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Control System Analysis using the Root Locus

Method

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S Z Sayed Hassen

Outline of the lecture

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Contents
1 Introduction 1

2 Root Locus

3 Properties

4 Sketching
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5 Refining the Sketch 14
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1 Introduction
Introduction to Root Locus

• Root Locus is a graphical representation of the location of the closed-loop

poles of a system as a system parameter is varied.
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• It is a powerful method of analysis and design for stability and transient

response of dynamical systems.
• The effect of varying gain upon percent overshoot, settling time, peak time
can be vividly displayed using the root locus technique.
• It also provides a graphical representation of a system’s stability and clearly
picture ranges of stability/instability and marginal stability.
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• Although it can be used for first and second order systems, the real power
of the root locus lies in its ability to provide solutions for systems of order
> 2.

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 Vector Representation of Complex Numbers
• A complex number σ + jω can be graphically represented by a vector and

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can also be described in polar form with magnitude M and angle θ, M ∠θ.
• If the complex number is substituted in a complex function F (s), another
complex number will result.

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• For example, if F (s) = (s + a), then, F (σ + jω) = (σ + a) + jω.
• F (s) has a zero at −a. If we translate the vector a units to the left, we
have an alternate representation of the complex number that originates at
the zero of F (s) and terminates at the point s = σ + jω.

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• We conclude that (s + a) is a complex number and can be represented by a
vector drawn from the zero of the function to the point s.
• For example, (s + 7)|s→5+j2 is a complex number from the zero of the
function −7, to the point s, which is 5 + j2.

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Vector Representation of Complex Numbers
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Figure 1: Vector representation of complex numbers

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Evaluation of Complex Function via Vectors

If we apply the concepts to a complicated function:
Q
m
(s + zi )
F (s) = i=1
Qn ;
(s + pj )
j=1

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 Since each complex factor can be thought of as a vector, the magnitude M of
F (s) at any point, s, is

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Q
m
Q |(s + zi )|
zero lengths
M= Q = i=1
Q
n ,
pole lengths
|(s + pi )|

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j=1

where a zero length is the magnitude of the vector drawn from the zero of F (s)
at −zi to the point s, and a pole length is the magnitude of the vector drawn
from the pole of F (s) at −pj to the point s.

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Evaluation of a Complex Function via Vectors
The angle θ of F (s) at any point, s is
X X
θ = zero angles − pole angles

=
X
m

i=1
H
∠(s + zi ) −
X
n

j=1
∠(s + pj )

where a zero angle is the angle, measured from the positive extension of the
real axis, of a vector drawn from the zero of F (s) at −zi to the point s, and a
pole angle is the angle measured from the positive extension of the real axis, of
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the vector drawn from the pole of F (s) at −pj to the point s.

Evaluation of a Complex Function via Vectors

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(s+1)
Given F (s) = s(s+2) , find F (s) at s = −3 + j4. The problem can be graphi-
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cally depicted as: The vector originating at the zero at -1 is 20∠116.6.
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 Evaluation of a Complex Function via Vectors
The vector√originating at the pole at the origin and at the pole at -2 are ...
5∠126.9 and 17∠104.0 respectively.

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√
20
M ∠θ = √ ∠(116.6 − 126.9 − 104) = 0.217∠ − 114.3
5 17

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Example
Given
(s + 2)(s + 4)
F (s) =
s(s + 3)(s + 6)

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Find F (s) at the point s = −7 + j9 in the following ways:
• Direct substitution of the point into F (s).
• Calculating the result using vectors.

2 Root Locus
Defining Root Locus
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Answer: −0.0339 − j0.0899 = 0.096∠ − 110.7◦
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Figure 2: Security camera with auto tracking that can be used to follow moving
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objects automatically

• Let us consider a security camera similar to the one shown below which
can automatically follow a subject. The tracking system monitors pixel
changes and positions the camera to center the changes.
• The root locus technique can be used to analyze the effect of loop gain
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upon the system’s transient response and stability.

Defining Root Locus

The block diagram representation of the tracking system is shown below:
and the closed-loop transfer function is given by The closed-loop poles of the
system change location as the gain K is varied.

