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Feedback Control System Characteristics and

Performance

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S Z Sayed Hassen

Outline of the lecture

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Contents
1 Introduction 1

2 Error Signal Analysis

3 Sensitivity

4 Transient Response
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5 Steady-state error 8

6 Example 9
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1 Introduction
Introduction
The use of the error signal e to control the process results in a closed-loop
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sequence of operations that is called a feedback system. Now let us consider an

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open-loop system: The disturbance Td (s) directly influences the output Y (s). In

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 the absence of feedback, the control system is highly sensitive to disturbances
and to changes in parameters of G(s).

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Benefits of feedback control
Despite the cost and increased system complexity, closed-loop feedback con-
trol has the following advantages:

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• Decreased sensitivity of the system to variations in the parameters of the
process.
• Improved rejection of the disturbances.

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• Improved measurement noise attenuation.
• Improved reduction of the steady-state error of the system.
• Easy control and adjustment of the transient response of the system.

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Using the notion of a tracking error signal, it will be readily apparent that it
is possible to utilize feedback with a controller in the loop to improve system
performance.

2 Error Signal Analysis

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Error signal analysis
The closed-loop system below has three inputs, reference input R(s), dis-
turbance Td (s) and measurement noise N (s). Let us define the tracking error
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as
E(s) = R(s) − Y (s).
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Error signal analysis

For simplicity, let us allow H(s) = 1 and then,

Gc (s)G(s) G(s) Gc (s)G(s)

Y (s) = R(s) + Td (s) − N (s). (1)
1 + Gc (s)G(s) 1 + Gc (s)G(s) 1 + Gc (s)G(s)

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 With E(s) = R(s) − Y (s), we have

1 G(s) Gc (s)G(s)
E(s) = R(s) − Td (s) + N (s).

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1 + Gc (s)G(s) 1 + Gc (s)G(s) 1 + Gc (s)G(s)

Define the loop gain L(s) = Gc (s)G(s), then

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1 G(s) L(s)
E(s) = R(s) − Td (s) + N (s). (2)
1 + L(s) 1 + L(s) 1 + L(s)

We will see later on how L(s) plays a fundamental role in loop analysis.

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Error signal analysis
We can now define the sensitivity and complementary sensitivity function
respectively in terms of L(s) as

1 L(s)
S(s) = and T (s) = .

Then,
1 + L(s)

H 1 + L(s)

E(s) = S(s)R(s) − S(s)G(s)Td (s) + T (s)N (s).

From (3), if we want to minimise the tracking error E(s), then we want both
S(s) and T (s) to be small. However,
(3)
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S(s) + T (s) = 1,

and clearly, we cannot make both S(s) and T (s) simultaneously. Design com-
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promises need to be made.

Error signal analysis

Let us again consider (2)
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1 G(s) L(s)
E(s) = R(s) − Td (s) + N (s).
1 + L(s) 1 + L(s) 1 + L(s)

• To reduce the influence of the disturbance, Td (s), on the tracking error,

E(s), we desire L(s) to be large over the range of frequencies that char-
acterize the disturbances.
• To attenuate the measurement noise N (s), and reduce the influence on
the tracking error, we desire L(s) to be small over the range of frequencies
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that characterize the measurement noise.

• Fortunately, the apparent conflict can be addressed in the design phase by
making the loop gain, L(s), large at low frequencies (generally associated
with the frequency range of disturbances), and making L(s) small at high
frequencies (generally associated with measurement noise).

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 3 Sensitivity
Sensitivity of Control Systems to Parameter Variations

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• A process, represented by the transfer function G(s) is subject to a chang-
ing environment, aging, ignorance of the exact values of the process pa-

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rameters, and other natural factors that affect a control process.
• In the open-loop system, all these errors and changes result in a changing
and inaccurate output.
• However, a closed-loop system senses the change in the output due to the

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process changes and attempts to correct the output.
• The sensitivity of a control system to parameter variations is of prime im-
portance. A primary advantage of a closed-loop feedback control system
is its ability to reduce the system’s sensitivity.

