Growing season N2O emissions from two-year

potato rotations in a humid environment in

New Brunswick, Canada
Emily Snowdon1,2, Bernie J. Zebarth1,4, David L. Burton2, Claudia Goyer1, and
Philippe Rochette3
1
Potato Research Centre, Agriculture Agri-Food Canada, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada E3B 4Z7;
2
Department of Environmental Sciences, Dalhousie University, Truro, Nova Scotia, Canada B2N 5E3; and
3
Soils and Crops Research and Development Centre, Agriculture Agri-Food Canada, 2560 Hochelaga Boulevard,
Can. J. Soil. Sci. Downloaded from cdnsciencepub.com by University of Alberta on 07/12/23

Quebec City, Quebec, Canada G1V 2J3. Received 19 October 2012, accepted 18 April 2013.
Snowdon, E., Zebarth, B. J., Burton, D. L., Goyer, C. and Rochette, P. 2013. Growing season N2O emissions from two-year
potato rotations in a humid environment in New Brunswick, Canada. Can. J. Soil Sci. 93: 279294. Few studies have
examined the effects of crop rotation on N2O emissions. This study quantified N2O emissions from seven 2-yr potato
rotations over a 3-yr period, 20082010, where the potato phase was present in 2008 and 2010. In addition, the potential to
predict variation in cumulative growing season N2O emissions was examined using indices of nitrate availability [nitrate
exposure (NE), a time integrated measure of soil nitrate concentrations in the surface soil], carbon availability (cumulative
growing season CO2 emissions) and aeration [time-weighted average water-filled pore space (WFPS)]. In the potato phase
of the rotations, even for treatments receiving the same fertilizer N rate (193 kg N ha 1), a wide range in cumulative
growing season N2O emissions was measured in both 2008 and 2010 (0.391.49 and 0.812.03 kg N ha1, respectively).
The NE explained 52 and 70% of the variation in growing season N2O emissions under potato production in 2008 and
2010, respectively. Carbon availability also had a significant effect on N2O emissions, as indicated by increased N2O
emissions in rotations where residues of the preceding crop resulted in increased CO2 emissions early in the growing
season. A large proportion (67%) of the variation in cumulative N2O emissions among rotation crops was also explained
by NE. Choice of rotation crop resulted in an almost twofold difference (0.91.7 kg N ha1) in N2O emissions over the
2-yr rotation cycle. Greater N2O emissions over the 2-yr rotation cycle were measured for rotation crops of soybean,
Italian ryegrass, red clover and potato than for rotation crops of corn, canola and barley. However, the fertilizer N
management in both the potato and rotation crop phases may be as or more important than the choice of rotation crop in
influencing the risk of N2O emissions.

Key words: Red clover, Italian ryegrass, soybean, barley, canola, corn

Snowdon, E., Zebarth, B. J., Burton, D. L., Goyer, C. et Rochette, P. 2013. Émissions de N2O d’un assolement de pomme de
terre de deux ans pendant la période végétative, dans un environnement humide, au Nouveau-Brunswick (Canada). Can. J. Soil
Sci. 93: 279294. Peu d’études se sont intéressées aux conséquences de l’assolement sur les dégagements de N2O. L’étude
que voici quantifie les émissions de N2O de sept rotations de deux ans de pomme de terre au cours d’une période de trois
ans, soit de 2008 à 2010, la pomme de terre ayant été cultivée en 2008 et en 2010. Les auteurs ont également déterminé si on
peut prévoir la fluctuation des émissions cumulatives de N2O durant la période végétative en recourant aux indices de
disponibilité des nitrates [exposition aux nitrates (EN), une mesure temporelle intégrée de la concentration de nitrates dans
la couche superficielle du sol], de disponibilité du carbone (dégagements cumulatifs de CO2 pendant la période végétative)
et d’aération (espace moyen des pores remplis d’eau pondéré dans le temps). Durant la phase « pomme de terre » de la
rotation, les émissions cumulatives de N2O mesurées pendant la saison de croissance en 2008 et 2010 ont considérablement
varié (de 0,39 à 1,49 et de 0,81 à 2,03 kg de N par hectare, respectivement), même pour les parcelles sur lesquelles on avait
appliqué la même quantité d’engrais azoté (193 kg de N par hectare). L’EN a respectivement expliqué 52 et 70 % de la
variation des dégagements de N2O observée durant la période végétative, pendant la culture de la pomme de terre, en 2008
et 2010. La quantité de carbone disponible a elle aussi une incidence significative sur les émissions de N2O, comme le révèle
la hausse de ces dernières quand les résidus de la culture antérieure augmentent les dégagements de CO2 en début de saison.
Une grande part (67 %) de la variation des émissions cumulatives de N2O observée entre les cultures de l’assolement
s’explique par l’EN. Le choix de la culture en rotation double presque l’écart (0,91,7 kg de N par hectare) des émissions de
N2O durant l’assolement de deux ans. Les assolements de soja, de ray-grass d’Italie, de trèfle rouge et de pomme de terre
engendrent de plus fortes émissions de N2O que les assolements de maı̈s, de canola et d’orge pendant la rotation de

4
Corresponding author (e-mail: bernie.zebarth@ Abbreviations: NE, nitrate exposure; WFPS, water-filled pore
agr.gc.ca). space

