SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS: PAPER 3C1

HANDOUT 2.
Dr Anil Kokaram
Electronic and Electrical Engineering Dept.
anil.kokaram@tcd.ie www.mee.tcd.ie∼ack

SYSTEM RESPONSE
• Ultimate goal is to control a process or analyze a signal To do this need
to be able to predict the response of a system to various inputs

• Given known system dynamics (i.e. we know enough about the system
to write down ODE’s describing its operation) we can use the Laplace
Transform to work out the response of the system to any input whose
Laplace Transform can be found.

• However, real inputs are not predictable; and it may not be possible to
write down a system’s ODE’s. The process used in Mobile Phones for
canceling echoes is a good example of a system which operates despite
the inability to analytically define the geometry/dynamics of the phone’s
immediate environment.

• Still can identify some basic system characteristics which allow handling
of system response. This is possible using purely time domain analysis.

• Time domain analysis relies on the fact that the response of a system to an
impulse or to a step tells you everything about the system (in principle).
These responses can be calculated if the ODE’s for the system can be
written, or they can be measured by experiment beforehand or on-line
(e.g. mobile phones, noise cancellation etc.)

• We will explore both techniques for analyzing systems. Start with Laplace
analysis as you met this in 2nd year.

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 1 REVIEW OF LAPLACE ANALYSIS

1 Review of Laplace Analysis

We’ll be using the Laplace Transform to solve differential equations.

Need to be confident in using it.

1. Laplace Transform of a signal f (t) is

µ ¶ Z ∞
L f (t) = f (t)e−stdt (1)
0
s is a COMPLEX number, e.g. σ + jω !! The result of taking
the Laplace Transform of a signal f (t) is a function in s. So we
go from a 1-dimensional function i.e. a function of time only, to
a function of 2 variables σ and ω i.e. a function of a complex
variable. We will write the laplace Transform of f (t) as F(s).
Sometimes in books you might see f¯(s) whic is useful because
some capital letters look like the common ones when written by
hand e.g. V and v.
2. Inverse laplace Transform of F(s) is
µ ¶ Z σ+j∞
1
f (t) = L−1 F(s) = F(s)estds (2)
2πj σ−j∞
This is a nasty1 integral to do, need to know about Contour
integration. Happily, being Engineers we can use tables of Laplace
Transform pairs to do this.
3. Sometimes people panic about the convergence of the inverse
Laplace Transform, because you find yourself having to say, for
instance Z ∞ · −st ¸∞
e 1
e−stdt = − = (3)
0 s 0 s
1
Not really, but it makes you feel better if you think this is so.

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 1 REVIEW OF LAPLACE ANALYSIS

even though you don’t know what value s is. Don’t panic, in this
course we are going to assume that the Laplace integral always
converges (i.e. Re(s) > 0) and so
· −st ¸¯
e ¯
− ¯ =0 (4)
s ¯s=∞
BUT YOU NEED TO REMEMBER THAT CONVERGENCE
IS AN ISSUE
4. In addition, assume that e−(s+a)t is 0 for s = ∞, (i.e. you can
always assume that s + a > 0 to make this happen.)
5. Remember to spot the ‘shift’ theorem since it gives a slick way of
using tables to get Laplace transforms of functions (we’ll derive
this later for the Fourier transform as well).
µ ¶
Given L f (t) = F(s)
µ ¶
Then L e−ktf (t) = F(s + k)

In other words, if you want to find the Laplace transform

of e−ktf (t), then just find the Laplace transform of f (t)
and replace all occurrences of s with s + k. A similar
statement can be made for the inverse transform.