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Sensitivity of control systems to parameter variations
Consider (1) where Td (s) = N (s) = 0, and assume that Gc (s)G(s) >> 1 for
all frequencies of interest, then

Y (s) ≈ R(s).
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Thus, increasing the loop gain (Gc (s)G(s)) reduces the effect of G(s) on the
output. Suppose the plant G(s) undergoes a change such that the true plant
model is G(s) + ∆G(s). The change in the plant may be due to a changing
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external environment or natural aging, or it may just represent the uncertainty

in certain plant parameters. Then from (2), it follows that
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E(s) + ∆E(s) = R(s).
1 + Gc (s)(G(s) + ∆G(s))

Since usually Gc (s)G(s) >> Gc ∆G(s),

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−Gc (s)∆G(s)
∆E(s) ≈ R(s).
(1 + L(s))2

Sensitivity of control systems to parameter variations

It is clear again that a larger L(s) translates into smaller changes in E(s),
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thus making the system less sensitive to changes in G(s).

The system sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the percentage change in
the system transfer function to the percentage change of the process transfer
function. If we define the system transfer function as

Y (s)
T (s) = ,
R(s)

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 then the system sensitivity is defined as

∆T (s)/T (s)
S(s) = .

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∆G(s)/G(s)

In the limit for small incremental change, this becomes,

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∂T /T ∂T G
S= = ·
∂G/G ∂G T

Sensitivity

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For the open-loop system, the sensitivity to changes in the plant G(s) is 1.
For the closed-loop system, the transfer function is given by

Gc (s)G(s)
T (s) = .
1 + Gc (s)G(s)

or
T
SG =
∂T G
∂G T
· = H
Therefore the sensitivity of the closed-loop transfer function T (s) with respect
to G(s) is
Gc
·
G
(1 + Gc G)2 Gc G/(1 + Gc G)
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T 1
SG =
1 + Gc (s)G(s)

Note that S above is exactly the same as the sensitivity function S(s) defined
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previously.

Sensitivity
Often, we seek to determine SαT , where α is a parameter within the transfer
function of a block G. Using the chain rule, we find that
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SαT = SG
T G
Sα .

Another way of computing the sensitivity function for a system with transfer
function
N (s, α)
T (s, α) = ,
D(s, α)
where α is a parameter that is subject to variation, is through the following
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formula:
SαT = SαN − SαD .
Thus by choosing a suitable controller Gc (s), we can construct a loop gain L(s)
and hence a closed-loop transfer function T (s) such that the system becomes
insensitive (or less sensitive) to variations in the plant transfer function.

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Example
Calculate the sensitivity of the closed-loop transfer function to changes in
the parameter a. The closed loop transfer function is given by:

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T (s) =
s2 + as + K
and the sensitivity
∂T a −as
SaT = · = 2
∂a T s + as + K

in a ?

4 Transient Response
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How can we reduce the sensitivity of the closed-loop transfer function to changes
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Transient Response

• The transient response is the response of a system as a function of time.

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• Because the purpose of control systems is to provide a desired response,

the transient response of control systems often must be adjusted until it is
satisfactory.
• If an open-loop control system does not provide a satisfactory response,
then the process, G(s), must be replaced with a more suitable process.
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• By contrast, a closed-loop system can often be adjusted to yield the desired

response by adjusting the feedback loop parameters.

Transient Response
Let us consider this speed-control system: We previously determined the
transfer function relating the angular speed and the armature voltage as:
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ω(s) K1
= G(s) = .
Va (s) τ1 s + 1

where
Km Ra J
K1 = and τ1 = .
Ra b + Kb Km Ra b + Kb Km

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Transient Response
k2 E
If the open-loop motor is subjected to a step input Va (s) = s , the transient

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speed change is given by:

ω(t) = K1 k2 E(1 − e−t/τ ).

• If this transient response is too slow, we must choose another motor with

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a different time constant τ1 if possible.
• However, because τ1 is dominated by the load inertia J, it may not be
possible to achieve much alteration of the transient response.