Can. J. Soil Sci. (2013) 93: 279294 doi:10.4141/CJSS2012-115 279

 280 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE
deux ans. Néanmoins, la gestion des engrais azotés durant la culture de la pomme de terre et les autres phases de
l’assolement pourrait exercer une aussi grande influence sur les émissions de N2O éventuelles que le choix de la culture
proprement dite.
Mots clés: Trèfle rouge, ray-grass d’Italie, soja, orge, canola, maı̈s
Crop rotation is widely used as a means of controlling
diseases, weeds and insect pests and of enhancing soil
tilth, nutrient availability and water-holding capacity,
thereby increasing productivity (Stark and Love 2003).
While the effects of many different management prac-
tices on N2O emissions have been examined, including
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nitrogen (N) fertilization (van Groenigen et al. 2004;
McSwiney and Robertson 2005), organic amendments
(Rochette et al. 2008), tillage (Six et al. 2004), soil
compaction (Ball et al. 1999) and drainage (Elmi et al.
2002), few studies have examined the effects of crop
rotation.
The magnitude of N2O emissions can be influenced
by the choice of crop species in the current year, as well
as the choice of preceding crop. Drury et al. (2008)
reported that when grown in monoculture over three
growing seasons, N2O emissions were greater for corn
(2.62 kg N ha1) than for soybean (0.84 kg N ha1)
or winter wheat (0.51 kg N ha 1). In addition, N2O
emissions from a corn crop were greater when the
preceding crop was corn (2.62 kg N ha1) than when
the preceding crop was winter wheat (1.64 kg N ha1)
or soybean (1.34 kg N ha1). Similarly, Ellert and
Janzen (2008) reported higher N2O emissions from
spring wheat when the preceding crop was alfalfa than
when the preceding crop was corn regardless of manure
or fertilizer N management, and Mosier et al. (2006)
reported higher N2O emissions from unfertilized corn
when the preceding crop was soybean than when the
preceding crop was corn. These differences in N2O
emissions were attributed to differences in fertilizer N
application to the different crop species in the current
year, as well as to residual nitrate and crop residues
from the preceding crop (Drury et al. 2008). However,
such studies commonly do not measure ancillary para-
meters that would allow the controlling factors on
emissions to be identified.
Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is the most economic-
ally important arable crop in Atlantic Canada (Zebarth
et al. 2012a). N2O emissions are commonly increased by
increased fertilizer N inputs (McSwiney and Robertson
2005) or increased soil nitrate concentrations (Gillam
et al. 2008). As a result, N2O emissions from potato
production are of concern due to the relatively high
fertilizer N inputs (Zebarth et al. 2003), the high nitrate
concentrations in the root zone during the growing
season (Zebarth and Milburn 2003), and the potential
for high residual nitrate after tuber harvest (Cambouris
et al. 2008). Potato production in this region with humid
moisture regimes [mean annual precipitation 1124 mm
(Environment Canada 2011)] is primarily rain-fed and
on medium-textured soils (Zebarth et al. 2012a). In-
tensification of potato production has resulted in short
rotations, with barleypotato the most common. There
is increased interest in introducing new rotation crops
including forages such as Italian ryegrass (grown as a
green manure), or alternative crops that can be used to
produce biofuels such as soybeans and canola. However,
the implications of changes in potato rotations with
respect to N2O emissions are unknown.
Emissions of N2O are associated primarily with the
denitrification process in regions with humid soil
moisture regimes (Mosier 1998), and the denitrification
process is controlled primarily by aeration and by the
availability of organic carbon and nitrate (Gillam et al.
2008). Consequently ancillary parameters which are
related to these controlling factors are often chosen to
help explain variations in N2O emissions. Water-filled
pore space (WFPS) was used as a measure of soil aera-
tion (Linn and Doran 1984). Nitrate exposure [pre-
viously referred to as nitrate intensity (Burton et al.
2008)], is a time-integrated measure of the availability of
soil nitrate concentration for denitrification, and was
found to be highly positively related with cumulative
growing season N2O emissions (Burton et al. 2008;
Zebarth et al. 2008, 2012b). Emissions of CO2, which
primarily reflect soil respiration, were used as a measure
of carbon availability (Honeycutt et al. 1988) and
are closely related to denitrification in laboratory
incubations (Miller et al. 2008).
The objectives of this study were: (1) to quantify N2O
emissions in a series of 2-yr potato rotations and (2) to
measure ancillary parameters for the purpose of gaining
insight into the controls on N2O emissions under field
conditions. Objective 2 was included in order to improve
our understanding as to which factors contributed to
any measured differences in N2O emissions among crop
rotations under objective 1, and consequently to identify
the key factors to be considered when selecting potato
rotations in the context of reducing N2O emissions.
To aid in achieving objective 2, additional treatments
varying in fertilizer N inputs and additional sampling of
row locations to reflect differences in aeration were
performed under potato production for a preceding
barley crop.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was established in 2007 in Fredericton,
NB, Canada (lat. 45855?N, long. 66836?W). N2O emis-
sions were measured from the same plots during the
growing seasons of 2008 to 2010.
 SNOWDON ET AL. * N2O EMISSIONS IN POTATO ROTATIONS 281

Soils at the experimental site belong to the Research
Station soil association (coarse loamy morainal abla-
tional till over coarse loamy morainal lodgement till),
and are classified in the Canadian soil classification
system as Humo-Ferric Podzols (Rees and Fahmy
1984). Soil properties for the 0- to 15-cm depth were
soil pH (1:1 water) of 6.2 and soil organic C and total N
concentrations of 19.2 g C kg 1 and 1.67 g N kg1,
respectively (LECO CNS-1000, Leco Corporation, St.
Joseph, MI). Soil textural class [pipette method with
organic matter removal (Kroetsch and Wang 2008)]
was loam with 490 g kg1 sand, 390 g kg 1 silt and
110 g kg 1 clay.
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spacing to achieve a plant density of 26 800 plants ha1.
Fertilizer N (diammonium phosphate plus ammonium
nitrate) was banded at planting approximately 7.5 cm to
each side and 5 cm below the seed pieces at a rate of 193
kg N ha1 for all rotations, the recommended rate for
potatoes grown on this soil following a non-legume
rotation crop (Zebarth et al. 2007). Standard commer-
cial practices were used for disease, insect and weed
control. Vine desiccation was done on 2008 Sep. 26 and
2010 Sep. 15 using diquat, and the crop was harvested
on 2008 Oct. 08 and 2010 Oct. 0405. Total tuber yield
was determined based on two crop rows.