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Defining Root Locus
We apply the quadratic formula to the denominator (characteristic equation)
of the transfer function:

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• As the gain K increases, the pole which is at -10 for K = 0 moves towards
the right, and the pole at 0 for K = 0 moves towards the left.
• They meet at -5 and break away from the real axis and move into the
complex plane.
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Root Locus
The representation of the paths of the closed-loop poles as the gain is varied is
called the root locus

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Defining Root Locus

• The poles are real for gains less than 25. At gain of 25, the system is
critically damped and for gains above 25, the system is underdamped.
• For the underdamped part, since the real part does not change as K is
increased, it can be concluded that the settling time will remain the same
since Ts ≈ 4/σ.
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• As we increase the gain, the damping ratio diminishes and the percentage
overshoot increases.
• The damped frequency of oscillation which is equal to the imaginary part
of the pole, also increases with an increase in gain, resulting in a reduction
of the peak time.

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 • Finally, the root locus never crosses over into the right half plane and the
system is always stable.

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• This analysis can be extended to higher order systems. The root locus
allow us to make that association with the analysis and design of higher
order systems.

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3 Properties
Properties of the Root Locus
• We will now examine the properties of root locus, from which we will be able to sketch the

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root locus for higher order systems without having to factor the denominator of the closed-
loop transfer function.
• Assume a system with closed-loop transfer function
KG(s)
T (s) = (1)
1 + KG(s)H(s)

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• From (1), a pole s exists when the characteristic polynomial in the denominator becomes
zero, or

KG(s)H(s) = −1 = 1∠(2k + 1)180◦ k = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, · · ·

• Alternatively, it can be deduced that a value of s is a closed-loop pole if

|KG(s)H(s)| = 1 and ∠KG(s)H(s) = (2k + 1)180◦

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• A pole of the closed-loop system causes the angle of G(s)H(s) (since K is a scalar) to be an
odd multiple of 180◦ . Furthermore, the magnitude of KG(s)H(s) must be unity, implying
that the value of K is the reciprocal of the magnitude of G(s)H(s) when the pole value is
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substituted in s.

Properties of the Root Locus

Let us reconsider the previous system we had
K
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KG(s)H(s) =
s(s + 10)

• For a gain K = 5, the closed loop poles were −9.47 and −0.53.
• Substituting s = −9.47 in the equation above should give KG(s)H(s) =
· · · −1.

• Same for s = −0.53.

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• Let us now visualize graphically the meaning of

∠KG(s)H(s) = (2k + 1)180◦

on an example.

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Properties of the Root Locus
Consider the following system: The closed-loop transfer function is given by
K(s + 3)(s + 4)
T (s) =
(1 + K)s2 + (3 + 7K)s + (2 + 12K)

satisfy the 2 conditions stated before.

Properties of the Root Locus

Let us consider the point −2 + j3.
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If point s is a closed loop system pole for some value of gain K, then s must
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• If this point is a closed-loop pole for some value of gain, then the angles
of the zeros minus the angles of the poles must equal an odd multiple of
180◦ .
• From above,

θ1 + θ2 − θ3 − θ4 = 56.31 + 71.57 − 90 − 108.43 = −70.55◦

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• Therefore, −2 + j3 is not a point on the root locus.

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• For the point −2 + j(1/ 2), the angles add up to 180◦ .

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 Properties of the Root Locus
From the equations derived before:
Q

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K= 1
= 1
= Q pole lengths
|G(s)H(s)| M zero lengths

√
With the point s = −2 + j(1/ 2), the gain

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L3 L4
K= = 0.33
L1 L2
√
Thus, the point −2 + j(1/ 2) is a point on the root locus for a gain of 0.33.

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Properties of the Root Locus
Summary
• Given the poles and zeros of an open-loop transfer function, KG(s)H(s),
a point in the s-plane is on the root locus for a particular value of gain K,

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if the angles of the zeros minus the angles of the poles, all drawn to the
selected point on the s-plane, add up to (2k + 1)180◦ .
• Furthermore, gain K at that point for which the angles add up to (2k +
1)180◦ is found by dividing the product of the pole lengths by the product
of the zero lengths.
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Example
Given a unity feedback system that has the forward transfer function
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K(s + 2)
G(s) =
(s2 + 4s + 13)
1. Calculate ∠G(s) at the point −3+j0 by finding the algebraic sum of angles
of the vectors drawn from the zeros and poles of G(s) to the given point.
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2. Determine if the point specified above is on the root locus.

3. If the point specified above is on the root locus, find the gain K using the
lengths of the vectors.
Soln: 180◦ , K = 10

4 Sketching
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Sketching the Root Locus

• By sweeping through every point in the s-plane to locate those points for
which the angles add up to an odd multiple of ±180◦, the root locus can
be obtained.

