CERVANTES'

DON QUTXOTE

A Refercnce Gu,idt

Howard Mancing

Greenwood Guides o Multiculnrral Literanrre

GREENW@D PRESS
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UlesOort, Conncctiort London
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 Gapter I
INTRODUCTION

l,ffgd do G*nanncs lhrcd od wrw erdng rhc mo6t qsiting pcdod of

${nish hi$ory. Hb lifc sorcu,har of a tepnd in irsctf, is elnosr-as crciriry
as tbfction hcwroc, Ocrnaas 051?-1610 and Shalcqese (155?-1610
wtclxmomporaics, hrl nfueas sp low rtry lido about frc tntlc(,
tc fftof fufumcr is doonemd in qrdrcrrrlonfnry dctait anhilgb
frcte rc s@ tusudng gne, Tb bAographical slcch 6d folloffs is batcd
laagrly on tb prizlwinnturg bf,qgrephy W Ja Cannqso (lgg0l prob
*ry dp {i4glc bcs rocrnr of ee lib of Ccnnnps, htr irrho drm's on 6e
by WUio Byu (198), lvlctrrw Mcl(dick (tgSO), lnd
DoneldP.Irdcftoryem2)

t$71g| YOUNG CERVANTtsS

Migwl do Cenranas uns bqtizod in tbo churclh of SurN lrtda le lfrym,
in AlcaE& Il€oares, on Ocrobcrg, 1547, Ttcrais norccodoftris hiflh" but
itis gomally assunod ftat he was bqn o Satember 29, Salnr Michocl'$
Oay (MicmAmrs} and, foUocring oorunoo ctrton, thd hc weo nancd
Migucl fu his saint's dey. (In all of Cervanrcs' worlcs, only tclo chrmrs
mcotion tbcir birthday Doila Ctffi ln Don Qrdrepart t, chapEr43, 8nd
Ptociosa, prctqgonist 6 Ia gittnilla. Botb we bqn m Scarffi D.) His
parcat* tho ntrymn Ro&igo deCmm (1509{5) aodLomq&Cqdma
(1520-f,t), hrd narriod in &o oarly 154&. ltcy hdl six childrnn: An&ca
(15{4-1609), ufro mricd tnioe, had onc child-Conerrnzl Cerunbs'
2 CERVANTES' DON QUIXOTE INTRODUCTION 3

to Spain, I I years after this incident. there was €.pparently no aucmpt to

fayorite niece-and alSO had affairs with several men; Luisa (1546-ca.
carry out the sentence. Perhaps the fact that he came back home a rvar
1620), who was a resp€cted Carmclite nun: Miguel; Rodrigo (1550-1600).
bero helped make it convenient to forget the mattr:r. lt has bcen suggested
a career soldier who died in banle; Magdalena (1553-16ll). who never
that the document by rvhich we know of the incident somehow proves
married, had no children, and. like her olcler sister Andrea, was involved
Cervantes' homosexuality. but there redly is nothing to support such an
in more then one affair: and Juan (ca. 1554+a 1593). about whom virtu-
interpretadon. Most rccently. dramatist and novelist Fernando Arrabal, in
ally nothing is knorvn. Many scholars bclieve that the Cervantes family
rvas of conyerso heritage (i.e., converts. at ssme point. from Judaism). and
a 1996 biography titled Un esclavo llanndo Cenantes (A Slave Nanrcd
Cervantes\ has vigorously defended the homose:<uality theory but most
therefore somervhat marginalized in society (see chapter 5). No one has
serious scholars consider his book an imaginative fiction as much as a real
ever found proof of Jewish blood in the family, but the professions prac-
biography. Almost immediately after this altercation in 1569, Cervantes
ticed by m6st of the men-jurists. surgeons, merchants-werc character-
is to be found in Rome, in the household service of a young monsignor,
istically those dominaledby conversos. The difficulties Cen'antes' parents
soon to be appointed cardinal. named Giulio Acquaviva(154e74), whom
had in the late 1570s when they aftempted to securc a cenificate of purity of
he may have met previously during the priest's visit to Spain in 1568.
blood (see chapter 4). together with the lack of ;uccessful marriages for the
women in the family, strongly suggest that the Ccrvantes' were conver.toJ
Also in 1569 Cen'antes requested a document fi'om his parcnts proving
(see Lokos, "The Politicsof ldentity")- his Old Christian status, perhaps needed tc get enrploymenl ([,okos, "The
Politics of ldentity"). The document he receivec was frrll of ambiguity.
A surgeon occupied one of the lowest rungs of the medical profession.
equivocation, and hearsay deposition; it rvas far s.hort of the standards of
and Rodrigo seems to have had more vanity than professional skill. Finan-
such official documentation of purity of blood common in the epoch (see
cial difficutties forced the family to move to Valladolid in 1551. back to
chapter 4).
Alcatd in 1553, then ro C6rdoba in the same )'ear. and to Seville in 1564.