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1.1 Transform Tables 1 REVIEW OF LAPLACE ANALYSIS

1.1 TABLE OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM RELATIONS

Waveform: Laplace Transform:

R∞
g(t) (defined for t ≥ 0) G(s) = L{g(t)} = 0− g(t)e−st dt

δ(t) impulse 1
1
u(t) unit step s
n!
tn sn+1
1
e−at s+a
ω0
sin(ω0 t) s2 +ω02
s
cos(ωo t) s2 +ω02
ω0
sinh(ω0 t) s2 −ω02
s
cosh(ω0 t) s2 −ω02
A(s+a)+Bω0
e−at [A cos(ω0 t) + B sin(ω0 t)] (s+a)2 +ω02

e−at g(t) G(s + a) shift in s

g(t − τ )u(t − τ ) where τ ≥ 0 e−sτ G(s) shift in t

d
tg(t) − ds G(s)
dg
dt differentiation sG(s) − g(0)
µ ¶¯
d2 g
¯
2nd differential s2 G(s) − sg(0) − dg ¯
dt2 dt ¯
0µ ¶¯ µ ¶¯
n
d g
¯
dg ¯ dn−1 ¯
g ¯
dtn sn G(s) − sn−1 g(0) − sn−2 dt ¯ − . . . − dtt−1 ¯
0 0
Rt G(s)
0 g(τ )dτ integration s

g1 (t) ∗ g2 (t) convolution G1 (s)G2 (s)

Rt
= 0 g1 (t − τ )g2 (τ )dτ

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1.2 Laplace Transform Examples 1 REVIEW OF LAPLACE ANALYSIS

1.2 Laplace Transform Examples

1. Find the Laplace Transform of e−at from first principles

Z ∞
L{e−at} = e−ate−stdt
Z0 ∞
= e−(s+a)tdt
·0 ¸∞
1 −(s+a)t
= − e
s+a
· ¸ 0
1
=− 0−1
s+a
1
=
s+a
2. Find the Laplace Transform of δ(t − a) from first principles
Z ∞
L{δ(t)} = δ(t)e−stdt
0
=1

3. Find the Laplace Transform of δ(t − a) from first principles

Z ∞
L{δ(t − a)} = δ(t − a)e−stdt
0
−at
=e

4. Laplace transform of e−at + e−bt. Laplace transform obeys super-

position so..
L{e−at + e−bt} = L{e−at} + L{e−bt}
1 1
= +
s+a s+b

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1.2 Laplace Transform Examples 1 REVIEW OF LAPLACE ANALYSIS

5. Find the Laplace transform of e−at sin(βt + φ)

from first principles (i.e. the hard way) :

½ ¾ Z ∞
−at
L e sin(βt + φ) = e−at sin(βt + φ)e−st dt
0
1 ¡ jx ¢
Using sin(x) = e − e−jx
2j
Z ∞ µ ¶
1
= e−at ej(βt+φ) − e−j(βt+φ) e−st dt
0 2j
Z ∞ µ ¶
1 −(s+a)t j(βt+φ) −j(βt+φ)
= e e −e dt
2j 0
Z µ ¶
1 ∞ jφ −(s+a−jβ)t
= e e − e−jφ e−(s+a+jβ)t dt
2j 0
µ · −(s+a−jβ)t ¸∞ · −(s+a+jβ)t ¸∞ ¶
1 e e
= ejφ − e−jφ
2j −(s + a − jβ) 0 −(s + a + jβ) 0
µ ¶
1 ejφ e−jφ
= −
2j (s + a − jβ) (s + a + jβ)
µ ¶
1 (s + a + jβ)ejφ − (s + a − jβ)e−jφ
=
2j (s + a)2 + β 2
µ ¶
1 (s + a)(ejφ − e−jφ ) + jβ(ejφ − e−jφ )
=
2j (s + a)2 + β 2
(s + a) sin(φ) β cos(φ)
= +
(s + a)2 + β 2 (s + a)2 + β 2

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1.2 Laplace Transform Examples 1 REVIEW OF LAPLACE ANALYSIS