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 • This task is tedious without the aid of a computer.
• The concept can however be used to develop rules that can be used to

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sketch the root locus without the effort required to plot the locus.
• Once a sketch is obtained, points that are of interest for a particular prob-
lem can be accurately plotted.

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• We will consider five rules that allows us to sketch the root locus with min-
imal calculations. The sketch gives an intuitive insight into the behaviour
of a control system. The sketch can be refined by finding actual points and
angles on the root locus but require some calculations.

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Sketching the Root Locus
1. Number of Branches
Each closed loop pole moves as the gain is varied. If we define a branch as
the path that one pole traverses, then there will be one branch for each closed-
loop pole.
1. Number of branches
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The number of branches of the root locus equals the number of closed-loop
poles.
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Sketching the Root Locus

2. Symmetry
If complex closed-loop poles do not exist in conjugate pairs, the resulting
polynomial, formed by multiplying the factors containing the closed-loop poles,
would have complex coefficients. Physically realizable systems cannot have
complex coefficients in their transfer functions. Thus, we conclude:
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2. Symmetry
The root locus is symmetrical about the real axis.

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Sketching the Root Locus
3. Real axis segments
Figure below shows the poles and zeros of a general open-loop system. To

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calculate the angular contribution of the poles and zeros at each point p1 , p2 , p3
and p4 along the real axis, we observe the following:
• At each point, the angular contribution of a pair of open-loop complex
poles or zeros is zero.

the respective point is zero.

Sketching the Root Locus

3. Real axis segments
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• The contribution of the open-loop poles and open-loop zeros to the left of
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• The conclusion is that the only contribution to the angle at any of the
points comes from the open-loop, real axis poles and zeros that exist to
the right of the respective point.
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• If we calculate the angle at each point using only the open-loop, real axis
poles and zeros that exist to the right of each point, we note the following:
1. The angles on the real axis alternate between 0◦ and 180◦.
2. The angle is 180◦ for regions of the real axis that exist to the left of
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an odd number of poles and/or zeros.

3. Real axis segments

On the real axis, for K > 0, the root locus exists to the left of an odd number
of real axis, finite open-loop poles and/or finite open-loop zeros.
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Sketching the Root Locus

4. Starting and ending Points
Where does the root locus begin (zero gain) and end (infinite gain) ? Con-
sider the closed-loop transfer function
KNG (s)DH (s)
T (s) =
DG (s)DH (s) + KNG (s)NH (s)

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 As K approaches zero (small gain),
KNG (s)DH (s)
T (s) ≈

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DG (s)DH (s) + ǫ

The closed-loop system poles at small gain approach the combined poles of
G(s) and H(s). We conclude that the root locus begins at the poles G(s)H(s),

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the open-loop transfer function.

Sketching the Root Locus

4. Starting and ending Points
At high gains, where K is approaching infinity,

as
KNG (s)DH (s)
T (s) =
ǫ + KNG (s)NH (s)

We see that the closed-loop system poles at large gains approach the combined
zeros of G(s) and H(s). Now we conclude that the root locus ends at the zeros
of G(s)H(s), the open-loop transfer function.
4. Starting and ending points

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The root locus begins at the finite and infinite poles of G(s)H(s) and ends at
the finite and infinite zeros of G(s)H(s).
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Sketching the Root Locus
4. Starting and ending Points
As an example, consider the previous example:
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Sketching the Root Locus

4. Starting and ending Points
Complete root locus for the previous example:

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Sketching the Root Locus
5. Behaviour at infinity
Consider applying Rule 4 to the following open-loop transfer function:

KG(s)H(s) =

H K
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
There are three finite poles and no finite zeros.
• A function can have infinite poles and zeros. If a function approaches
infinity as s approaches infinity, then the function has a pole at infinity.
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• If a function approaches zero as s approaches infinity, then the function
has a zero at infinity.
• For example, G(s) = s has a pole at infinity, since G(s) approaches infinity
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as s approaches infinity.
• On the other hand, G(s) = 1/s has a zero at infinity.
• Every function of s has an equal number of poles and zeros if we include
the infinite poles and zeros as well as the finite poles and zeros.
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Sketching the Root Locus

5. Behaviour at infinity
In this example,
K
KG(s)H(s) =
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
the system contains three finite poles and three infinite zeros.
• Thus, the root locus begins at the finite poles and ends at the infinite zeros.
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• Where are the infinite zeros ? We must know where these zeros are in
order the show the root locus moving from the three finite poles to the
infinite zeros.
• Rule 5 helps us locate these zeros at infinity. Rule 5 also helps us locate
poles at infinity for functions containing more finite zeros than finite poles.