In 1566. when Cervantes was 19. the family moved again. this time to the
capital. Madrid. where they remained. Cervantes must havc had an uneven 1569-80: SOLDIER AND CAPTIVE
education with such frequent moving, but in Madrid he became a student
Before long. Cervantes enlisted in the Spanish army based in ltaly (luge
ar rhe Esrudio de la Villa, a publicly-funded school founded and endorved
parts of which were Spanish possessions). His timing was good, as he was
by the catholic Monarchs. Femando and Isatel. and directed since 1568
able to participate in an event that he alvrays ccnsidered a landmark in
uy Juan l-6pez de Hoyos (?-1583). a distinguished humanist scholar and
his life. as well as a turning point in history-the naval battle of Lcpanto
fOllOwer of ErasmuS. Apparently, Cervantes ivas a star studenl' because
(sec chapter 4). rvherc the Spanish-led Christian firrces routed the Turkish
when the revered young queen Isahl de Vatois (154ffi8) died. L6pez de
army. Cervantes and his brother Rodrigo. also a soldier. served in the same
Hoyos rvas commissioned to prePare a volume of poetry in her honor. Four
pocms by Cervantes, his earliest knorvn rvorks. are included in the book. rcgiment. and probably on the same galley. Cervantes was ill and had a high
fever at the time of the banle and was gnnted pernrission not to participate
and he is refened to as tbe master's "beloved disciple." Many scholars
actively in the fighting. But he chose to place him;elf at a dangerous loca-
recognize prqfound traces Of Erasmian thougnt in Cen'antes' wgrk. and
tion and reccived three scrious rvounds during the action. Hc was shot twice
it is generally assumed that this reflects the influence of his distinguished
in the chest and his left hand was very seriously injured. Because of his
school master (see Bataillon. Erasmo y Espain, and Vilanova, Erasmo y
Certantes).
aippling wound. Cervantes received the epithet of lhe Manco de l*pano
(the cripple, or the maimed one, or the one-hande,l man, of l-epanto). The
late in1569. an event took place that has inUigued Cervantes scholars for
exact nature of the wound is not known. but it :rlmost certainly did not
cenruries, He was involved in some son of alter'*ation, presumably involving
involvc the actud loss of thc lcft hand. More likely, there was some nerve
a matter of honor. and wounded a man named Antonio de Siguna. Cen'antes
and bone damage and the hand rvas disfigured (lipez Alonso, Cert'antes.
was to be arrcsted and brought back to Madnd where he was to have his
Manco y bien manco). Ccnantcs always took great pridc in this visible
right hand cut off, and, if he survived this, he was to be banished from the
symbol of his service to his nation and panicipat on in a world-changing
kingdom for l0 years. Later. rve rvill see that when Cervantes returned
t
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4 CERVANTES' DON QUIXOTE
e\ent. Because of his valor. he was given precious letters of commendation
by Don Juan of Austria ( 1545-78), half-brother of Spanish king Felipe II
and commander of the Christian army and navy at Lcpanto. and the Duke
of Sessa (?-1578). After his recovery in Naplcs, Cen'antes remained in
miliury sen'ice and rvas promoted to the rank of elite trooPer. participat-
ing in at least four cxpeditions in the eastern Meditcrranean Sea in l5?2
and 1573.
On Scptcmber 26, 1575. Cervantes and Rodrigo left military sen'icc to
return home to Spain. But their ship, a gdley named Sol, was separated
from others traveling together in a small fleet and rvas atucked by merce-
nary,Turkish pirates. The Spanish resisted for some hours but several men
rvere killed and the rcst were frnally overu'helmed and taken prisoner to
Algiers. The economy of this great North-African city rvas almost entircly
based on privateering, slavcry. and ransom. A fascinating, multicultural.
multilingual city of some 130,000 inhabitants in the late sixteenth cen-
tury (a population greater than that of any city in Spain). it rvas the loca-
tion of somc 25.000 Christian captives when Cervantes was there. lt is
estimated that more than half a million Christian captivqs spent time in
Algiers betwcen the years 1520 and 1660 (Spencer, Algiers in the Age
of the Corsairs). The captives were held in bafios (bagnios), which rvere
buildings or prisons consisting of a patio surrounded by small rooms rvherc
the prisoncrs rvere housed. Common slaves lived in particularly cramped
quarters, while those being held for ransom were treated somewhat better.
Ransom prices were set according to the perceived value of each prisoner.
taking social satus and estimates of family wealth into consideration. Thc
slave trade was a brisk business and inr"olved barters and some organized
religious grc,ups, particularly the Trinitarians and the Order of Mcrced.
which rvere constantly raising money from family, friends. and the public
to rcturn Christian prisoners to their homes.
Because of his impressive leners of recommendation. Cen'antes' ran'
som was set at a figure considerably highcr than the norm, and highcr than
that of his brother. The Cen'antcs family was able to raise enough money
to ransom Rodrigo in 1577. but Miguel remained in captivity until 1580-
During his five years of slavery. Cervantes organized no ferver than four
attempts to escape. ln every case, sonlething went wrong (usually some-
one betrayed those making escape preParations) and the efforts all failed.
Surprisingly. Cervantes did not rcceive the usual punishment-death-for
such activities, but he did spend long pcriods of time in chains. Finally' on
September t 9. 1580, when his master Hassan Pasha ( 154F9 I ). the retiring
king of Algicrs. rvas preparing to depart for Constantinople. and Cervantes
INTRODUCTION 5
was literally chained ro the ship he rvas ahut to help roq a Trinitarian
friar named Fray Juan Gil anived with thc ransom money and bought
cervantes' frcedom. Thus. cenantes w:ls at last able to return to Spain in
october. 1580. By all accounts, cervantes' conduct during these years w:rs
both heroic and exemplary. He was widely admircd and respected by his
colleagues, a fact we know becausc of a notarized document describing
his activities in some detzil (Informacihn de ... Arget) and orher conrem-
porary wrinen evidence. According to one anecdote. Hassan pasha was
supposed to have said rhat as long as Cen'anres was under lock and key his
ships and the city itself rvere safe. cervantes constantly recalred his expe-
rience in captivity and drew upon it in works wrirten throughout his life
(for more on rhis fascinating period of cervantes' life. see Maria Antonia
GarcCs' prize-rvinning book Cemantes in Algiersl.