The experiment used a randomized complete block Emissions of N2O and CO2
design with nine treatments replicated four times. The The N2O and CO2 measurements were taken approxi-
treatments included seven 2-yr potato rotations where mately weekly from early spring to late autumn after
the potato phase of the rotation was present in 2008 moldboard plowing to approximately 10 cm depth in
and 2010 and rotation crops grown in 2007 and 2009 each growing season. In the potato phase, two collars
(Table 1). Rotation crops included: corn (Zea mays were installed in each plot in early spring and remained
L.), canola (Brassica napus L.), soybean (Glycine max in place until planting. After planting, two collars were
L.), Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam.), potato installed in each of the ridge and furrow row locations of
(Solanum tuberosum L.), barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) each plot (i.e., four per plot). All collars were removed
and red clover (Trifolium pratense L.). The two addi- prior to ridge formation (approximately 4550 d after
tional treatments included rotation crops of barley and planting) and re-installed immediately upon completion
red clover except that no fertilizer N was applied in the of ridge formation, and remained in place until final
potato phase of the rotation. The plots were 5.5 m  tuber harvest. After final harvest, two collars were
10 m in size. No irrigation was applied as is common in installed in each plot and were removed for autumn
this production region. moldboard plowing. In addition, where the preceding
In each case, the rotation crops were managed as crop was barley only, two additional collars were
would be appropriate for potato rotations in New installed in the furrow locations compacted by tractor
Brunswick, except for the red clover which would not traffic during planting. In the rotation crop phase, two
collars were installed in each plot in early spring and
normally be grown in a 2-yr rotation. Rotation crops
remained in place until planting. After planting, two
were machine planted 2007 May 0615 and 2009 May
collars were installed in each plot between the crop rows
1321 and harvested in August to October depending
and remained in place until late autumn. The exceptions
on crop species. Information on cultivars grown and on
were the corn rotation crop, for which two collars
N fertilization for the rotation crops is summarized
were installed in each of the crop row and inter-row
in Table 2. locations, and the potato crop, for which two collars
In the potato phase of the rotations, potatoes were were installed in each of the ridge and furrow locations,
hand-planted using hand-cut potato seed, cultivar in each plot. Collars were removed for autumn mold-
Russet Burbank, on 2008 May 22 and 2010 May 13 board plow-down.
using a 0.91-m row spacing and a 0.41-m within-row The N2O and CO2 flux measurements were made
using a non-flow-through, non-steady-state chamber
Table 1. Experimental treatments for the establishment year in 2007, the with a total volume of 6.5 L, covering a soil area of
potato phase of the rotations in 2008 and 2010, and the rotation crop 315 cm2 (Burton et al. 2008). All plants were removed
phase in 2009 from the inner collar area. Gas samples were collected
Treatment 2007 2008 2009 2010 over a 30-min deployment period, with samples col-
z
lected at 0, 10, 20 and 30 min (Burton et al. 2008). Gas
1 Corn Potato N Corn Potato N samples were collected by removing 20 mL of gas from
2 Soybean Potato N Soybean Potato N
3 Canola Potato N Canola Potato N
the headspace of the chamber and injecting it into a pre-
4 Italian ryegrass Potato N Italian Potato N evacuated (to 500 millitorr) 12-mL Exetainer (Labco,
ryegrass UK). Five replicates of each of breathing grade oxygen
5 Potato Potato N Potato Potato N and 8.8 mL L1 N2O were taken on each sampling date
6 Barley Potato N Barley Potato N to ensure the reliability of the storage and handling of
7 Red clover Potato N Red clover Potato N
8 Barley Potato N  Barley Potato N  the gas samples (Burton et al. 2008).
9 Red clover Potato N Red clover Potato N  Gas samples were analyzed for concentrations of N2O
and CO2 by a Varian Star 3800 Gas Chromatograph
N fertilized at 193 kg N ha 1; N  unfertilized.
z
(Varian, Walnut Creek, CA) fitted with an electron
 282 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE
Table 2. Crop management practices for the rotation crops in 2007 and 2009
Row spacing Rate
Crop species Seeding rate (m) (kg N ha 1)
1
Corn (Pioneer 36B96) 79 000 plants ha 0.76 120
Canola (Pioneer 45H21) 6.7 kg ha 1 0.15 100
1
Soybean (Pioneer 90M01) 140 kg ha 0.15 NA
Italian ryegrass (Lemtal) 28 kg ha 1 0.15 67
Potato (Russet Burbank) 26 800 plants ha 1 0.91 NA
Can. J. Soil. Sci. Downloaded from cdnsciencepub.com by University of Alberta on 07/12/23
Barley (AC Encore) 140 kg ha 1 0.15 67
Red clover (AC Endure) 11 kg ha 1 0.15 NA
z
NA, not applicable.
capture detector, thermal conductivity detector and a
Combi-PAL Autosampler (CTC Analytics, Zwingen,
Switzerland). The electron capture detector was oper-
ated at 3008C, 90% Ar, 10% CH4 carrier gas at 20 mL
min1, Haysep N 80/100 pre-column (0.32 cm diameter
50 cm length) and Haysep D 80/100 mesh analytical
columns (0.32 cm diameter 200 cm length) in a column
oven operated at 708C. The pre-column was used in
combination with a four-port valve to remove water
from samples. The thermal conductivity detector was
operated at 1308C, pre-purified helium (He) carrier
gas at 30 mL min 1, Haysep N 80/100 mesh (0.32 cm
diameter 50 cm length) pre-column followed by a
Porapak QS 80/100 mesh (0.32 cm diameter 200 cm
length) analytical column maintained at 708C.
As described by Burton et al. (2008), N2O and
CO2 (g N2O ha1 d1 and kg CO2 ha1 d 1) fluxes
(Fc) were calculated using the following equation
(Hutchinson and Livingston 1993):
Fc dC=dt VcMmol=(AVmol) (1)
where dC/dt is the rate of change in N2O or CO2
concentration (mol mol 1 h1), A is the surface area
(m2) of the chamber, Vc is the total volume (L) of the
chamber (i.e., chamber plus exposed collar), Mmol is the
molar mass of N2O (g mol 1) and Vmol is the volume
of a mole of N2O (L mol1) inside the chamber
corrected for temperature using the ideal gas law. The
flux value of dC/dt was calculated using the simple
linear regression of the gas concentrations versus time
over the deployment period. All flux values were
adjusted to represent grams of N and kg of C per
hectare per day. Cumulative growing season gas fluxes
were calculated from 2008 May 01 to Nov. 04, 2009
Apr. 30 to Nov. 09 and 2010 Apr. 29 to Oct. 26 (187-,
193- and 180-d monitoring periods for 2008, 2009 and
2010, respectively) on an individual chamber basis by
linear interpolation between sampling dates, following
Fertilizer N application
Pre-plant At planting
Rate
Formulation (kg N ha 1) Formulation
Urea (4600) 37 Diammonium phosphate
(221510)
Ammonium sulfate NA NA
(1800)
NAz NA NA
Urea NA NA
NA 193 Ammonium nitrate (3400)
plus diammonium phosphate
(23.311.711.7)
Urea NA NA
NA NA NA
the assumption that gas flux measured on the sampling
date was representative of the average daily flux.
Cumulative emission values were subsequently averaged
across chambers to obtain appropriate mean values.
For time periods when row locations were not present
(i.e., before and after planting), the measured gas flux
was applied to both row locations for calculation of
cumulative values.
Soil mineral N and Nitrate Exposure
Soil samples for determination of soil mineral N
concentrations were collected from each plot on each
date that N2O and CO2 fluxes were measured. Samples
consisted of a composite of eight soil cores, 2.54 cm in
diameter. In the potato phase, pre-plant and post-
harvest soil samples were collected from 010 cm depth
randomly within the plot. Post-planting, soil samples
were collected from 010 cm depth separately from the
ridge and furrow locations. After ridge formation, the
depth of soil samples collected from the ridge location
was adjusted to 020 cm to reflect the greater depth of
the soil A horizon. In addition, where the preceding crop
was barley, soil samples were collected from 010 cm
depth in the compacted furrow. In the rotation crop
phase, soil samples were collected from 010 cm depth
randomly within the plot except for the potato rotation
crop, which was sampled as described for the potato
phase, and for corn, where samples were collected from
010 cm depth separately from the row and inter-row
locations between planting and harvest. The soils were
stored at 48C and processed within 24 h. All soil samples
were passed through a 4.75-mm sieve, and a 20-g sub-
sample was dried at 1058C for 48 h to determine
gravimetric water content. A 25-g sub-sample of moist
soil was extracted with 0.5 M K2SO4 using a 1:2
soil:extractant ratio and a shaking time of 30 min
(Miller et al. 2008). Extracts were filtered and stored
at 208C pending analysis. Concentrations of NO3-N
 SNOWDON ET AL. * N2O EMISSIONS IN POTATO ROTATIONS
plus NO2-N (hereafter referred to as NO3-N) and
NH4-N were determined colorimetrically using a Tech-
nicon Auto Analyzer II system following Technicon
Industrial Method #100-70W and Technicon Industrial
Method #98-70W, respectively. Blank samples were also
run to account for background levels in the procedure.
Nitrate exposure was calculated as the linear inter-
polation of the NO3-N concentrations between sam-
pling dates for the same time period as cumulative
growing season N2O emissions (Burton et al. 2008). It
is expressed in units of g N d kg 1, which combines
both the magnitude of NO3-N concentrations and the
duration when they are present. This measure gives us a
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temporally integrated measure of the exposure of the
soil microbial community to the NO3 over the growing
season.
Denitrification Assay
Denitrification was measured using the acetylene inhibi-