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 Sketching the Root Locus
5. Behaviour at infinity
The derivation of this Rule can be found in various control literature. We

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will only state the results here.
5. Behaviour at infinity
The root locus approaches straight lines as asymptotes as the locus approaches

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infinity. Further, the equation of the asymptotes is given by the real-axis inter-
cept, σa and angle θa as follows:
P P
finite poles− finite zeros (2k+1)π
σa = #finite poles−#finite zeros θa = #finite poles−#finite zeros

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where k = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3 and the angle is given in radians with respect to the
positive extension of the real axis.

Sketching a Root Locus with Asymptotes

Example
L(s) = H
Example 1. Sketch the root locus for a unity feedback system with transfer func-
tion
K(s + 3)
s(s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 4)
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5 Refining the Sketch

Refining the Sketch
Real-axis Breakaway and Break-in points

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• The point where the locus leaves the real axis, −σ1 is called the breakaway
point.
• The point where the locus returns to the real axis, σ2 is called the break-in
point.

Refining the Sketch

Real-axis Breakaway and Break-in points
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• At the breakaway or break-in point, the branches of the root locus form an angle of 180◦ /n
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with the real axis, where n is the number of closed-loop poles arriving at or departing from
the single breakaway or break-in point on the real axis. The branches at the breakaway point
form 90◦ angles with the real axis.

• The gain must be maximum along the real axis at the point where the breakaway occurs,
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somewhere between -1 and -2. Naturally, the gain increases above this value as the poles
move into the complex plane.We conclude that the breakaway point occurs at a point of
maximum gain on the real axis between the open-loop poles.

• When the closed-loop complex pair returns to the real axis, the gain will continue to increase
to infinity as the closed-loop poles move toward the open-loop zeros. It must be true, then,
that the gain at the break-in point is the minimum gain found along the real axis between
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the two zeros.

Refining the Sketch

Real-axis Breakaway and Break-in points
The Figure below shows the variation of real-axis gain. The breakaway point
is found at the maximum gain between -1 and -2, and the break-in point is found
at the minimum gain between -3 and -5.
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Refining the Sketch

Real-axis Breakaway and Break-in points

• One way to find the points at which the root locus breaks away from
and break into the real axis, we use differential calculus to maximize and
minimize the gain K.

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• For all points on the root locus,

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1
K=−
G(s)H(s)

• Since along the real axis, s = σ, therefore we will be finding

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K =−
1
G(σ)H(σ)
(2)

• By differentiating (2) with respect to σ and equating the result to zero, we

can determine the points of maximum and minimum gain and hence the
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breakaway and break-in points.

Refining the Sketch

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Real-axis Breakaway and Break-in points

Example 2. Find the breakaway and break-in points for the root-locus shown
using differential calculus.
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Refining the Sketch

Real-axis Breakaway and Break-in points

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 (s − 3)(s − 5) s2 − 8s + 15
KG(s)H(s) = K =K 2
(s + 1)(s + 2) s + 3s + 2

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For all points along the root locus, KG(s)H(s) = −1, and along the real axis,
s = σ,
σ 2 − 8σ + 15
K 2 = −1

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σ + 3σ + 2
−(σ 2 + 3σ + 2)
K=
(σ 2 − 8σ + 15)
Differentiating K with respect to σ and setting the derivative to zero,

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dK 11σ 2 − 26σ − 61
= = 0,
dσ (σ 2 − 8σ + 15)2
Solving for σ, we find σ = −1.45, 3.82 which are the breakaway and break-in
points respectively.

Refining the Sketch

Real-axis Breakaway and Break-in points
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Another method, called the transition method eliminates the step of differ-
entiation and is stated below.
Transition Method
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Breakaway and break-in points satisfy the relationship
X
m
1 X 1 n
= (3)
σ + zi σ + pi
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1 1

where zi and pi are the negative of the zeros and poles respectively of G(s)H(s).

Refining the Sketch

Real-axis Breakaway and Break-in points
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Example 3. Repeating the previous example using the transition method, we

have
1 1 1 1
+ = +
σ−3 σ−5 σ+1 σ+2
Simplifying, we have
11σ 2 − 26σ − 61 = 0

Refining the Sketch

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jω axis crossing
The jω-axis crossing is a point on the root locus that separates the stable operation of the
system from the unstable operation.
• The value of ω at the axis crossing yields the frequency of oscillation, while the gain at the
jω-axis crossing yields, for this example, the maximum positive gain for system stability.
• In other cases, a system can show instability for small values of gain K where the root locus
starts in the RHP and ending in the LHP for large values of gain.