There is a pocm, an episrle. addrcssed ro Mateo ylz4uez (1542-91),
secremry to King Felipe II, thar appears to be a plea hom Cervantes for
rcscue. The poem's authenticity has been questioned. bur ir is entirely
possible that Ceranres wrore ir from captiviry to convince the Spanish
govcrnment that Algiers was poorly defended and could easily be taken.
thus freeing all the good Christians who were suffering under rhe yoke of
slarery (Ferndndez de la Torre, "Historia y poesfa"). pan of the poem is
I
also placed in the mouth of the character of Saavedra in the play Ins tratos
\ de Argel, which Cervantes rvrote in the early 1580s.
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i l5E0-87: BACK IN SPAIN
t
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i Cervantes set sail for Spain on October 24. 1580. He landed in Valencia
and spent about a month there before continuing on to Madrid. The gener.
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I ous letters of recommendation thar documented his valor during the banle
of Lepanto had been lost during rhe years of captivity. Still, Cervanres
;
hoped thaq perhaps because of his rcpumtion, he might be rcwarded by rhe
crown. In l58l he went with rhe king's rednuc ro Lisbon (Felipe II inhcr-
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ited the Portuguese crown the prcvious year, and this was his first visit
I
to his new kingdom), where he petirioned for an administrative appoint-
i menl, but was rewarded only with a brief diplomatic mission (which prob-
I ably involved some spying) ro Ordn, a city in Spanish possession in North
I Africa (and rhe destination of two of Cervantes' earlier escape arrempts).
t.
He then settled in Madrid.
:\ His military carecr over and hopes for a governmenul position not pan-
I
I ning out, Cenantes tumed to a new venturc: the theater. At this time, the
I
t Spanish stage rvas just coming into its own as dre fint permanent corrales
t
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6 CERVANTES' DON QUIXOTE
(the name commonly given to the places where plays were staged) rvere
being constnrcted. Prcviously. primitive theauical pcrformances took place
in a variety of locations, often public squares. on rvhich a makeshift stagc
would be temporarily erected. The Conal dc la Cruz. on the Calle de la
Cruz. was constructed in 1579. and the Cor:al del hincipe, also on the
srcet of lhat name (today the site is the location of the Tear,o Espafrol)'
was built in 1582 (Allen, Thc Reconstruclrbn). The new concept of theater
feanrred longer, more complcx works, and there rvas abundant opportunity
for innovation by creative dramatists. Writing works for $e theater became
Cervantes' prima4, (although far from his only) activity during the years
1582-8?. Ceryantes claimed to have written between 20 and 30 plays during
this period of time. None rvere published and only two remain in manuscript
form. One is lts tratos de Aryel (Ufe h Algiers). a heavy-handed four-act
drama about love and innigue among the captives in Algiers. A characrcr
named Saavedra is at least a partial rcflection of Cervantes himself.
Cervantes' sccond, little used. surname-Saavedra-is intercsting. He
should logically have been called Miguel de Cervantes (y) Cortinas, because
his mother's natne was l-conor de Cortinas, but he never went by this name.
The first recorded insance of his use of Saaredra occurs in 1586 in docu-
mens rcladng to his maniage, and later he used the name for his daughter.
The name was a distinguished one, as a Saavedra family gained fame for
heroism and defense of the faith on fte medie'ral frontier bctwecn Chnstian
and Muslim lurds. In panicular, a certain Juan de Saavedra from Seville
bccame a legendary hero. Cervantes seems to have wanted to associate both
his own captivity (he made a reference to himself as "a ccrtain Saavedra" in
Don Quimte part l. chaptcr 40 and that of ruo of his brave theatrical cap-
tives (herc and later in EI gallardo espafio[) vrith the name (Sdnchez Saus,
"[os Saavedra").
The second play from this pcriod is I-a Numancra, a four-act partially
allegorical rcprcsentation of the siege and destruction of the lberian city of
Numancia by the Roman general Scipio in 133 sce. In Cervantes' version,
the residents of the besieged city prcfer to commit mass suicide rather than
sunender, and in the final sccnc, the last rernaining person in the city, a
young boy, jumps to his death from a torver rather than be taken prisoner.
This is Cervantes' best known theatrical rvork, thc only one to have been
performed frequently in modcrn dmes. Its ralue as a symbol of Spanish
nationalism and independence led to its use as propaganda in nineteenth-
century Spanish civil rvars and by both the leftist Republicans and Fascist
Nationalists during and after the Spanish Civil War of 193G39. It is a
powerful, although uncvcn. play $at stirs strong feelings whcnever it is
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INTRODUCTION 7
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pcrformed (see Oriel. "Cervantes' Nurnancia," and Schmidt. ..The Devcl-
I opment of Hispanitas").
In 1582, Cervanres anempted to change his lorrunes by foilowing rhe
I lead of some of his contemporaries and moving to one of the Spanish iolo.
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nies in America. He applied for an administrative position in Nerv Spain
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(Mexico), bur was rumed down, possibly bccause he was unable to prove
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adequately rhat he was an Old Christian, a requircmenr for such a port.
t In 1584, Cervanres had a brief love affair with Ana Franca de Rojas
i (also known as Ana de Villafranca, 156f99). wife of a tavern-keeper
I
I in Madrid. The rcsult was rhe birrh of Cewanrr:s' only child, a daughter
t named Isabel (l58rl-1652). rvho, after 1599, wculd play a role in his life.
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I I:ter in the same year. cervantes was in the towrr of Esquivias (on the bor-
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der of La Mancha) to take care of rhe legal affairs of rhe rccent widow of a
good fricnd. There he met and married a young rvoman named catatina de
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i Palacios ( 1565-1526), who was barely hatf his a.3e (he was 37 and she just
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!9).nt. marriage produced no offspring and hus.band and wife lived apart
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I for long periods of timc. Bccause of this. many schorars and historians
I
have assumed that it rvas an unhappy and unsuc<.cssful union.
