Faults

- In Normal Faults, the hanging-wall block has moved down relative to the footwall block.

- Normal faults usually caused by extensional regime.

- Sometimes a block bounded by normal faults will drop down, creating a graben. Rifts are
grabens associated with diverging plate boundaries. The Red Sea is an example of grabens.
If a block bounded by normal faults is uplifted sufficiently, it becomes a fault-block mountain
range forming a horst. Horst is the opposite of a graben.

- Structural styles formed by the normal faults:

1- Horst: An upthrown block between two normal faults dipping away from each other.
2- Graben: A downthrown block between two normal faults dipping towards each other.
3- Half graben (tilted block): Normal faults formed in depressions with asymmetric shapes.
Half Graben fault plane has a curved shape, the geometry of a half-moon shape. Altitude
ridge in the form of horst fault, whereas the low form of graben, usually associated with
growth faults.

- Detachment Faults: Low-angle normal faults with regional tectonic significance.

Models of Extensional Faults (Geometry of Normal Faults)

❖ Growth Normal Faults

- Growth faults are syndepositional or syn-sedimentary extensional faults that initiate and evolve
at the margins of continental plates. They extend parallel to passive margins that have high
sediment supply.
-Sedimentary layers have different geometry and thickness across the fault. The footwall –
landward of the fault plane has undisturbed sedimentary strata that dip gently toward the basin
while the hanging wall on the basin side of the fault plane has folded and faulted sedimentary
strata that dip landward close to the fault and basinward away from it. These layers perch on a
low density evaporite or over-pressured shale bed that easily flows away from higher pressure
into lower pressure zones.
- As a result, the sedimentary layers collapse forming synthetic and antithetic dip-slip faults that
dip in the same direction or in the opposite direction of the main growth fault respectively or bend
forming rollover anticlines close to the fault plane.[7] Those structures are usually formed
simultaneously and are thought to be created as a result of sediments filling the gap that is
formed hypothetically by the basinward movement of the downthrown block.
- Growth faults have great significance for stratigraphy, structural geology and the petroleum
industry. They account for relative and eustatic sea level changes and accommodation space
left for new sediments.
- Common in Gulf of Mexico.
• Planar Normal Faults (Planners)

- Number of normal faults that are parallel to each other.

- The dip doesn't change with depth.
- Refer to the same basin.
- Throws are approximate in value.
- Have a master fault at the beginning or at the end or might not exists.
- Characterized by many traps of small sizes.
- Each layer doesn't meet it's similar one so we must measure the seal for each one.
• Listric Normal Faults

- Curved faults, concave upwards.

- Characterized by crescent shape at both cross section and map views.
- The dip decreased with depth "shallows with depth".
- Has two traps (up thrown side, down thrown side).
- Up thrown side is thin and rotational.
- Down thrown side is thick and forms a roll over anticline.

• Synthetic and antithetic faults are terms used to describe minor faults associated with a
major fault. Synthetic faults dip in the same direction as the major fault while the
antithetic faults dip in the opposite direction. These faults may be accompanied by
rollover anticlines.

Roll over anticlines: - Syn depositional structures developed at the downthrown sides of
growth faults.
- They are formed when sedimentation along growth faults cause
rotation.
- They grow with growth faults.
- The only fold that formed by extension stress regime "related to
extensional active normal faults"
- Must be differentiated from fault propagation fold associated with
reverse faults.
- Thick, Asymmetrical.
- Receive the sediments.
- Good reservoir of high porosity and permeability as it is formed slowly
of deposition after a fast rate period.
Listric Normal Faults in Gulf of Suez
Normal Faults and Rifting Models

- Two idealized models of rifting. The pure shear model in which the structureal style is
symmetrical with a maximum heat under the central part of the rift. The simple shear rifting
has asymmetrical structural style with low angle normal faults and a maximum heat toward
one of its shoulder.

Red Sea Rift

- The divergence movement between the African and Arabian plates formed the Red Sea rift
that separates between the two plates. This rift starts its development in Oligocene time and
continued during the Miocene Pliocene time. During the Pliocene, the Dead Sea fault (Gulf of
Aqaba) developed to accommodate the divergence movement between the two plates. The rift
term refers to a major graben block that is associated with a complex structural style related to
the normal fault displacements and types.
- Rifting in most cases is accompanied with volcanic activities in the forms of dykes, sills, and
flow. In the Red Sea rifting event, the volcanic eruptions took place in the form of Harratson
the Arabian Shield that are divided into two groups, the first is related to pre-rifting activity and
second is resulted from syn-rifting activity.
2. Reverse Faults

- In Reverse Faults, the hanging-wall block has moved up relative to the footwall block and the
fault plane dip steeper than 45°.