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Refining the Sketch
jω axis crossing
To find the jω-axis crossing, we can use the Routh-Hurwitz criterion as fol-
lows:

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• Forcing a row of zeros in the Routh table will yield the gain;
• Going back one row to the even polynomial equation and solving for the
roots yields the frequency at the imaginary-axis crossing.

Refining the Sketch

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jω axis crossing
Example 4. For the system shown, Find the frequency and gain, K, for which
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the root locus crosses the imaginary axis. For what range of K is the system
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stable?

Refining the Sketch

jω axis crossing
The closed-loop transfer function is
K(s + 3)
T (s) =
s4 + 7s3 + 14s2 + (8 + K)s + 3K
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We then obtain the Routh array shown below:

s4 1 14 3K
s3 7 8+K
s2 90 − K 21K
−K 2 −65K+720
s1 90−K
s0 21K

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 A complete row of zeros yields the possibility for imaginary axis roots. For positive values of gain,
only the s1 row can yield a row of zeros. Thus
−K 2 − 65K + 720 = 0

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Therefore, K = 9.65. Forming the even polynomial by using the s2 row with K = 9.65, we obtain
(90 − K)s2 + 21K = 80.35s2 + 202.7 = 0

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We determine s = ±j1.59. Thus the root locus crosses the jω axis at ±j1.59 at a gain of 9.65. We
conclude that the system is stable for 0 ≤ K < 9.65.

Refining the Sketch

jω axis crossing

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• Another method for finding the jω-axis crossing (or any point on the root
locus) uses the fact that at the jω-axis crossing, the sum of the angles from
the finite open-loop poles and zeros must add to (2k + 1)180◦ .
• Thus, we can search jω-axis until we find the point that meets this angle

Refining the Sketch

Angles of Departure and Arrival
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condition and can be done through MATLAB.

• We further refine our sketch by finding angles of departure and arrival

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from complex poles and zeros.
• The root locus starts at the open-loop poles and ends at the open-loop zeros.
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• We want to calculate the root locus departure angle from the complex
poles and the arrival angle to the complex zeros.
• If we assume a point on the root locus ǫ close to a complex pole, the sum
of angles drawn from all finite poles and zeros to this point is an odd
multiple of 180◦ .
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• Except for the pole that is ǫ close to the point, we assume all angles drawn
from all other poles and zeros are drawn directly to the pole that is near
the point.
• Thus, the only unknown angle in the sum is the angle drawn from the pole
that is ǫ close, which is the angle of departure from this complex pole.
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Refining the Sketch

Angles of Departure and Arrival
Solving for

θ1 = θ2 + θ3 − θ4 − θ5 + θ6 − (2k + 1)180◦

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Refining the Sketch
Angles of Departure and Arrival

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• Similarly, if we assume a point on the root locus ǫ close to a complex zero,
the sum of angles drawn from all finite poles and zeros to this point is an
odd multiple of 180◦ .
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• Except for the zero that is ǫ close to the point, we can assume all angles
drawn from all other poles and zeros are drawn directly to the zero that
is near the point.
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• Thus, the only unknown angle in the sum is the angle drawn from the
zero that is ǫ close, which is the angle of arrival to this complex zero.

Refining the Sketch

Angles of Departure and Arrival
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Solving for

θ2 = θ1 − θ3 + θ4 + θ5 − θ6 + (2k + 1)180◦

Refining the Sketch

Angles of Departure and Arrival
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Example 5 (Angle of departure from complex pole). Given the unity feedback
system, find the angle of departure from the complex poles and sketch the root
locus.
(s+2)
Using the poles and zeros of G(s) = (s+3)(s2 +2s+2) , we calculate the sum of

angles drawn to a point close to the complex pole, −1 + j1.

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Refining the Sketch
Angles of Departure and Arrival
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−θ1 − θ2 + θ3 − θ4 = −θ1 − 90◦ + tan−1 (1/1) − tan−1 (1/2) = 180◦

Thus, Angle of departure θ1 = 108.4◦.

Sketching the Root Locus

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 Example
Example 6. Given a unity feedback systems that has the following forward trans-
fer function

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K(s + 2)
G(s) = 2
(s − 4s + 13)

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• Sketch the root locus,
• Find the imaginary axis crossing,
• Find the gain K at the jω crossing,
• Find the break-in point,

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• Find the angle of departure from the complex poles.
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s = ±j 21, K = 4, −7, −233.1◦

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