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I The next year, 1585. Cen'antes published lis first book. a pastoral
I romance titled /a Galuea Such romances-lengthy lictions of rcfined
I shephcrds who spend much more time lamenting unrcquired love, compos-
!
t i-ng rerse and song. and shedding copious tears, rhan they do rending their
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I flocks-were very much in vogue cver since Jorige dc Montemayor 1ca.
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I 1520-1561) publishcd La Diana in t559 and srarrcd dre fad. cervanres'
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I contribution to the genre is quite singular. incorpc,radng an unusud amount
I
of violencc and nonpastoral action into the complicated taleof La Galatea.
I
I Quite popular in its day (there were two cdition:; in the sixtcenrh cenrury
and four morc in the seventeenth), praised by a nurnber of writers. and fairty
influential in translarion (espccially in France), i-a Galatea is rarely read
today outside of academic conrexr (for more ot La Galateq see .{llen.
Rivers. and Sieber, eds., A Celebration of Certtantes).
By the laner parr of rhe 1580s a new figure anived and immediately
dominated the Spanish srage: Lope de Vega (1:i62-1635). Lope's plays
$ere morc tightly structured, more lyrical. and h:tter conceived rhan were
those of cervantes and most other writers. tope literally took control of
theatrical producrion in Madrid and dominated rhe scene for nearly hatf
a centur)., writing perhaps 1.000 plays, earning a considerable amount
of money from his works. and enjoying enorn(,us fame and populariry.
Cervantes could not compele and, recognizing the fact, withdrew from
the scene. Enmity. combined with grudging admirarion, characterized rhe
8 CERVANTES' DON QUTXOTE
relationship between Cenantes and Lope de Vega throughout Cervantes'
life. Cervantes satirized Lope's works in pan I of Don Quixote, and Lope
made several disparaging remarks about Cenantes and his novel (Montero
Reguera, "Una amistad truncada").
1587-1604: ROYAL COMMISSARY AND TAX
COLLECTOR
In 1587 Cenantes took a job as royal commissary and spent the next
several years traveling throughout Andalusia (southem Spain) requisition-
ing grain and oil, much of it to be used by the planned "Invincible" Armada
that rvould soon be sent to conquer England. Twice-in the small torvns of
Ecija and Casuo del Rfehe was excommunicated for carrying out his job
in opposition to the efforts of local authorities. Most of this time he was
scparated from his rvife (although there rvere some brief interludes when
the couple spent time together in Esquivias), and he spent much time in
Seville, the lar,cest city in Spain (it was almost trvice as large as the capital,
Madrid) and what many considered to be the most exciting city as well.
The Spanish Armada, proudly referrcd to as the "Invincible." was an
overwhelming flotilla designed both to destroy English naval power and,
with troops brought over from the Netherlands, take control of the coun-
try, stamp out the Protestant heresy. and reestablish Catholicism. But
adminisrative delays. poor equipment, inept leadership, ourunding Engli sh
generals. and bad weather combined to bring abut a re-rcunding defeat (see
chapter 4). Cervantes was astounded rvhen the first word of the disaster
reached Spain. He composed a heroic ode for the occasion. acknorvledg-
ing 'the confusing sound of the bad nervs." but stating with confidence
that the invincible Christian army would subdue the enemy and that Spain
was already singing its victory. Then. when the military rout was con-
firmed, C-ervantes wrote a second ode. this one admitting that the enemy
had stepped on the tail of the great lion. but also expressing confidence
that the English pirate's day of reckoning would soon come.
In 1590. he again applied for a post in the Spanish colonies. ln fact. he
petitioned for any onc of ftree open positions in Colombia. Guatemala.
and Bolivia. The request rvas denied with the terse commcnt. "let him
look for a job here." Cervantes' next position, assumed in 1594, was that
of ux collector, again in Andalusia. He was jailed at least nvice. first,
very briefly, in Castro del Rio in 1592 and thcn in Scville in 1597-98. for
more than seven months. In 1595 he deposited some tax monics with a
businessman in Seville, but the man went bankrupt and absconded with
INTRODUCTION 9
the funds. As a result. cervantes was served a legal ciradon and had to
exert considerable time and effon to clear his name. During these years
and these trouble.s, he had many of the experiences with p/caras and other
criminal and marginal ry'pes thar woutd later provide him with material for
his novels and stories. Ptcams referrcd to a variety of social t),pes: street
urchins, usually orphans, rvho lived by their wits. often in rhe senice of
a master. frcqucntly a beggar or perty thief. and nor infre4uently looking
fordeceitful rvays ro make money and move up on the social scale. Mean-
while, Cervanres continued to wrire, probably working on Don euixore
(there are indicatigns that cer'antes wrore much of Don
euixote in the
final decade of the sixreenth century and thar it may have circulated in
manuscript for some rvhile before its publication in 1605): some of the
short storics that he would publish later; perhaps his last book, rhe per-
siles; and, mos likely, some poetry. On onc occasion in 1592 hc signed a
contfact to write six plays, but apparently he never delivcred the works.
In July of 1596 the English, led by Sir Francis Drake sraged a daring
raid on the city of Cfidiz, occupying and sackin-s it for 24 days. During
this time, spanish milirary aurhoriries did norhing to defend or rcscue rhe
city. waiting until the English forces withdrew beforc marching inro lown.