But using tables,

ω0
sin(ω0t) ↔
s2 + ω02
s
cos(ω0t) ↔ 2
s + ω02
e−at sin(ω0t) ↔ Using the shift theorem: Replace s with s + a
ω0
↔
(s + a)2 + ω02
we can do the same thing the slick way (i.e. from tables and
spotting the shift theorem) :
½ ¾
L e−at sin(βt + φ) =
½ ¾
= L e−at[sin(βt) cos(φ) + cos(βt) sin(φ)]
½ ¾ ½ ¾
= L e−at sin(βt) cos(φ) + L e−atcos(βt) sin(φ)
½ ¾ ½ ¾
= cos(φ)L e−at sin(βt) + sin(φ)L e−at cos(βt)
| {z } | {z }
β cos(φ) (s + a) sin(φ)
= +
(s + a)2 + β 2 (s + a)2 + β 2

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1.3 Partial Fractions 1 REVIEW OF LAPLACE ANALYSIS

1.3 Review of partial fractions

You will need to find the inverse Laplace Transform of sometimes complicates
expressions. The method of partial fractions allows you to do this by express-
ing a complicated fraction in terms of a sum of simpler fractions. The idea
is that the inverse laplace transform of the simpler fractions is easier to spot.
Basic idea
k3 s + 1 A B C
= + + (1)
s(s + k1)(s + k2) s s + k1 s + k2
Expand r.h.s. and equate coeffs
A(s + k1)(s + k2) + Bs(s + k2) + Cs(s + k1)
=
s(s + k1)(s + k2)
Equating coeffs in s2 ⇒0 = A + B + C
Equating coeffs in s ⇒k3 = A(k1 + k2) + Bk2 + Ck1
Equating constants ⇒1 = Ak1k2
Then solve simultaneous equations for A, B, C. Urrgh, could be a
pain. There’s another, easier way (cover up rule)

Multiply eqn. 1 by s, set s = 0, This gives A straightaway

k3 s + 1 As Bs Cs
⇒ = + + (2)
(s + k1)(s + k2) s s + k1 s + k2
1
s=0⇒ =A
k1k2
Rule is Set s to be value that makes a denominator factor equal
0. Then COVER UP that factor in denominator and subsitute
to get coefficient value. To get C then . . .
−k3k2 + 1
s = −k2 ⇒ =C (3)
−k2(k1 − k2)

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 2 SYSTEM RESPONSE (AT LAST)

2 System Response (at last)

• What is the response of the system shown to a unit impulse input

at x(t), i.e. What happens to y(t) when x(t) = δ(t) Volts ?

x(t)
C y(t)

• Steps are

1. Write down the differential equations for modeling the system.

2. Given the stated initial conditions (if any) get an expression for y(t)
in terms of x(t). In other words : solve the differential equations.
3. Do this by
(a) First principles using P.I. and Homogeneous solution. (A pain).
(b) Laplace Transforms (much easier).
4. Insert the numerical values or expression for the input x(t) as well as
initial conditions.
5. Solution falls out.

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2.1 Example 1 : 2 SYSTEM RESPONSE (AT LAST)

2.1 Example 1 :

Impulse response of this system is the response y(t) when x(t) = δ(t).
R

x(t)
C y(t)

Write down differential equations to model the system.

dy
x(t) = Ri(t) + y(t) = RC + y(t)
dt
Take Laplace Transforms, and solve for Y(s)
X(s) = RC(sY(s) − y(0)) + Y(s)
µ ¶
Y(s) 1 + RCs = X(s) − RCy(0)
X(s) − RCy(0)
⇒ Y(s) = (4)
1 + RCs
Assuming initially, output is zero i.e. for t < 0, y(t) = 0
1
= X(s) = G(s)X(s) (5)
1 + RCs
Find Laplace Transform of input x(t): X(s) = L{δ(t)} = 1
Hence the impulse response, (we’ll refer to it as h(t) ) is therefore
· ¸ · ¸
h(t) = L−1 G(s)X(s) = L−1 G(s) × 1
· ¸ · ¸
1 1/(RCs)
= L−1 = L−1
1 + RCs (1/(RCs) + s
= (6)