tion technique as described by Paul and Zebarth (1997).
Intact cores with a height of 10 cm and a 6-cm diameter
were used except for the potato ridge after hilling, where
the soil core was 20 cm in height. Sampling was done
on seven dates in each growing season (approximately
every 3 wk from pre-plant until mid-season, then
approximately monthly until after crop harvest) when
N2O emissions were measured. In the potato phase, two
cores were sampled per plot pre-plant and post-harvest.
Between planting and harvest, two cores were sampled
in the ridge only except where the preceding crop was
barley, in which case two cores were sampled from each
of the ridge, furrow and compacted furrow locations. In
the rotation crop phase, two cores were sampled from
each plot. The exceptions were for between planting and
harvest for the corn rotation crop, where two cores were
collected from each of the row and inter-row locations,
and for the potato rotation crop, where two cores were
sampled from each of the ridge and furrow locations.
Soil cores were placed in a 1.5-L canning jar, or in an
approximately 3.2-L PVC cylinder for cores of 20 cm
height, and a 20-mL time zero headspace sample was
collected. Immediately, the jar or cylinder was sealed
with a lid fitted with a septum, 40 mL of headspace gas
was removed by syringe, and 100 mL of acetylene,
generated by reaction of calcium carbide with water,
was injected into the headspace to achieve a minimum
10% concentration of acetylene in the headspace and to
maintain the headspace under positive pressure during
the incubation. Headspace gas was sampled after
incubation for 24 h in a container buried in the soil
to reflect field soil temperature. Headspace gas samples
were injected into previously evacuated exetainers
and concentration of N2O determined as described
above. Following the denitrification assays, soil from
all cores was passed through a 4.75-mm sieve, and
soil bulk density determined. Denitrification rate and
bulk density were corrected for coarse fragment (i.e.,
4.75 mm) content. The WFPS of the soil matrix was
283
calculated from the soil bulk density and gravimetric
water content, and assuming a particle density of 2.65
Mg m 3. Average denitrification rate and WFPS were
calculated for each preceding crop and row location for
the five dates when all row locations were present.
Statistical Analyses
All data were tested for normality and a log10 trans-
formation was performed as required. For the potato
phase, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed
twice for each parameter. The first compared the seven
preceding crops and two row locations (ridge vs. furrow)
only for treatments where the potato crop was fertilized.
The second ANOVA compared two fertilizer N rates
(0 and 193 kg N ha1) and three row locations (ridge,
furrow, compacted furrow) where barley was the preced-
ing crop. In the rotation crop phase, a single ANOVA
was performed. ANOVA was performed using the
General Linear Model of SAS software. Means pre-
sented in tables and figures were calculated using
non-transformed data. Statistical comparisons among
treatment mean values were performed using Fisher’s
Protected LSD test for main effects and LSmeans for
interactions.
In addition, ANOVA was performed to compare N2O
emissions over the 2-yr potato rotations. Cumulative
emissions were averaged across chambers within indivi-
dual plots in each year. Cumulative emissions for each
plot were then averaged over the potato phase of the
rotations in 2008 and 2010, and added to the cumulative
emissions from 2009, to reflect cumulative emissions
over the 2-yr rotation cycle.
Relationships among measured parameters were as-
sessed using regression analyses using the General
Linear Model of SAS software. These analyses consid-
ered each combination of preceding crop and row
location for the potato phase, or each combination of
crop species and row location for the rotation phase,
as individual cases. A time-weighted average WFPS
(WFPSTW) was calculated for each case. A daily value of
WFPS was calculated by linear interpolation between
sampling dates of gravimetric water content measured
from soil samples used to determine soil mineral N
concentration, in combination with the soil bulk density
values calculated from the denitrification cores. In the
potato phase of the rotations, denitrification cores were
not collected in all furrow row locations, and conse-
quently the average soil bulk density measured in the
furrow location of the plots with a preceding crop of
barley was assigned to the furrow location for all other
preceding crops. Given that all plots were under potato
production had similar soil management practices,
and given that there was no significant difference in
soil bulk density in the ridge location among preceding
crop treatments, this is likely a reasonable assumption.
Stepwise multiple linear regression was performed to
determine the potential to predict cumulative N2O
emissions from cumulative CO2 emissions, NE, and
 284 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE
WFPSTW where these parameters can be taken as
indices of carbon availability, nitrate availability and
aeration, respectively. Terms were retained within the
regression model for P B0.15.
RESULTS
Growing season (May to September) air temperatures
were generally similar to, or slightly warmer than, the
long-term (19712000) average (Table 3). Growing
season precipitation in 2008 (404 mm) was 13% below
the long-term average of 462 mm. Growing season
precipitation in both 2009 and 2010 was 20% above the
long-term average, but the distribution of precipitation
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differed between years. In 2009, precipitation was above
average in every month from June to September. In
2010, rainfall was over double the normal value in June
and September, and less than half of normal in May and
August.
Potato Phase of Rotation in 2008
Total tuber yield in 2008 averaged 34.4 t ha1, and did
not vary with preceding crop. Where the preceding crop
was barley, total tuber yield was greater for fertilized
(36.1 t ha 1) than for unfertilized (23.9 t ha1) plots.
The N2O emissions in 2008 increased after planting
and fertilizer application in late May, and were generally
elevated for the period from planting until mid-August,
particularly for preceding crops of Italian ryegrass and
red clover from late May until the end of June (Fig. 1A).
There was a significant effect of preceding crop on
cumulative growing season N2O emissions, with greater
emissions for preceding crops of Italian ryegrass and
red clover (average of 1.45 kg N ha 1) than for all
other preceding crops (average of 0.52 kg N ha1)
(Table 4). When averaged over preceding crop, N2O
emissions were significantly greater from the ridge (1.08
kg N ha1) than the furrow (0.50 kg N ha 1). Where
the preceding crop was barley, there was a significant
fertilizer N rate by row location interaction on N2O
emissions (Table 5). For fertilized plots, N2O emissions
were greater from the ridge than from the furrow or
compacted furrow, whereas for unfertilized plots, row
location had no effect on N2O emissions.
The CO2 emissions in 2008 were low in spring,
increased rapidly in late May, and remained elevated
Table 3. Monthly mean air temperature and precipitation for the experimental period in comparison with the 30-yr (1971 2000) climate normals (data
from the Fredericton CDA climate station; Environment Canada 2011)
Air temperature (8C)
Month 2008 2009 2010
May 10.7 12.0 12.6
Jun. 16.9 16.0 16.1
Jul. 20.8 18.0 20.8
Aug. 18.1 20.0 19.1
Sep. 14.2 13.0 15.3
MaySep. 16.1 15.8 16.8
until September (Fig. 1B). Cumulative growing season
CO2 emissions were significantly greater for a preceding
crop of Italian ryegrass than for all other preceding
crops except barley and red clover, and were also sig-
nificantly lower for a preceding potato crop than for all
preceding crops except canola (Table 4). Cumulative
CO2 emissions were greater from the ridge than from the
furrow. Where the preceding crop was barley, cumula-
tive CO2 emissions were greater in the ridge than the
furrow or compacted furrow and were not influenced by
N rate (Table 5).
Soil NH4 concentrations increased rapidly in late
May in response to fertilizer application at planting,
then decreased over time reaching background concen-
trations by early July (Fig. 2A). Soil NO3 concentra-
tions also increased rapidly in late May, and remained
elevated over a longer time period, reaching background
concentrations in early August. The NE was greater for
a preceding red clover crop than for all other preceding
crops, and NE was also lower for a preceding canola
crop than for all preceding crops except Italian ryegrass
and corn (Table 4). The NE was greater for the ridge
(4.58 g d kg1) than for the furrow (2.31 g d kg 1).
Where the preceding crop was barley, there was a
significant N fertilization by row location interaction
on NE (Table 5). The NE was greater for the ridge than
for the furrow or compacted furrow for fertilized plots,
whereas for unfertilized plots, NE was greater for the
compacted furrow than for the ridge.
The WFPSTW was greater for the furrow (49.3%
WFPS) than for the ridge (45.1% WFPS), but did not
differ among preceding crops (Table 4). Where barley
was the preceding crop, WFPSTW was not affected by
fertilizer N rate, and was greatest in the compacted
furrow (53.0% WFPS), intermediate in the furrow
(48.5% WFPS) and lowest in the ridge (43.7% WFPS)
(Table 5).
Mean denitrification rate in the ridge averaged over
all seven sampling dates was 17 ng N g1 d1 and did
not vary significantly with preceding crop (data not
presented). Where the preceding crop was barley, mean
denitrification rate averaged over the five sampling dates
between planting and harvest did not differ between
fertilizer N rates (Fig. 3). Mean denitrification rate did,