Qrvantes wrote a devastatingly satiric sonnet about the event, sarcastically
praising the bravado of the triumphal arrival by the Spanish troops. Trvo
years later, King Felipe Il died after a 42-year reign. A sumptuous catafalque
in his honor was consrnrcted in the cathedral of ser.ille. Funeral ceremonies,
horverer, were delayed by political and religious authorities who squabbted
over the details of the event. one day cen'anres rvalked inro the cathedral
and proclaimcd aloud a sonnet in satiric praise of the strucrue, claiming that
the dead king's soul has lefi Hearen irself in order ro admire ir. The poem
ends by quoting a braggart soldier that the prcvious sentiments are true and
that anyone who says anything else is a liar; rhe soldier then puu on his hat
with a flourish, rattles his srvord. and leaves. Nervs of the scandalous evenr
spread rapidly. and the poem circulated widely rhroughout rhe counrry and
was published in several anrhologies of poetry. Larer in life, in his Vaje
del Parnaso (ch. 4) Cervanres called this sonner the ,,principat honor of my
writings." These two satiric sonnets are generally considered the bcst poems
Cenvantes ever wrote (Martfn, Centantes and the Burlesque Sonnet).
1604-6: THE vALLADOLID INTERLUDE
In 1601. thc Spanish royal court was moved from Madrid to Valladolid.
Tbree 1,ears later, in 1604. Cervanrs moved ro the new capital, accompanied
r0 CERVANTES', DON QUIXOTE
by his rvife, Catalina. his sisters Andrea and Magdalena. his daughter.
Isabel, his niece Constanza, and a serving-woman Marfa de Ceballos. The
family lived in a few rooms in a building hastily constructed to accom-
modate the flood of new residents atuacted by the court. During this time,
he rvrote some short stories and finished rvriting the fint pan of El inge'
nioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha (Thc Imaginative Gentleman Don
Qukote de la Manchal. which was published in Madrid in 1605.
We know exactly rvherc the Cervantes family lived on the Calle del Rasuo.
near the Esgueva River, because on the evening of June 27. 1605' a noble'
man named Don Gaspar de Ezpeleta was murdercd in the doorway of the
building. There was an extensive investigation intc'the ma[er. and testimony
was taken from all the building's rcsidents but :to one was e\cr anested
(it appears that therc was a cover-up by tlre investigating law enforcement
ofticers). In her testimony, Cervantes' sister Andrea described her brother
as "a man who writes, conducts his business. and has many fricnds"'The
court records for this case provide a valuablc glimpse into Cervantes' per'
sonal life (Canavaggio.'Aproximaci6n." 38).
An interesting sidelight of the invesdgation is tbat the virtue of Cervantes'
sisters. niece. and daughtcr was called into questiou the women were even
rcfened to as /as Centantas, the (notorious) Cervantes rvomen. The casc of
Cervantcs' only daughter is interesting. Isabel had livod with her mother undl
the laner's death in 1599, rvhen Cenantes' sister Magdalena took crtstdy of
the teenage girl. ln thc custody PaPeN she is rcfcrred to as Isabel de Saare'
dra and Juan de Ceni,anes is identified as her grandfather. Thus Cervantes
indirectly and ambiguously recognized Isabel as his daughter. Isabel manicd
twice and had one daughter who died in infancy. Relations werc strained
betrveen daughter and her father. and when Cen'antes' widow dicd in 1626
Isabel was not mentioned in the will, although Csrvantes' niece Constanza
rvas. When Isabel died in 1652 the C-ervantes line rvas extiguished.
The Ezpeleta murder occurred during the festivities for the important
state visit of English admiral and statesman Lr'rd Charles Howard' Earl
of Nottingham (153G1624). After the deaths of King Felipe lI of Spain
in 1598 and Queen Elizaberh of England in 16O3, attempls were made
to bring about a polidcal rapprochement betwe4n he trvo bitter enemies.
Howard (who had engineered the defeat of the "Invincible" Armada in
1588 and his retinue wcrc received with geat pomp and circumstance
at the Spanish coun in order to ratify a peace ueaty' Among the events
staged for the visiting diplomat was a parade that included figures rep
resenting Don Quixote. Rocinante, and Sancho Panza- This was tlrc first
public appearance of Cen'antes' charactens, just a few shon months after the
INTRODUCTION il
book was published. (Olrcr such festive appe€rarce!; of Cervantes' charac-
ters occunei throughout tlte serenteenth century in Spain and, beginning in
16O7. in the Spanish colonies; see Buezo, "El triunfo de Don Quijote").lt
is entircly possible that lloward and other visiting Englishmen took back
to London nervs of. and perhaps copies of, Cervan:es' novel. It has been
speculated that William Shakespeare might have formed pan of Howard's
rctinuc, which could then have led to a mecting betwcen Shakcspearc and
Cewanles. There is. however, no evidence that Shakespeare ever went to
Spain or that Cervantes ever heard of .rim. For a very nicc imaginative
version of such an encounter, see the story by Anthony Burgess in which
Shakespeare and Cenantes do indeed meet and talk ('A Meeting in !'al-
ladolid"). A copy of the fust edition of Don Quixote rvas imported by Sir
Thomas Bodley and placed on the shelves of Oxfc,rd's Bodleian Library
in 1605, so it is clear that the norel traveled to England almost immedi-
ately after publication in Spain. Apparently, Thom:s Shelton's uanslation
of Don Quixote, which was publishcd in 161 2, rvas ormplete by about I 608
and circulated in manuscript form. The lord Howard-Don Quixote connec-
tion may be impossible to trace in detail, but it was pnrbably imponant in the
early difrusion of the novel abroad.
1606-16: FINAL YEARS IN MADRID
The royal court returned to Madrid in 1606. and Cervantes and his fam-
ily made the same more in that year. ln the wake of the popularity of Don
Quixote, Cervantes became somewhat of a celebrity, but his financid situa-
tion did not improve. as he received little rerum from the book's publication.
Hecontinued writing poetry. theatcr. and fiction. but published nothing rcw
until 1613, when his Novelas ejemplares (Exemplaty Novels), a collection
of 12 short fictions (novelas) appeared. This is arguably the most original
and mosr influential collection of short fictions by a turopean author befiorc
the nineteenth century. The 12 stories. in order. are es follows.