- Reverse faults tend to shorten the crust.

- Thrust Fault is a reverse fault in which the dip of the fault plane is at a low angle (<45°) or
even horizontal.
A thrust fault is a break in the Earth's crust, across which older rocks are pushed above
younger rocks.

Thrust Fault Systems

Thrust Propagation Folds

(B) Strike-Slip Faults

- In Strike Slip Faults, the movement (or slip) is predominantly horizontal and parallel to the
strike of the fault.

- The displacement along a strike-slip fault is either left-lateral or right-lateral and can be
determined by looking across the fault.

- They have steep planes and some irregularity on surface.

- Other names of strike-slip faults:

1-Transcurrent fault: long strike-slip fault cuts major structures.
2-Transfer fault: strike slip fault separates between two different structural settings.
3-Tear fault: short strike-slip fault dissects one limb of fold.
4-Transform fault: strike-slip fault exists at the plate boundaries.

Structures at the termination of strike slip faults:

1-Restraining bends
2-Releasing bends
3-Pull-apart grabens (negative flower structures)
4-Push-up structures (positive flower structures)
- Transpression: compression movement across two strike-slip faults.

- Transtension: extension movement across two strike-slip faults

Wrenching

A strike slip fault occurs usually in basement. It affects the younger layers above it due to
presence of horizontal movements at basements. Its importance because of its presence
forming new structures can be good reservoirs for oil.

Theoretical Wrench movement:

The block affected by a strike slip fault & this causes:
• Tension in length for one axis
• Compression in length for the other axis

Divergent & convergent Wrenching:

In real, the fault is usually deviated (not straight line) & this type of fault forming two zones:
• Convergent Wrench: zone in which a compression occurred& forming fold
• Divergent Wrench: zone in which a tension occurred & forming fault. Sometimes Blocks
may slump in this zone which called interblock Tension

Effect of Wrench on Upper layers:

• left lateral (Sinistral): will form right stepping faults in Tension zone & left stepping folds &
thrust faults in compression zone.
• Right Lateral (Dextral): will form left stepping normal faults in tension zone & right stepping
folds & reverse faults in compression zone.
Strike Slip Movements in Gulf of Aqaba
(C) Oblique Slip Faults

- Oblique faults are faults on which two directions of displacement occur. It is a combination of
dip slip motion and strike slip motion. So, there is a space between the faces of the fault and
one side is higher vertically than the other.

- The strike slip faults have two types which are sinistral (left-lateral) and dextral (right lateral).
When these faults have vertical slip (normal or reverse), they are classified as oblique
(diagonal-lip) faults of four types.

Transfer Zones

- Transfer zone is a structural zone separates between two different structural styles.
It is linking two structural domains having different or opposed structural styles

- The transfer zones are also known as accommodation zones.

- Transfer zones show a wide range of forms:

faults
Broad deformational zone

- The different structural styles at both sides of the transfer zone may include:
different fault dips
graben shifts
opposite half graben polarities
horst and graben.
Detection of Fault Slip using slickenside striations and steps

- The fault plane is a single plane exists between the displaced blocks. Generally, the plane
consists of several parallel to sub-parallel planes that forming a fault zone. The rocks forming
the displaced block at both sides of each fault plane or zone are affected by several fractures
and joints that are parallel to the fault plane or zone.

- Slickenside striations have measured on the fault plane by the angle between the fault strike
and the striations.
Normal faults
Slickenside striations: perpendicular to the fault strike
Slickenside steps: directed down-dip

Reverse and thrust faults

Slickenside striations: perpendicular to the fault strike
Slickenside steps: directed up-dip

Strike-slip faults
Slickenside striations: parallel to the fault strike
Slickenside steps: directed to right or to left

Oblique-slip faults
Slickenside striations: oblique (makes an acute angle) to the fault strike
Slickenside steps: directed oblique to right or to left and to up-dip or down-dip

Detachment faulting

is associated with large-scale extensional tectonics. Detachment faults often have very large
displacements (tens of km) and juxtapose unmetamorphosed hanging walls against medium to
high-grade metamorphic footwalls that are called metamorphic core complexes. They are
thought to have formed as either initially low-angle structures or by the rotation of initially high-
angle normal faults modified also by the isostatic effects of tectonic denudation.