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2.2 Step response 2 SYSTEM RESPONSE (AT LAST)

2.2 Step response

Impulse response of this system is the response y(t) when x(t) = u(t)
(i.e. x(t) is a step function.
R

x(t)
C y(t)

1
⇒ Y(s) = X(s) (7)
1 + RCs
1
Find Laplace Transform of input x(t) : L{u(t)} = s

Hence the step response y(t) is

· ¸
y(t) = L−1 Y(s)
· ¸
1
= L−1 X(s)
1 + RCs
·µ ¶ µ ¶¸
1 1
= L−1
1 + RCs s
1 A B
use partial fractions: = +
s(1 + RCs) s 1 + RCs
Use Cover up rule to find coefficients A, B
· ¸
1 RC
Hence y(t) = L−1 −
s 1 + RCs
=
= u(t) − e−t/RC
=

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2.3 PLOTS 2 SYSTEM RESPONSE (AT LAST)

2.3 PLOTS OF THE STEP AND IMPULSE RESPONSE

(assuming zero initial conditions, R=10KΩ, C = 10µF. )

1

0.9

0.8

0.7
Amplitude (volts)

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time (secs)
1

0.9

0.8

0.7
Amplitude (volts)

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time (secs)

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 3 IMPULSE AND STEP RESPONSE

3 A time domain relationship

• The step function is the integral of the delta function.

Z t
u(t) = δ(τ )dτ (8)
0

• All systems we deal with are LTI so SUPERPOSITION APPLIES

P ® ©
So if input xi gives output yi then i xi gives output ­ ª
.
• Hence
Z t Z t
Input x(τ )dτ → Output y(τ )dτ (9)
0 0

• So input u(t) (which is the integral of δ(t)) gives output

• Therefore The step response of a system is the integral of the
impulse response.
• Now do the example 1 again, but this time integrate the impulse
response to get the step response.

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 4 TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

4 TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

Recall for the capacitor and resistor circuit we had

X(s) − RCy(0)
Y(s) =
1 + RCs
X(s) RCy(0)
= −
1 + RCs 1 + RCs
⇒ Y(s) = F (s)X(s) + G(s)y(0) (10)

F (s) is called the transfer function of the system. Its all we need
to work out everything about the system if the initial conditions were
0. The Transfer function generalizes the idea of ‘Gain’ to dynamic
attributes of the system.

LAPLACE TRANSFORM = LAPLACE TRANSFORM SYSTEM TRANSFER

X
OF OUTPUT SIGNAL OF INPUT SIGNAL FUNCTION

OTHER TERMS
+
(INITIAL CONDITIONS)

So the system block diagram can be drawn as follows.

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 5 LINKING H(T ) AND H(S)

5 A link between Impulse response

and Transfer Function

Suppose Impulse response of system is h(t). What is its Transfer

Function?

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 6 TRANSFER FUNCTION EXAMPLES

6 Transfer Function examples

Laplace Transform of Output Signal

Transfer Function G(s) =
Laplace Transform of Input signal
Y(s)
=
X(s)

R
x(t) C y(t)

R2

R1
A
-

x(t) + y(t)

R
A
-

x(t) + y(t)

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6.1 A cascade of electrical systems 6 TRANSFER FUNCTION EXAMPLES

6.1 A cascade of electrical systems

-
-
+ +
w(t) z(t)
x(t) y(t)

Assuming that each stage does not load the preceeding one (i.e. each
input impedance >> output impedance of previous stage), Then
X(s) Y(s) 1 z(s)
= −k1; = ; = −k2
w(s) X(s) 1 + sT Y(s)

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 7 BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA

7 Block Diagram Algebra

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 8 MORE BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA

8 More Block Diagram Algebra

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 8 MORE BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA

EXAMPLES OF THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN

TRANSFORMS OF SIGNALS AND TRANSFER
FUNCTIONS OF SYSTEMS.