La gilanilh (The Litrle Gyps_v Girl), thc longest stor/ in the collecdon, is
the tale of a beautiful and talented young gypsy named hcciosa. Hcr
abilities in song and dance draw the auention of a 1'oung nobleman, rvho
is vrilling to lcave home and undcrgo a probationary period as a gypsy in
ordcr to gain thc hand of the voman hc loves. A scries of chance events.
however. leads to the revclation that the newborn [rcciosa had bccn sto
len from her noble parents. which makes possiblc ar immcdiatc marriagc
between the two lovers.
l2 CERVANTES'. DON QUTXOTE
El amante liberal (The Genercus Lover) is a story of inuiguc and romancc
that takes place in Nonh Africa. Constantinople, Spain, and on the high
scas. Thc lovcn Ricardo and lronisa arc fiequently scparated, threat-
cncd. and prcsumcd dcad or lost, until. in a dramatic linal scene, Ricardo
appears.offering all he has to his beloved and giving hcr ovcr to his rival
for her hand. But then l-e.onisa speaks. asserts her independence. and
chooses to marrJ Ricardo.
Rinconete y Conadillo (Rinconete and Conadillo) is the story of rwo young
pkarcs who meet at a roadside inn, tell each other thcir lifc storics.
team up. and ravel to Seville. There they meet Monipodio, who runs a
thieves' guild, a son of early version of organizcd crime. Aftcr rvatching
thc group's activitics. and spcnding some time in the oryanizadon, they
decide to leave and strike out again on theirown. The storl'rcads likc thc
first chapter of rvhat rvas to bc a longcr work.
la espailola inglesa (The English Spanish Girl) bcgins rvith thc English
raid on Cddiz in 1596. A soldier steals a young girl and takes her home to
raisc as a secrct Catholic in Protestant England. The girl. Isabel. becomes
popular in Quoen Etizaberh's coun. and the soldier's son. Ricaredo. falls
in lovc with hcr. Ricarcdo is sent away :o gain military experience and
soon returns with a captive ship ladcn with riches. Aflcr somc scrious
cornplications thrcatcn to ruin everything. and following a lengthy sepa-
ration, $e t\r,o lovers are united in marriage.
El Ucenciado Vidriera (Thc Glass Graclwte) is a salire in tvhich a poor but
brilliant university student is poisoncd by a woman who lovcs him. The
effect of Oe poison is to make him belicvc that he is madc cntircly of
glass. He becomes a wandering street philosopher. making satiric slatc-
mens of all kinds. When he is finally curcd. nq onc wants to listcn to his
opinions. so he joins thc army, gains fame, and dies in battle.
La faerza de la sangre (The Power of Bloo<I) opens rvhen Rodolfo abducs
and (always hiding his identily) rapcs l€ocadia, lhen leaves Spain for
Ilal1,. She has a child, Luis, from this encounter, and raiscs thc boy as
her nephew. After Luis is almost killcd in a chancc accidcnt, he is nursed
back to hcalth by Rodolfo's paren6, who think the young boy looks
familiar. Leocadia conlirms that this rvas thc housc in which she rvas
raped. In the end. Rodolfo is recalled to Spain and a happy marriagc is
arranged betwoen victim and rapist.
El celoso exrremefio (The Jealous Old Man frcn Extremadura) is thc story
of an elderly indiano (a Spaniard r'r'ho bccamc rich in Amcrica and thcn
rcrumed ro Spain) named Carrizales who marrics an innoccnt l3-ycar
old namcd l-conora. Obscssively jealous. Carrizalss rums his home into
a fortress. but. ofcourse. it is brcached by a young man rvho spends the
night (but does not have sex) with Lconora. Thc old man rccognizes his
cnor, forgives his wife, and die.s.
INTRODUCTION 13
La ilusrre fregow (The lltustrious Kirchen-Maid) is abouta beautiful young
woman. Costanz:- raiscd by an innkeeper, TVo young noblemen, offon
an advcnturc, hear of her and come to thc inn. Puending to bc pcasants.
one of thcm, Tomdl falls in love. while his friend, Diego. has some
comic advcnturcs as a water scller. In the end. it is rcvealed that coshnza
is the product of the rape of a noble womatl and a series of happy mar-
riages are arrangcd.
Los dos donccllas (The Two Damsels) tells of how the beautiful Tcodosia
and her brorher search for one Marco Antonio, the man rvho had takcn
Teodosia's honor and promiscd to marry her. They zue sqln joined by
the equally beauriful l,cocadia who is also in search of the man who
had promised ro marry her-thc same Marco Antonio. After a scries of
sdventurcs and a serious wound to the absent lover. Marco Antonio and
Teodosia marry. as do Lcocadia and Tcodosia's brothcr'
I-a sefiora Contelia (Lady cornelial is about the adventurcs of trvo noblc
Spanish students. Don Antonio and Don Juan. in Bologna. Ialy' Thcy
become invotved in a compticated lor.c affair involving the beautiful
cornelia Bcntibolli and thc Duke of Fenara. The two gencrous and brarc
spaniards dcfcnd the Duke. take care of comelia's illegitimate baby. and
tretp rtre lovens gct back together. In the end, aftcr a comedy of mistaken
identity involving rwo other \{omen namcd Corneli4 thc happy marriagc
of the two lorers takes Place.
El casamiento engafioso (The Deceitlul Marriatc), shonest of thc stories. is
abour an ensijn who rells a fricnd about a marriage in which hc ricked
his wifc inro believing ftar he was rich and she dcccived him by running
off wirh her lover. shc also left him with a case of syphilis, and while he
was rccovering in thc hospitat onc night he hcard two dogs talking and
wrore dorvn rheir convcrsarion. His fricnd rcads the manuscript of their
conversation. which is the twclfth and final story.