Precipitation (mm)
30 yr 2008 2009 2010 30 yr
11.2 46 83 43 100
16.4 91 131 206 92
19.3 81 107 80 90
18.6 68 133 32 85
13.7 118 100 195 95
15.8 404 554 555 462
 SNOWDON ET AL. * N2O EMISSIONS IN POTATO ROTATIONS 285

A) 2008 B) 2008
120
80

100

CO2 flux (kg CO2-C ha–1d–1)

N2O flux (g N2O-N ha–1d–1)

60 Preceding crop
80
Barley
Canola
60 Corn
40
Italian ryegrass
Potatoes
40 Red clover
Soybean
20
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20

0 0
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov

C) 2009 D) 2009
35 150

30
120
CO2 flux (kg CO2-C ha–1d–1)
N2O flux (g N2O-N ha–1d–1)

25

90
20

15 60

10
30
5

0 0
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov

E) 2010 F) 2010
180 180

150 150
CO2 flux (kg CO2-C ha–1d–1)
N2O flux (g N2O-N ha–1d–1)

120 120

90 90

60 60

30 30

0 0
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov

Fig. 1. Temporal variation of N2O and CO2 emissions for seven 2-yr potato rotations: (A) N2O and (B) CO2 emissions from the
potato crop in 2008; (C) N2O and (D) CO2 emissions from rotation crops in 2009; (E) N2O and (F) CO2 emissions from the potato
crop in 2010. Emissions were averaged over row locations for the potato crop and for potato and corn rotation crops. Note that the
range of values on the Y axis varies among graphs. Error bars represent 91 SE.
 286 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE

Table 4. Cumulative growing season N2O and CO2 emissions, nitrate exposure (NE), and time-weighted average water-filled pore space (WFPSTW) from
potato production in 2008 and 2010 as influenced by preceding crop, and measured under ridge and furrow row locations

Cumulative N2O emissions Cumulative CO2 emissions NE WFPSTW

(kg N2O-N ha1) (t CO2-C ha1) (g d kg1) (% WFPS)

2008 2010 2008 2010 2008 2010 2008 2010

Preceding crop
Barley 0.53b 1.09bc 4.41ab 5.42cd 3.37b 2.94bc 46.2 51.5
Canola 0.39b 0.93c 3.71bc 4.86de 2.59c 2.44bc 44.9 50.0
Corn 0.59b 0.85c 3.99b 4.12e 3.07bc 2.32c 44.3 48.3
Italian ryegrass 1.41a 1.66ab 4.93a 7.22a 3.17bc 2.67bc 49.5 51.8
Potato 0.49b 0.81c 3.03c 4.51de 3.64b 2.46bc 48.6 52.8
Red clover 1.49a 1.33bc 4.20ab 6.14bc 4.85a 3.78a 49.2 52.2
Soybean 0.61b 2.03a 3.96b 6.69ab 3.41b 3.16ab 47.8 52.5
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Row location
Ridge 1.08a 1.78a 4.65a 6.06a 4.58a 3.72a 45.1b 46.9b
Furrow 0.50b 0.70b 3.42b 5.07b 2.31b 1.93b 49.3a 55.7a
Statistical significance
Preceding crop [PC] * * * * * * NS NS
Row location [R] * * * * * * * *
PC R NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS
SEM 0.18 0.29 0.39 0.46 0.35 0.39 1.3 1.3

ae Treatment means in the same column and for the same main effect followed by the same lowercase letter are not significantly different (P0.05)
based on a protected LSD test.
*P B0.05; NS, not significant.

however, vary with row location, with greatest values Rotation Crop Phase In 2009
for the compacted furrow (158 ng N g1 d1), The N2O emissions in 2009 (Fig. 1C) were generally low
intermediate values for the furrow (52 ng N g1 d1) over the entire growing season in comparison with
and lowest values for the ridge (10 ng N g1 d 1). N2O emissions in 2008 (Fig. 1A). The exceptions were

Table 5. Cumulative growing season N2O and CO2 emissions, nitrate exposure (NE), and time-weighted average water-filled pore space (WFPSTW) from
potato production in 2008 and 2010 where the preceding crop was barley as influenced by fertilizer N rate and row location

Cumulative N2O emissions Cumulative CO2 emissions NE WFPSTW

(kg N2O-N ha1) (t CO2-C ha 1) (g d kg1) (% WFPS)

N rate (kg N ha 1) Row location 2008 2010 2008 2010 2008 2010 2008 2010

N rate
0 0.18b 0.52b 3.48 5.26 1.12b 1.12b 48.6 55.6
193 0.45a 0.88a 3.80 4.82 2.81a 2.60a 48.2 52.8
Row location
Ridge 0.43a 1.12a 4.61a 5.95a 2.85a 2.48a 43.7c 47.7b
Furrow 0.25b 0.53b 3.78a 5.53a 1.55b 1.60b 48.5b 58.5a
Compacted furrow 0.26b 0.44b 2.54b 3.64b 1.49b 1.49b 53.0a 56.4a
N raterow location
0 Ridge 0.17bc 0.65b 4.14 6.10 0.91d 0.98c 43.2 48.3
0 Furrow 0.14c 0.48b 3.82 6.03 1.15cd 1.09c 48.8 61.2
0 Compacted furrow 0.24bc 0.44b 2.48 3.65 1.28c 1.31c 53.9 57.2
193 Ridge 0.70a 1.60a 5.08 5.80 4.79a 3.99a 44.2 47.0
193 Furrow 0.36b 0.58b 3.73 5.03 1.95b 1.90b 48.2 55.9
193 Compacted furrow 0.28bc 0.45b 2.59 3.64 1.70bc 1.90b 52.2 55.6
Statistical significance
N rate [N] * * NS NS * * NS NS
Row location [R] * * * * * * * *
N R * * NS NS * * NS NS
SEM 0.07 0.13 0.42 0.32 0.21 0.19 1.2 4.0

ad Treatment means in the same column and for the same main effect or interaction followed by the same lowercase letter are not significantly
different (P 0.05) based on a protected LSD test.
*P B0.05; NS, not significant.
 SNOWDON ET AL. * N2O EMISSIONS IN POTATO ROTATIONS 287

A) 2008 B) 2008
350 200

300

NO3 concentration (mg N kg–1)

NH4 concentration (mg N kg–1)

150 Preceding crop

250
Barley
200 Canola
Corn
100
Italian ryegrass
150 Potatoes
Red clover
100 Soybean
50

50
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0 0
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov

C) 2009 D) 2009
150 300

250

NO3 concentration (mg N kg–1)

NH4 concentration (mg N kg–1)

120

200
90
150

60
100

30
50

0 0
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov

E) 2010 F) 2010
250 150
NH4 concentration (mg N kg–1)

NO3 concentration (mg N kg–1)

200 120

150 90

100 60

50 30

0 0
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov

Fig. 2. Temporal variation in soil NH4 -N and NO3 -N concentrations for seven 2-yr potato rotations: (A) NH4 -N and (B) NO3 -
N concentrations for the potato crop in 2008; (C) NH4 -N and (D) NO3 -N concentrations for the rotation crops in 2009; (E) NH4 -
N and (F) NO3 -N concentrations for the potato crop in 2010. Concentrations were averaged over row locations for the potato
crop and for potato and corn rotation crops. Note that the range of values on the Y axis varies among graphs. Error bars
represent 91 SE.

potatoes, which had elevated N2O emissions from June sions were greater for the potato crop (1.07 kg N ha1)
to August, and corn, which had elevated emissions in than for all other crop species (average of 0.22 kg
July (Fig. 1C). Cumulative growing season N2O emis- N ha1) (Table 6).
 288 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE

200 a The WFPSTW varied among crop species (Table 6).

The WFPSTW was significantly greater for barley and
Mean denitrification rate (ng N g–1d–1)

175 Italian ryegrass than for corn, red clover or soybeans.

150
Mean denitrification rate, averaged over all seven
sampling dates, did not differ among crop species, and
125 averaged 38 ng N g1 d1 (data not presented). The
higher average denitrification rate under the potato crop
100 in 2009 than in 2008 is consistent with the higher
a
WFPSTW in 2009, as well as the higher growing season
75 b
precipitation in 2009.
a
50

25 c b Potato Phase of Rotation in 2010

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Total tuber yield in 2010 averaged 30.2 t ha1, and did