SIGNALS SYSTEMS
1 ↔ δ(t) Y(s) = 1 · X(s) ↔ y(t) = x(t)
1
Rt
s ↔ u(t) Y(s) = 1s · X(s) ↔ y(t) = 0 x(τ )dτ
1 −at 1
s+a ↔ e Y(s) = s+a · X(s) ↔ ẏ(t) + ay(t) = x(t)
ω ω
s2 +ω 2
↔ sin(ωt) Y(s) = s2 +ω 2
· X(s) ↔ ÿ(t) + ω 2y(t) = ωx(t)
−sT −sT
e ↔ δ(t − T ) Y(s) = e · X(s) ↔ y(t) = x(t − T )

Transfer functions arise through Laplace Analysis of

Differential Equations which represent the dynamic behaviour
of systems. They summarise the input/output behaviour of a
system in the s domain (i.e. they generalize the concept of ‘gain’).
Finding the Laplace transform of a signal is a step one takes when
it is required to find out what a particular system (represented by its
transfer function) does to an input signal.

It just turns out that the Laplace transform of some signals have a
form which occurs also as a Transfer function of particular systems.

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 8 MORE BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA

Terminology (will be used later in examining stability)

Suppose
n(s)
G(s) = (11)
d(s)

Then the roots of n(s) are called the ZEROS of the system G(s)

And the roots of d(s) are called the POLES of the system G(s)

EXAMPLE:
4s2 − 8s − 60
G(s) = 3
s + 2s2 + 2s
4(s + 3)(s − 5)
=
s(s + 1 + j)(s + 1 − j)
Zeros of G(s) are the values of s that make the numerator = 0 hence

Poles of G(s) are the values of s that make the denominator = 0

hence

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8.1 DC Motor 8 MORE BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA

8.1 Another Example: FIELD CONTROLLED DC MOTOR

Left: Circuit Diagram, Right: The Motor

DC Motors found in Hard Drives, CD Players, Scalextric Model car sets

How does θ(t) (the rotational angle of the axle) depend on e(t) (the voltage
applied to the field winding)? The following system equations apply:

Linearised Motor Equation (k=some const.)

τ (t) = ki(t) (1)

Torque = Inertia × acceleration

τ (t) − B θ̇(t) = J θ̈(t) (2)

Kirchoff
∂i
e(t) = Ri(t) + L (3)
∂t
θ(s)
1. What is the the system transfer function E(s) ?

2. What is the impulse response of the system?

3. What is the response of the system to a unit step impulse at t = 0?

Assume θ(0) = 0, θ̇(t) = 0, i(0) = 0; First have a think about what you

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8.1 DC Motor 8 MORE BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA

expect . . .

Now some analysis:

• To get the transfer function we need to express the Laplace transform of

the output signal τ (s) (torque) as a function of the laplace transform of
the input signal I(s) (current). So take Laplace xforms of the
differential equations representing the dynamic behaviour of each
system (remember tables!) . . .

From eqn 1

⇒ τ (s) = KI(s) (4)

From eqn. 2

˙
⇒ τ (s) − B[sΘ(s) − θ(0)] = J[s2 Θ(s) − sθ(0) − (θ)(0)]

But from initial conditions, θ(0) = 0, θ̇(t) = 0, i(0) = 0 so

τ (s) = Θ(s)[Bs + Js2 ] (5)

From eqn. 3

E(s) = RI(s) + L[sI(s) − i(0)] (6)

= I(s)[R + Ls]

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8.1 DC Motor 8 MORE BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA

Let Tf = L/R, Tm = J/B (to reduce the amount of writing to do).

Hence from eqn. 6
E(s)
I(s) = (7)
R(1 + sTf )
Still have some work to do ... don’t panic ... all we want to do is to get
Θ(s) = somefunctionof(E(s))

Subst I from eqn 7 into 4

µ ¶
K
⇒ τ (s) = E(s) (8)
R(1 + sTf )
Subst τ from 8 into 5
K
E(s) = Θ(s)[Bs + BTms2]
R(1 + sTf )
= Θ(s)Bs[1 + Tm s]

So
Θ(s) K 1
=
E(s) R(1 + sTf ) Bs[1 + Tm s]

Required Transfer Function is

Θ(s) K/(RB)
= (9)
E(s) s(1 + sTf )(1 + Tm s)

We shall denote this system transfer function as H(s).