El coloquio de |os perros (The Diatogue of tle Dogs) opens rvhen wo dogs'
Bcrganza and Cipi6n' discover thcy have the power of spec*h' Beryanza
rell; his fricnd of his various masters and the adventurcs he has had
rhroughour his life-+pisodes involving illicit scx belrveen black slaves.
life with gypsics. a stint as a shocp dog. famc as a dancing dog' a poten'
tially supernarural cpisode with a witch, and much more. All the while.
CipiOn Comments on Berganza's story and, in the end promiscs to tcll his
lifc story the next night.
It is cerfain thatCervantes wrote short fictions throughout his career.
as we know that some of these stories rvere in existence at least a decade
before rhe Novelas ejemplares was published in 1613, rvhile it is clear that
others werc wrinen as tate as during the stay in Valladolid. The range of
style, technique, and character in the stories is impressive. Five of them
l4 CERVANTES', DON QUTXOTE
follow romance panern of the trials and tribulations of a pair of young lovers
a La Gror Sultana dofta Cotalino de Oviefu (Tin WJe of the Great Suhon,
who arc happily reunited in the end. Another five are morc novel-like, featur.
ing rcalistic characters and settings, oftcn with satirc. And rwo are a conscious
combination of the two modes (see Mancing, "hototlges of Genre"). Even
if he had nerer wrinen Don Quixote, Cervantes would rank as a major rwiter
on the basis of his short fictions alone (on the Novelas, see Sean. A Marriage
of Cowenience,' Hart, Certtoues' Excmplary Ficlro,rs; Ricapito. Ce ntantes's
"Novelas ejemplates;" andClamuno, Beneath tlv Fiction).
The Novelas ejen4olares was followed in rapid succession by three more
books: El viaje del Parnaso (Voyage to Parnassus) in 1614, and Ocho
comedias y ocho entremeses, ,tmca representados (Eight Plays and Eight
Iwerludes, Never Perfonned) ud part 2 of Don Quixote in 1615. The
Parnaso is a mock-epic in rvhich Cervantes is invited by Apollo ro rhe
mythical Mount Parnassus to help defend it from being anacked by bad
poets. Along the way a large numbcr of Spanish poets join in, and rogerher
they managc to fight offthe bad poets and defend good poerry.The major-
ity of the work consists of a long list of poes rvho arc variously praised.
The best pafl is chapter 4 whcrc Ccrvantes talks about himself in self-
deprecating terms. The poem is followed by a prosc Adjunra (appendix) in
which Cervantes returns to Madrid and has a conversation with a ficrional
dramarist (see lokos. The Solilary Journey).
The Ocho comcdr'as contains the scripts of eight plays andeightentrcme-
ses (shon, comic interludes normally performcd betwccn acts of full-
length plays). It is assumed that at least a few of the eight full-length plays
arc rcrvorkings of some of Cervantes rvorks from the 1580s. All of them
have elements of interest. but none arc considered grear works (see Fried-
man,The Unifiing Concept, and McKendrick, "Writing for the Srage"). In
order. they are as follows.
El gallarb espafiol (The Valiant Spaniad) is a tale of valor and romance rhar
takes place during the siege of thc Spanish fortrcis of ftn in I 563.
La casa de los celos 1, selva de Arulcnia (The House olJeatousy ond Forcst
of Anlenws) is a lale of manelous chivalric deeds. all undermined by
absurditics, irrconsistencies. and a comic tone thal may not be intended.
Itts boftos dc Argel (The Bagnios of AQiers) is an almost documenary
trcatment of thc theme of captivity. quite superior ro the earlier los tra-
tos dc Aryel.
El rufidn dichoso (The Fonunare Rufran) is a play about a handsome nrPin
(pimp, pkarc) from Seville rvho rcpenc, goes to Mcxico. and bccomcs
a miracle-working monk.
INTRODUCTION r5
Dofta Catalirw dc Ovieb) is a rale of the conflict b(:twccn rcligion and
lovc. as a bcautiful Christian noman from Spain murics thc Sulan of
thc Otrcman Empire.
El laberinto de anwr (The Labyrinth of lovc) is an exnpmcly complicated
tale c,f courtly lovc. involving hidden identitiqs and confusing rclation-
ships: very likely a rcworking of an eadier. iost play.
Ia entrctenida (The Entertaining Story) is a parody o: a cape and sword
drama, with hints of incest. multilaycrcd romantic comedy. and an
unorthodox cnding whcrc no one gets rr.anied.
Pedrc de Udennlas is a work in which this folkloric character, here a
picarc, bccomes a scnant, a gypsy. and finally an a;tor-always exist-
ing oo thc margins of sociuy, living by his ingenuity and wit'
Cervantes' eight interludes are. on :he whole. more original and
interesting+ven brilliant at timcs-than the long plays: no other writcr
in this minor genre surpasses his work. Herc we s('c Cervantes' comic
gcnius. keen observation of human psychologX', sharp scnsc of satire. grcat
sense of timing. ability to write lircly and realistic di:rlogue (as he docs in
Don Quixote), and ability to create great characters in a brief space (see
Asensio, Itinerario del entremb, and Reed, The Novelist as Plaswrightl.
The eight short works. in order are as follorvs.
El juez de los divorcios (The Divorce Court Judge) fo,lows the story of a
judgc as he rcviews the cases of sevcra pcople<omic lypes such as a
harpy. an old man, and a soldier-who want a divor<'c.