0 not vary with preceding crop. Where the preceding crop
Ridge Furrow Compacted Ridge Furrow Compacted
furrow
2008
Fig. 3. Mean denitrification rate under potato production in
2 yr, averaged over five sampling dates during the growing
season, as influenced by two N rates and three row locations
where the preceding crop was barley. Row locations in the
same year with the same lower case letter are not significantly
different (P 0.05).
There was no clear seasonal pattern in CO2 emis-
sions during the 2009 growing season (Fig. 1D). The
effect of crop species on cumulative growing season
CO2 emissions was of marginal statistical significance
(P 0.0509).
Soil NH4 concentrations were elevated for some crop
species in May and early June, particularly for potatoes,
barley and canola (Fig. 2C). Soil NH4 concentrations
over the remainder of the growing season were low
regardless of crop species. Soil NO3 concentrations
were also elevated for some crop species in May and
June (Fig. 2D). In particular, high soil NO3 concentra-
tions were measured under potato and corn crops in
June. The NE was significantly greater for potato and
corn crops (average of 2.98 g d kg1) compared with all
other crop species (0.83 g d kg1) (Table 6).
was barley, total tuber yield was greater for fertilized
furrow
(31.3 t ha1) than for unfertilized (19.1 t ha1) plots.
2010
The seasonal pattern of N2O emissions in 2010 (Fig.
1E) was similar to that of 2008 (Fig. 1A) with elevated
emissions occurring during June and July. The some-
what greater N2O fluxes measured after planting in 2010
compared with 2008 may reflect significant rainfall
events in early June of 2010. In particular, there were
high N2O emissions in early June for preceding crops
of Italian ryegrass and soybeans. Cumulative growing
season N2O emissions were greater for a preceding crop
of soybeans than for all other preceding crops except
Italian ryegrass. Cumulative N2O emissions were also
greater for preceding crops of soybeans and Italian
ryegrass than for preceding crops of canola, corn and
potatoes (Table 4). Cumulative N2O emissions averaged
across preceding crops were greater from the ridge (1.78
kg N ha1) than from the furrow (0.70 kg N ha 1).
Where the preceding crop was barley, cumulative N2O
emissions were greater for fertilized plots (0.88 kg N
ha 1) than for unfertilized plots (0.52 kg N ha1), and
greater for the ridge (1.12 kg N ha1) than for the furrow
and compacted furrow (average of 0.49 kg N ha1)
(Table 5).
The seasonal pattern of CO2 emissions in 2010
(Fig. 1F) was less distinct than for 2008 (Fig. 1A) with

Table 6. Cumulative growing season N2O and CO2 emissions, nitrate exposure (NE), and time-weighted average water-filled pore space (WFPSTW) for
seven rotation crops in 2009. Values are averaged across row locations for potato and corn crops

Cumulative N2O emissions Cumulative CO2 emissions NE WFPSTW

Crop (kg N2O-N ha1) (t CO2-C ha 1) (g d kg1) (% WFPS)

Barley 0.21b 5.57 1.21b 66.2a

Canola 0.24b 5.08 0.67b 60.9ab
Corn 0.28b 3.65 2.68a 55.9b
Italian ryegrass 0.15b 4.97 0.95b 65.6a
Potato 1.07a 4.01 3.28a 60.3ab
Red clover 0.17b 6.74 0.78b 58.6b
Soybean 0.24b 5.12 0.52b 56.9b
Statistical significance
Crop * NS * *
SEM 0.02 1.45 0.50 2.2

a, b Treatment means in the same column followed by the same lowercase letter are not significantly different (P 0.05) based on a protected LSD test.
*P B0.05; NS, not significant.
 SNOWDON ET AL. * N2O EMISSIONS IN POTATO ROTATIONS
more uniform emissions across sampling dates. The
exceptions were high CO2 emissions in early June for
preceding crops of Italian ryegrass and soybeans, and in
late September for Italian ryegrass (Fig. 1F). Cumula-
tive growing season CO2 emissions were greater for a
preceding crop of Italian ryegrass than for all preced-
ing crops except soybeans (Table 4). Cumulative CO2
emissions were also greater for preceding crops of
Italian ryegrass and soybeans than for preceding crops
of barley, corn, potatoes and red clover, and were lower
for a preceding crop of corn than for all preceding crops
except canola and potatoes. Where the preceding crop
was barley, cumulative CO2 emissions were not affected
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by fertilizer N rate, and were greater for the ridge and
furrow (average of 5.7 t C ha 1) than for the compacted
furrow (3.6 t C ha 1) (Table 5).
Soil NH4 concentrations in 2010 (Fig. 2E) had a
similar seasonal pattern and were of similar magnitude
to those measured in 2008 (Fig. 2A). Soil NO3
concentrations were elevated from planting until late
July, with maximum concentrations measured in late
June (Fig. 2F). The NE was greater for a preceding
crop of red clover than for all other preceding crops
except soybeans (Table 4). The NE was also greater for
preceding crops of red clover and soybeans than a
preceding crop of corn. When averaged across preceding
crops, NE was greater for the ridge (3.72 g d kg 1) than
for the furrow (1.93 g d kg1). Where the preceding
crop was barley, NE was greater for fertilized plots (2.60
g d kg1) than unfertilized plots (1.12 g d kg 1), and
greater for the ridge (2.48 g d kg1) than for the furrow
and compacted furrow (average of 1.55 g d kg 1).
The WFPSTW did not vary with preceding crop
(Table 4). When averaged across preceding crops, the
WFPSTW was greater for the furrow (55.7% WFPS)
than the ridge (46.9% WFPS). Where the preceding
crop was barley, WFPSTW was greater for the furrow
and compacted furrow (average of 57.4% WFPS) than
for the ridge (47.7% WFPS), and did not differ between
N rates.
Mean denitrification rate in the ridge, averaged over
seven sampling dates during the growing season, did not
vary with preceding crop and averaged 6 ng N g1 d1
(data not presented). Where the preceding crop was
barley, there was no significant effect of N fertilization
on mean denitrification rate averaged over the five
sampling dates between planting and harvest (Fig. 3).
Mean denitrification was greater for the furrow and
compacted furrow (average of 47 ng N g1 d1) than
for the ridge (6 ng N g1 d 1).
Cumulative N2O Emissions Across the Two-year
Rotation Cycle
Average N2O emissions from the potato phase of the
rotations in 2008 and 2010 were added to emissions
from the rotation crop phase in 2009 to reflect emissions
of the 2-yr rotation cycles (Fig. 4). Cumulative emis-
sions of the 2-yr rotation cycle varied almost twofold,
289
Cumulative N2O emissions (kg N ha–1 over 2 year rotation)
2.0
a
a
a a
1.5
b b
1.0 b
0.5
0.0
Corn Canola Soybean Italian Potato Barley Red
ryegrass clover
Fig. 4. Cumulative growing season N2O emissions over a 2-yr
cycle for seven 2-yr potato rotations, where the rotations are
identified by the crop present in the rotation crop phase.
Cumulative emissions are based on the average values for the
potato phase of the rotations in 2008 and 2010, plus the
average values for the rotation crop phase in 2009. Treatment
means with the same lower case letter are not significantly
different based on a protected LSD test (LSD0.05 0.47).
from 0.9 to 1.7 kg N ha1. Cumulative emissions over
the 2-yr rotations were greater for rotation crops of
soybean, Italian ryegrass, red clover and potato than for
rotation crops of corn, canola and barley. For the four
rotations with elevated N2O emissions, the increased
emissions over the rotation cycle primarily reflected
increased emissions during the potato phase of the rota-
tion for soybean, Italian ryegrass, red clover rotation
crops. In contrast, the elevated N2O emissions for the
potatopotato rotation primarily reflected greater N2O
emission from the potato crop compared with other
rotational crops in the rotation crop phase.
Relationships Among Parameters
Under potato production in 2008, 52% of the variation
in cumulative growing season N2O emissions, consider-
ing combinations of preceding crop and row location as
separate cases, was explained by NE (Fig. 5A). In
comparison in 2010, NE explained 70% of the variation
in cumulative growing season N2O emissions under
potato production (Fig. 5B). It is interesting to note that
the slope of the relationship between cumulative N2O
emissions and NE varied between years with slopes of
0.26 and 0.52 in 2008 and 2010, respectively.
If the two preceding crops that had the greatest
numeric values of respiration after planting (i.e., had
evidence of increase carbon availability) were excluded
[Italian ryegrass and red clover in 2008 (Fig. 1B); Italian
ryegrass and soybeans in 2010 (Fig. 1F)], NE then
explained 90% and 81% of the variation in cumulative
growing season N2O emissions for the remaining pre-
ceding crops (Fig. 5A, B). Based on stepwise multiple
 290 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE

A) 2008 B) 2010
3.0 3.0

Cumulative N2O flux (kg N2O-N ha–1)

Cumulative N2O flux (kg N2O-N ha–1)
2.5 2.5

2.0 2.0

1.5 1.5

1.0 1.0
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0.5 0.5

0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Nitrate Exposure (g d kg–1) Nitrate Exposure (g d kg–1)

All preceding crops: All preceding crops:

y = 0.257x–0.0547, r2=0.52 y =0.516x–0.194, r2 =0.70
Excluding preceding Italian ryegrass and Excluding preceding Italian ryegrass
red clover crops: and soybean crops:
y = 0.167x–0.0114, r2=0.90 y =0.419x–0.101, r2=0.81
Preceding Italian ryegrass crop Preceding Italian ryegrass crop
Preceding red clover crop Preceding soybean crop
All other preceding crops All other preceding crops

Fig. 5. Relationship between cumulative growing season N2O emissions and nitrate exposure under potato production for seven 2-yr
rotations in 2 yr: (A) 2008 and (B) 2010. Each combination of preceding crop and row location is plotted separately. Regression
equations are fitted for all preceding crops, as well as for all preceding crops except Italian ryegrass and red clover in 2008 and except
preceding crops of Italian ryegrass and soybeans in 2010.