• Impulse Response: Put an impulse as input into the system and

calculate the output. Therefore set e(t) = δ(t) ⇒ E(s) = 1 Hence, to
calculate output (which is the impulse response when an impulse is
input)

Θ(s) = H(s)E(s) = H(s) × 1

= H(s) (10)

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8.1 DC Motor 8 MORE BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA

Therefore, the time domain impulse response h(t) is just L−1 (H(s))
Remember: System transfer function is Laplace transform of the
impulse response, or the impulse response is the inverse Laplace
Transform of the system transfer function. So
½ ¾
K/(RB)
h(t) = L−1 (11)
s(1 + sTf )(1 + Tm s)
Need to use partial fractions to express the transfer function in a
simpler form to make taking the inverse easier (i.e. to use tables).
K/(RB) A B C
= + +
s(1 + sTf )(1 + Tm s) s (1 + sTf ) (1 + sTm )
Using “Cover Up” rule
K/(RB) K
A= =
(1 + 0 × Tf )(1 + Tm × 0) RB
¯
K/(RB) ¯¯
B=
s(1 + Tm s) ¯ 1
s=− T
f

K/(RB)
=
− T1 (1 − TTm )
f f

−KTf /(RB)
= )
(1 − TTm
f

−KTf2 /(RB)
=
(Tf − Tm )
¯
K/(RB) ¯¯ K/(RB)
C= =
s(1 + sTf ) ¯s=− 1 − T1m (1 −
Tf
Tm )
Tm

−KTm /(RB) KTm2 /(RB)

= Tf
=
(1 − (Tf − Tm )
Tm

Hence (after some simplification)

· Ã ! Ã !¸
K/(RB) K 1 Tf 1 Tm 1
= − +
s(1 + sTf )(1 + Tm s) RB s (Tf − Tm ) s + T1f Tf − Tm s + T1m

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8.1 DC Motor 8 MORE BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA

So now we can use tables to find the inverse Laplace Transform, hence
· Ã ! Ã !¸
K 1 Tf 1 Tm 1
H(s) = − 1 +
RB s (Tf − Tm ) s + Tf Tf − Tm s + T1m

⇒ h(t) = L−1 {H(s)}

µ ¶
· 1
− T t
¸
K Tf Tm
e−( Tm t)
1
= u(t) − e f
+
RB (Tf − Tm ) Tf − Tm
Consider:

– Tf generally smaller than Tm .

– Electronic cct transient FAST, Mechanical cct transient SLOW

• Step response g(t) (say) : can get this either i) integrate the impulse
response OR ii) set e(t) = u(t) and then calculate output. You can spot
that the only terms that involve t in h(t) have simple exponentials, so
integration seems straightforward
Z t
g(t) = h(τ )dτ
0
·Z t µ ³ ´ ¶ ¸
K Tf − T1 τ T
e ( Tm ) dτ
m 1
− τ
= u(τ ) − e f +
RB 0 (Tf − Tm ) Tf − Tm

R 1
remember e−t/a = −(1/a) e
−t/a
= −ae−t/a
µ ¶
· Tf2 ¸t
K − τ
Tf −1 Tm2 −( Tτ −1)
= τ+ e − e m
RB (Tf − Tm) Tf − Tm 0
· ³ ´ ¸
K Tf2 − Tt −1 T 2
e−( Tm −1)
t
m
= t+ e f −
RB (Tf − Tm ) Tf − Tm

Steady state response is g(t) as t → ∞. So steady state response is

Kt
gt→∞ (t) = (12)
RB

3C1 Signals and Systems 26 www.mee.tcd.ie/∼sigmedia