El rufihn viudo llanudo Trantpagos (The Widowed Pinp Natned Trampa'
gos) is about the pimp, Trampagos. rvho intervicws candidates to rcplace
his rcccntly dcceascd prostitute.
La elecciln dc los alcaldes de Dagonzo tTlv Electio't of Magistrates of
Dagu2o) pre.eenls threc ignorant Peasanc who inu:rview for the posi'
tion of magistratc.
Ia gurda cuidadosa (The ltgilant Gwd) is about a rnaid who choosc's a
sacristan over a soldicr who stands vigil ouuide her housc.
El vizcaho fingido (The Man wiu Prctended to in from Brsccy) is about two
men, one praending to bc a Basque, who deceive a woman with a trick
involving a fake gold chain.
El rctablo de las maravillas (Thc Llamelous Puppet Shcw) pre'x'nts two con
artists who convince people in a small town that only those who arc of
Old Christian stock and legitimate binh can scc the figures they pretend
to Prcsent.
t6 cERvANTES', DON QUIXOTE
La cueva dc Salamanca (The Cave of Salananca) is about a student who
pretends to conjure up (innoccnt) dcvils in ordcr to deceive a jealous
husband.
El viejo celoso (The Jealous Old Man) is a story about a young wife tvho,
with the help of a neighbor. cuckolds hcr jcalous. old husband beforc his
vcry cycs.
Of these. the best are probably the last threc. The Retablo, especially. has
been singled out for critical praise. A variant on the theme of the emperor's
new clothes, it is a devastating satire on contemporary sexual and religious
preoccupations (see Smith, "Cervantes and his Audience").
The appearance in I 6 14 of an unauthorized sequel to Don Quixote prob-
ably spuned Cervantes to finish his orvn continuation more rapidly. The
full title of the apocryphal continuation is Segunda pane del ingenioso
hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha (Second Part of the Imagitntive Gen'
tleman Don Quixote de la Mancha,f, by Alonso Ferndndez de Avellaneda.
The author's name is a pseudonym. and the real author has never bcen
identified. It is not a bad novcl by any means. but it pales in comparison
with Cervantes' superior parl 2. In Avellaneda's work. Don Quixote is
more like the comic character he was in the earliest chapters of Cervantes'
part l, he is no longer in love with Dulcinea, and his nerv friends place
him in a madhouse at the end. Sancho. meanwhile, is relatively stupid.
a coward. and a glunon. especially fond of mcatballs. There are. how-
ever. some amusing characters and very comic scenes-such as rvhen Don
Quixote ntshes on stage during a play to savc a damsel in distress (see
Aylward, Towards a Revaluation). The reader who is interested in seeing
horv another writer deals with Cenantes' characters might rvant lo read
Avellaneda's sequel in thc English translation of Sen'er and Keller.
Cervanles' Segunda parte del ingenioso caballerc Don Quiiote de la
Mancha (The Second Part of tlw Inngirutive Knight Don Quixote de
la Mancha), published early in 1615, was an immediate success. It was
printed alone thrce times by 1617. and by the end of the seventeenth cen-
tury it had been published with part I at least 14 more times. (Avellaneda's
sequel never had a second printing unlil 1732.) By this time, Cervanles
rvas quite infirm. suffering from dropsy, pcrhaps actually diabetes, and
was aware that hc was dying. He worked, probably quite intensely. on his
last book. Los trabajos de Persiles v Sigismunda (The Trials of Persiles
and Sigismunda). rvhich he most likely bcgan decadcs earlier.
Ttre Persiles is the most enigmatic of Cervantes' works. It is a long story
of adventure and romance. in which Persiles. prince of Thule (lceland),
INTRODUCTION t'l
and Sigismunda, princcss of Frisland. travel as brother and sister under the
names of Periandro and Auristela. as they make their way to Rome to be
married. Along the way. they arc frequently separated and rcunited, havc
numerous adventures, and are joined by a constantly changing cast of sec-
ondary characters. each of whom has his or her own tale to tell or adven-
ture to undergo. Long considered a mediocrc work by a worn-out writer,
in the final quaner of the twentieth century the Persiles has received a
large amount of critical attention and is norv regarded as a subtle, complex,
and fascinating work. It in no way matches the heighs achieved by Don
Quixote, but it is a truly fascinating fictional tde (see Forcione, Cenantes'
Christian Romance; Williamsen. Co(s)mic Clnos: and Wilson. A llegories
of Love).
Cen'antes finished the Persiles, which he hoped would bc either the best
or the worst book ever rvritten (it is neither, of course). rvhile literally on
his deathbed. and the last rvords he rvrote were the prologue and dedica-
tion to the novel, on April 19. t616. He died four days later, on April 23.
It is interesting to note that Cervantcs and Shakespeare both died on April
23, l6l6-but not on the same day. England was at the time still using
the old Julian calendar, while Spain had already srvitched to the revised
Grcgorian calendar that was to become standard. Thus. Shakespeare dicd
l0 days later than Cen'antes. Cervantes' rvidow. Catalina, saw to the pub-
lication of Persiles in 1617.
Cervantes was buried in a unmarked grave in the Trinitarian Convent'
around the corner from rvhere he lived, on the Calle de Cantananas (norv,
ironically, the Calle de Lope de Vega). Cervantes nevcr lived on the street
known today as the Calle de Cervantes. At the end of bis life he lived in a
building on the corncr of that sueet. then called the Calle de los Francos'
and thc Calle de los leones, but the entrance was on Leones, not Francos.
Lnpe de Vega, however. did live on Francos and his home. containing sev'
eral of his personal possessions. is now prcserved as a museum in his honor'
It is no small irony thal Lope lived on the street named for Cervantes and
Cervantes is buried on the strcet named for Lope.
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t8 CERVANTES' DON QUr:(qrE
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INTRODUCTION l9
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