linear regression, including NE, cumulative growing
season CO2 emissions and WFPSTW increased the
percentage of variation explained in cumulative growing
season N2O emissions under potato production to 70%
and 86% in 2008 and 2010, respectively:
2008: y 3:750:198 NE0:297 CO2
0:0564 WFPSTW ; r2 0:70
2010: y 0:3500:311 NE0:243 CO2
0:0262 WFPSTW ; r2 0:86
where y is cumulative growing season N2O emissions
(kg N ha1), NE is nitrate exposure (g d kg 1), CO2 is
cumulative growing season CO2 emissions (t C ha1)
and WFPSTW is time-weighted WFPS (% WFPS).
In 2009, NE explained 67% of the variation in
cumulative growing season N2O emissions under the
different crop species, where the row locations for the
corn and potato crops were treated as separate cases
(Fig. 6A). It should be noted, however, that the relatively
high percentage of variation explained is due in part
to the single high value of cumulative N2O emissions
associated with the potato ridge location. Based on
stepwise multiple linear regression, neither inclusion of
cumulative growing season CO2 emissions or WFPSTW
resulted in a significant increase in the proportion of
variation explained in cumulative N2O emissions. The
NE generally increased linearly with increasing fertilizer
N rate for non-legume species (Fig. 6B). For the
unfertilized legume species, NE was greater than would
(2) be expected based on fertilizer N rate alone (Fig. 6B).
(3) DISCUSSION
This study examined the N2O emissions over three
growing seasons from seven 2-yr potato rotations under
rain-fed potato production on medium-textured soils
in a humid environment. In the potato phase of the
rotations, even for treatments receiving the same
fertilizer N rate (193 kg N ha1), a wide range in
cumulative growing season N2O emissions was mea-
sured in each year: 0.39 to 1.49 kg N ha 1 in 2008 and
0.81 to 2.03 kg N ha 1 in 2010. These results confirm
that the choice of crop rotation can have important
implications on N2O emission from potato production
systems. This finding is consistent with Drury et al.
(2008) who found N2O emissions under corn production
 SNOWDON ET AL. * N2O EMISSIONS IN POTATO ROTATIONS
A)
1.6 y=0.222x–0.00517, r2=0.67
1.2
Cumulative N2O flux
(kg N2O-N ha–1)
0.8
0.4
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0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Nitrate exposure (g d kg–1)
Fig. 6. For seven rotation crops in 2009 as part of 2-yr potato rotations, relationships between (A) cumulative growing season N2O
emissions and nitrate exposure (row locations treated as separate cases for potato and corn crops) and (B) nitrate exposure and
fertilizer N rate (averaged across row location; regression fitted to non-legume crop species only).
ranged from 1.34 to 2.62 kg N ha1 depending on the
preceding crop.
The N2O emissions also varied over a wide range
(0.17 to 1.07 kg N ha1) in the rotation crop phase.
However, most of this range reflects much higher N2O
emissions under potato production than under all other
crop species examined. Drury et al. (2008) reported a
wide range in N2O emissions (0.52 to 2.62 kg N ha1)
when wheat, corn and soybean were grown in mono-
culture. Similar emissions among rotation crops in the
current study may reflect that they were grown as they
would be in a potato rotation, rather than as if they were
grown as a main crop. In particular, Italian ryegrass,
when grown in rotation with potatoes, is used as a green
manure plow-down to increase soil organic matter and
receives approximately one-third of the N rate that
would be applied if grown as a forage crop (Zebarth
et al. 2009).
When cumulative growing season N2O emissions over
the 2-yr rotation cycle were calculated, emissions varied
almost twofold, from 0.9 to 1.7 kg N ha1 over the 2-yr
cycle. It is also useful to note that in this study, the rate
of N applied to the potato crop did not vary with crop
rotation. However, in practice, fertilizer N rate for the
potato crop may be reduced where the preceding crop is
a legume, which may reduce differences in N2O emis-
sions among crop rotations. Overall, N2O emissions
over the 2-yr rotation cycle were elevated for rotation
crops of soybean, red clover and Italian ryegrass due to
increased emissions during the potato phase, compared
with rotation crops of corn, canola and barley. In
contrast, elevated N2O emissions in the potatopotato
rotation primarily reflected increased emissions from
the potato crop compared with all other crops during
291
B)
3.5
3.0
Nitrate exposure(g d kg–1)
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
6 0 50 100 150 200
Fertilizer N rate (kg N ha–1)
Red clover
Soybean
All others: y=0.0188x–0.444, r2=0.85
the rotation crop phase. This study did not, however,
consider N2O emissions outside of the growing season,
which can make up a large proportion of annual N2O
emissions (Wagner-Riddle et al. 2007). It is possible
that some of the differences observed among rotations
may have been more pronounced if emissions had been
measured on a year-round basis.
Increased fertilizer N inputs usually result in an
increase in N2O emissions (e.g., van Groenigen et al.
2004; McSwiney and Robertson 2005). This response
occurs because fertilizer N inputs lead to increased
soil NH4, which can increase N2O emissions from the
nitrification process, or lead to increased soil NO3,
which can lead to increased N2O emissions through an
increase in denitrification rate, or through a change in
the N2O molar ratio (i.e., N2O:N2ON2) (Gillam et al.
2008; Mosier 1998; Miller et al. 2008). The NE has been
used as an index of NO3 availability for the denitrifica-
tion process over time, and was strongly positively
correlated with cumulative growing season N2O emis-
sions in humid climates under potato (Burton et al. 2008;
Zebarth et al. 2012b) and barley (Zebarth et al. 2008)
crop production. In the current study, NE explained a
large proportion of the variation in cumulative growing
season N2O emissions among crop species, and among
preceding crops, N fertilizer treatments and row loca-
tions under potato production. It should be noted,
however, that nitrification can also be a significant
source of N2O emissions, and that NE may not only
reflect the availability of NO3 for the denitrification
process, but also reflect the end product of the nitrifica-
tion process.
In potato production, NE was increased by fertiliza-
tion as might be expected. The effect of fertilization on
 292 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE
NE was primarily in the ridge due to banded fertilizer
application, and this fertilizer banding explains most of
the differences in N2O emissions between the ridge and
furrow locations. The NE also varied with preceding
crop, presumably due to the effect of residues from the
preceding rotation crop influencing the mineralization
process, and consequently soil mineral N availability.
For example, NE was increased by a preceding red
clover legume crop.
In the rotation crops, NE was closely related to
fertilizer N rate for the non-legume crop species. Thus,
in this study, where all fertilizer N was applied pre-plant
or at planting, fertilizer N rate is likely as effective as
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NE as an index of risk for non-legume crop species;
however, timing of fertilizer application can have a
significant effect on NE and on N2O emissions (Zebarth
et al. 2012b). As might be expected, NE for legume crop
species, which in this study received no fertilizer N
application, was greater than would be expected based
on fertilizer N rate alone. Overall, NE is a better index
of risk of growing season N2O emissions than fertilizer
N rate alone because it also considers the effects of
mineralization of soil organic matter and crop residues
on NO3 availability.
In both 2008 and 2010, predictions of growing sea-
son N2O emissions under potato production were im-
proved when both NE and cumulative growing season
CO2 emissions were considered. These CO2 emissions
primarily reflect microbial respiration (Raich and
Tufekcioglu 2000), but also seasonally variable respira-
tion of below-ground plant tissues including roots in the
ridge and furrow (Sharifi et al. 2005) and tubers in the
ridge. Thus, while CO2 emissions may not reflect only
microbial activity and carbon availability, they do
reflect oxygen consumption by the microbial community
and the crop, and also reflect the availability of carbon
as an electron donor, both of which can directly
influence the denitrification process.
Two distinct effects on CO2 emissions were measured
under potato production. First, there was evidence of
increased CO2 emissions in response to decomposition
of plant residues from the preceding crop. For example
a preceding crop of Italian ryegrass, which results in
incorporation of a considerable amount of above- and
below-ground biomass (Zebarth et al. 2009), resulted
in elevated CO2 emissions in both years. This increase
occurred early in the potato growing season and clearly
reflects decomposition of plant residues as opposed to
potato root growth. Similarly, a preceding crop of red
clover increased CO2 emissions in 2008, but this effect
was less evident in 2010, likely reflecting poor germina-
tion and growth of the red clover in 2009 resulting from
cold wet conditions at seeding. It is hypothesized that
increased soil respiration resulting from residues of the
preceding crop depleted oxygen supply, or that the
increased soil respiration indicates increased availability
of soil carbon to act as an electron donor, particularly
early in the growing season when soil water contents
were at or close to field capacity, and thereby resulted in
increased denitrification and associated N2O emissions.
The relationship between cumulative growing season
N2O emissions and NE in 2008 and 2010 was improved
when the preceding crops which had the highest numeric
values of CO2 emissions shortly after planting were
excluded, compared with inclusion of all preceding
crops. In addition, the magnitude of cumulative growing
season N2O emissions per unit value of NE was greater
for preceding crops, which had the highest numeric
values of CO2 emissions shortly after planting, than for
other preceding crops. These findings are consistent with
the hypothesis that increased carbon availability re-
sulted in increased N2O emissions. This hypothesis is
also consistent with laboratory incubations utilizing a
range of organic carbon amendments that have shown a
very close relationship between soil respiration and N2O
emissions provided the soil NO3 supply is not depleted
(Miller et al. 2008, 2009). Increased N2O emissions were
reported under field conditions associated with in-
creased carbon availability due to incorporation of plant
residues (Baggs et al. 2000), particularly legume residues
(Larrson et al. 1998), and soil re-wetting (Zebarth
et al. 2008). However, denitrification rates measured
in the ridge on 2008 Jun. 03 and 2010 Jun. 01 did not
vary significantly with preceding crop. This may reflect
incorporation of crop residues below the 10-cm depth
sampled for denitrification on these dates. Paul and
Zebarth (1997) measured considerably greater denitrifi-
cation rates at 15- to 30-cm depth than from 0- to 15-cm
depth for soils receiving mineral fertilizer or manure,
a finding attributed to high organic carbon availability
due to a deep A horizon, and to increased soil water
content and decreased air-filled porosity for the 15- to
30-cm depth.
Second, there was evidence of reduced CO2 emissions
due to soil compaction. The reduced CO2 emissions in
the compacted furrow compared with the furrow were
attributed to a reduced oxygen supply. In the current
study, the denitrification rate was increased in the
compacted furrow compared with the furrow, at least
on some sampling dates, but there were no significant
differences in cumulative growing season N2O emis-
sions. In field studies, elevated N2O emissions may
coincide with low soil respiration during periods of high
soil water content. For example, Ball et al. (1999)
reported that heavy rainfall under no-till resulted in a
sharp reduction in CO2 emissions and a corresponding
increase in N2O emissions.
Emissions of N2O may therefore be associated with
increased or decreased soil respiration, making it some-
what challenging to use soil respiration as an index
in predicting risk of N2O emissions. In addition, the
magnitude of the changes in soil respiration due to
residue addition or soil compaction is small relative to
the large basal soil respiration, which reduces the
sensitivity of soil respiration as a predictor. Root and
tuber respiration, like microbial respiration, increase
 SNOWDON ET AL. * N2O EMISSIONS IN POTATO ROTATIONS
oxygen consumption and thus inclusion of root and
tuber respiration in the measure of CO2 emissions
may not be problematic. An improved indicator of soil
carbon availability may be helpful in predicting the risk
of N2O emissions under different cropping systems.
Inclusion of soil WFPSTW in the stepwise regression
resulted in some improvement in predicting cumulative
growing season N2O emissions under potato production
in 2008 and 2010. However, surprisingly, there was a
negative correlation between WFPSTW and cumulative
growing season N2O emissions in each year. This likely
reflects the fact that in the current study, WFPSTW
varied primarily with row location. Although greater
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denitrification rates were measured in the compacted
furrow than in the ridge, as would be expected with
greater WFPSTW in the compacted furrow, greater
cumulative N2O emissions were measured in the ridge
than in the compacted furrow. Other studies under
potato production have also reported greater denitrifica-
tion rates in the furrow, but greater N2O emissions from
the ridge (Burton et al. 2008; Dandie et al. 2008). This
finding is attributed to high soil nitrate concentration in
the ridge due to fertilizer banding resulting in a high N2O
molar ratio of emissions from the ridge. In this study, the
role of WFPS was perhaps best reflected in differences
between the two potato production years. For example,
the steeper slope of the relationship between cumulative
N2O emission and NE in 2010, i.e., greater N2O
emissions per unit of nitrate availability, likely reflects
the wetter conditions in 2010 than in 2008, particularly
in response to significant rainfall events shortly after
planting in 2010. Previous studies have also reported that
the relationship between cumulative N2O emission and
NE varied with growing season, a finding attributed to
differences in environmental conditions (Zebarth et al.
2008).
The results of this study have practical implications
for mitigating N2O emissions from potato production
systems. In this study, choice of 2-yr potato rotation
resulted in an almost twofold difference in N2O emis-
sions. The N2O emissions were closely related to NO3
availability, as indicated by NE, during both the potato
and rotation crop phases, and consequently appropriate
fertilizer N management remains one of the most
important means of managing N2O emissions. As a
result, the fertilizer N management in both the potato
and rotation crop phases may be as or more important
than the choice of rotation crop in influencing the risk of
N2O emissions. Emissions of N2O increase with increas-
ing N inputs, particularly for N inputs in excess of the
optimum rate (McSwiney and Robertson 2005). How-
ever uncertainty in the supply of N from the soil,
uncertainty in the demand for N by the plant, and the
risk of economic loss associated with under-fertilization,
make selection of the appropriate fertilizer N rate
challenging (Zebarth et al. 2012a). The results of this
study also highlight the important role of carbon
availability on N2O emissions. Unfortunately rotational
293
crops such as forages and legumes, which are important
in maintaining soil quality and productivity in potato
production systems (Stark and Porter 2005), also
increase the risk of N2O emissions in the short term,
but may result in lower N2O emissions per unit of tuber
yield over the long term.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Funding was provided by the GAPS program and the
SAGES program of Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
and the Enabling Agricultural Research and Innovation
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