Transient Response
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Let us now consider the same scenario using a feedback loop. The closed-
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loop transfer function is given by:

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ω(s) Ka G(s) Ka K1 /τ1

= = .
Va (s) 1 + Ka Kt G(s) s + (1 + Ka Kt K1 )/τ1
k2 E
The transient response to a step command change of s is then

Ka K1
ω(t) = k2 E(1 − e−pt )
1 + Ka Kt K1
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where p = (1 + Ka Kt K1 )/τ1 .

Transient Response
For a typical application, the open-loop pole may be 1/τ1 = 0.1, whereas the
closed-loop pole could be (Ka Kt K1 )/τ1 = 10. The response of the open-loop
and closed-loop system are compared below:

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5 Steady-state error
Steady-state error

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• The steady-state error is the error after the transient response has de-
cayed, leaving only the continuous response.
• The error of an open-loop system is given by:

E(s) = R(s) − Y (s) = R(s)[1 − G(s)].

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• The tracking error of a closed-loop system was determined as:
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1
Ec (s) = R(s)
1 + Gc (s)G(s)

• Using the final-value theorem, we have (for a step input)

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eo (∞) = lim s(1 − G(s)) = 1 − G(0).
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s→0 s

• For the closed-loop system,

 
1 1 1
ec (∞) = lim s = .
s→0 1 + Gc (s)G(s) s 1 + Gc (0)G(0)

Steady-state error
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• The value of G(s) when s = 0 is often called the DC gain and is normally
greater than one in magnitude.
• Therefore, the open-loop system will usually have a steady-state error of
significant magnitude.

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 • By contrast, the closed-loop system with a reasonably large DC loop gain
L(0) = Gc(0)G(0) will have a small steady-state error.

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• Why not “calibrate” the system such that the value of G(0) = 1 and then
there is no need for closed-loop feedback control ?
• What if the system parameters change due to parameter drift, environ-

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mental factors ? We recalibrate ?

Steady-state error
Let us consider a unity feedback system with process transfer function:

as
K
G(s) = .
τs + 1
For a unit-step input, the steady-state error of the open-loop system is:

e(∞) = 1 − G(0) = 1 − K.

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For the closed-loop system subjected to the same input:

e(∞) = 1 − T (0) = 1 −
K
1+K
=
1
1+K
.

where T (s) = G(s)/(1 + G(s)). For the open-loop system, we would choose
K = 1, while for the closed-loop system, we could choose K = 100.
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What happens if there is a 10% change in parameter K ?
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6 Example
Example
A model of a boring machine control is shown where Y (s) is the actual
angle of direction of travel of the boring machine and R(s) is the desired angle.
The effect of load on the machine is represented by the disturbance Td (s). The
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design objective is to select the gain K so that the response to input angle
changes is desirable while we maintain minimal error due to the disturbance.
The output is represented by:
K + 11s 1
Y (s) = R(s) + 2 Td (s).
s2 + 12s + K s + 12s + K

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 To reduce the effect of the disturbance, we would choose K to be large. Let’s
say we choose K = 100 and then we examine the response of the system. If we
apply a unit step input r(t) = 1, Td (t) = 0, we obtain

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Example

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Now, let us investigate the response of the system when a unit-step distur-
bance is applied, i.e., Td (t) = 1 and r(t) = 0. The effect of the disturbance is
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clearly quite small (of magnitude 0.01).

Example
We repeat the exercise before but this time by choosing a smaller value of
K = 20. What do we expect to see ?

Example
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Here is a summary and detailed comparison of the system’s response: The

steady-state value y(t) of the system to a unit-step input R(s) = 1s (Td (s) = 0)
can be calculated as:
K + 11s 1
lim y(t) = lim sY (s) = s. . = 1.
t→∞ s→0 s2 + 12s + K s

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1
Similarly, for Td (s) = s with R(s) = 0:

1 1 1
lim y(t) = lim sY (s) = s. . = .
t→∞ s→0 s2 + 12s + K s K
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Example
Finally, let us examine the sensitivity of the system to a change in the process
G(s)
T 1 s(s + 1)
SG = = 2 .
1 + GH s + 12s + K
For low frequencies (|s| < 1),
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T s
SG ≈ .
K
Given that K ≈ 20 − 100, it is clear that the closed-loop system is relatively
insensitive to changes in the process G(s) over a reasonable frequency range.

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