Fault breccia

or tectonic breccia, is a breccia (a rock type consisting of angular clasts) that was formed by
tectonic forces. Fault breccia has no cohesion; it is normally an unconsolidated rock type, unless
cementation took place at a later stage. Sometimes a distinction is made between fault gouge
and fault breccia, the first has a smaller grain size.
Zones of fault breccia and fault gouge in rocks can be a hazard for the construction of tunnels
and mines, as the non-cohesive zones form weak places in the rock where a tunnel can collapse
more easily. Fault breccias are tectonics formed primarily by tectonic movement along a
localized zone of brittle deformation (a fault zone) in a rock formation or province.
The grinding and milling occurring when the two sides of the fault zone moving along each other
results in a material that is made of loose fragments. Because of this fragmentation fault zones
are easily infiltrated by groundwater. Secondary minerals such as calcite, epidote, quartz or talc
can precipitate from the circulating groundwater filling the voids and cementing the rock.
However, when the tectonic movement along the fault zone continues the cement itself can be
fragmented leading to a new gouge material containing newformed clasts. Deeper in the Earth's
crust, where temperatures and pressures are higher, the rocks in the fault zone can still
brecciate, but they keep their internal cohesion. The resulting type of rock is called a cataclasite.

The main types of fault rock include:

Cataclasite – a fault rock which is cohesive with a poorly developed or absent planar fabric, or
which is incohesive, characterized by generally angular clasts and rock fragments in a finer-
grained matrix of similar composition.
Tectonic or Fault breccia – a medium- to coarse-grained cataclasite containing >30% visible
fragments.
Fault gouge – an incohesive, clay-rich fine- to ultrafine-grained cataclasite, which may possess
a planar fabric and containing <30% visible fragments. Rock clasts may be present
Clay smear - clay-rich fault gouge formed in sedimentary sequences containing clay-rich
layers which are strongly deformed and sheared into the fault gouge.
Mylonite – a fault rock which is cohesive and characterized by a well-developed planar fabric
resulting from tectonic reduction of grain size, and commonly containing rounded
porphyroclasts and rock fragments of similar composition to minerals in the matrix
Pseudotachylyte – ultrafine-grained glassy-looking material, usually black and flinty in
appearance, occurring as thin planar veins, injection veins or as a matrix to pseudo
conglomerates or breccias, which infills dilation fractures in the host rock.

Faults Importance

Many ore deposits lie on faults. This is due to the fact that damaged fault zones allow for the
circulation of mineral-bearing fluids. Intersections of near-vertical faults are often locations of
significant ore deposits.
Examples of Faults
 Geologic Contacts
1.Depositional contact: is a sedimentary contact between rock units (conformable contact).
- Usually planar contact represent no time gap in the geologic record.

2.Intrusive contact: an igneous cut across another rock body.

3.Unconformity contact: Contact represents erosion or non-deposition of strata.

Unconformities: are the non-deposition or erosional surfaces that separate between two
rock groups resulted under the influences of primary and secondary processes.
- So, Unconformities are gaps in the geologic record within a stratigraphic unit. These gaps can
be caused by periods of non-deposition or erosion. As a result, two adjacent rock units may
have significantly different ages.
- Erosion is the action of surface processes that removes soil, rock, or dissolved material from
one location on the Earth's crust, and then transports it to another location.

4.Teactonic contact: is a tectonic activity (shear zone or fault) between two units.
 Unconformity Types

- Disconformity
A disconformity is an unconformity between parallel layers of sedimentary rocks which
represents a period of erosion (subaerial) or non-deposition.
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- Paraconformity
A Paraconformity is a type of unconformity in which strata are parallel; there a gap in the geologic
system but no evidence for a gap in time or erosion and the unconformity surface looks like a
simple bedding plane. It is also called non-depositional unconformity or pseudo conformity
identified by fossils or radiometric dating.

Diastem: is a short erosional surface within a conformable succession of strata.

- Angular Unconformity
Horizontal flat parallel strata of sedimentary rock are deposited on tilted eroded layers.
layers above and below are not parallel to each other (Flat strata over steeply dipping strata).

- Non-conformity
Sedimentary Strata deposited on crystalline basement rocks (pre-existing and eroded igneous
or metamorphic).