In September 1939, Germany's invasion of Poland led Britain to enter the war.

The British saw

themselves as defenders of weaker European nations and democracy, having heard about Nazi
cruelty from Jewish refugees. However, few realized the strength of the German army. In May
1940, the German forces attacked, defeating the French and driving the British army to the sea. In
a miraculous rescue at Dunkirk, the British army was saved by thousands of private boats. Winston
Churchill, Britain's new Prime Minister, portrayed Dunkirk as a victory of courage and
determination during the nation's darkest hour. Despite losing most of their weapons in France,
Churchill declared that surrender or peace negotiation was out of the question. He promised to
defend Britain at any cost and rallied the nation with his famous speech. Germany's anticipated
invasion did not occur as the British air force won a crucial battle against German planes over
Britain. However, German bombing caused widespread destruction, leaving nearly one and a half
million people in London homeless. Churchill skillfully managed to maintain the belief that victory
was still possible, even when the nation seemed defeated. The war initially began as a traditional
European struggle, with Britain fighting to preserve the balance of power.

During World War II, Germany and Japan made critical mistakes that ultimately cost them the war.
Germany attacked the Soviet Union, while Japan attacked the United States, both unexpected
moves. These actions brought two powerful nations, the Soviet Union and the United States, into
the conflict. Britain, unable to defeat Germany on its own, relied on the support of its stronger
allies. By 1943, the Soviet army was pushing German forces out of the USSR, and Britain
successfully drove out German and Italian troops from North Africa. Italy swiftly surrendered after
Allied landings in July 1943. In 1944, the tide of the war began to turn against Germany and its Axis
allies as the Allied forces gained momentum.

In March 1944, Winston Churchill sat at his desk as Britain and the United States launched an
invasion of German-occupied France. Prior to the invasion, extensive bombing campaigns had
caused unprecedented destruction in German towns, although their military effectiveness was
questionable. The bombing of Dresden, a historically beautiful city, resulted in the destruction of
most of its inhabitants in a single night in 1945. In May 1945, Germany finally surrendered, and to
avoid further casualties, Britain and the United States utilized their bombing power to defeat
Japan, employing atomic bombs that devastated Nagasaki and Hiroshima, causing immediate and
subsequent deaths totaling over 110,000 people. While the end of the war brought relief to
Britain, it marked a terrible beginning for the post-war world. The war had lasted longer than the
First World War, with significant losses incurred by British troops, including over 303,000 soldiers
and 60,000 civilians in air raids. The Soviet Union, Germany, and Japan suffered even greater
losses, and various ethnic groups, such as the Jewish and Romani people, experienced deliberate
and widespread killings, resulting in millions of deaths. The war's conclusion came at an immense
cost and set the stage for the challenging period that followed.

After World War II, the Allies recognized the need for a new international order to replace the
ineffective League of Nations. Prior to joining the war, the United States and Britain agreed on the
"Atlantic Charter," which was based on President Roosevelt's "Four Freedoms." These freedoms
encompassed speech, worship, freedom from fear, and freedom from want. Following the war, the
victorious Allies established the United Nations to embody the principles outlined in the Atlantic
Charter. They formed a Security Council that included some less powerful nations, aiming to
maintain the wartime alliance into peacetime. However, the sense of common purpose that
existed during the war dissipated. The four main allies—Soviet Union, United States, France, and
Britain—failed to collaborate effectively for the recovery of central Europe. Europe became divided
into two spheres: the eastern part under communist Soviet control and the western part under a
capitalist system protected by US power. In 1948-1949, the Soviet Union attempted to capture
West Berlin by cutting off road and rail access, but the city was saved through a massive airlift of
essential supplies from the West. This event led to the formation of opposing alliances.

In 1950, the United Nations faced a new challenge in the Far East when North Korean troops,
under Soviet control, invaded South Korea, which was under US control. British troops joined the
United Nations force to defend South Korea, and the war's scale and extent were limited by fear on
both sides. However, this conflict increased Britain's concerns about Soviet intentions and raised
dissatisfaction with the forceful approach of its ally, the United States.

British foreign policy extended beyond the Soviet Union threat and aimed to redefine its role in a
rapidly changing world. It also needed to adapt to evolving relationships with its allies, particularly
the United States, European countries, and members of the Commonwealth—an association of
former British territories.

Britain still perceived itself as a global power, and its confidence was bolstered by significant
technological advancements in the 1950s. These included advancements in space research,
nuclear weapons design, and the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles. Britain's
leadership in nuclear power resulted in the acquisition of nuclear weapons. Additionally, in 1956,
the country constructed the world's first nuclear energy power station.

Overall, during this period, Britain navigated geopolitical challenges, redefined its role on the world
stage, and pursued technological advancements to enhance its military capabilities.

During the years of post-war Britain, Scotland and Wales emerged as significant factors in the
country's political landscape. The Treaty Organization of Western nations and the Warsaw Pact of
the Eastern bloc were established to address global security concerns. In 1950, the United Nations
faced challenges in the Far East as North Korean troops, supported by the Soviet Union, invaded
South Korea, which was under US control. British troops joined the United Nations force to defend
South Korea, but the war's scope was limited due to fear on both sides. Britain grew increasingly
apprehensive about Soviet intentions while becoming dissatisfied with the forceful approach of its
ally, the United States.

British foreign policy extended beyond the Soviet Union threat and focused on adapting to a
rapidly changing world. This included navigating evolving relations with the United States,
European countries, and members of the Commonwealth—an association of former British
territories.

Despite challenges, Britain maintained its perception as a global power and experienced three
significant technological advancements in the 1950s that enhanced its military strength. These
advancements were in space research, nuclear weapons design, and the development of
intercontinental ballistic missiles. Britain's leadership in nuclear power led to the acquisition of
nuclear weapons and the construction of the world's first nuclear energy power station in 1956.

Overall, this period marked the emergence of Scotland and Wales in British politics, the
establishment of international security organizations, and Britain's efforts to adapt to a changing
global landscape while bolstering its military capabilities through technological advancements.

The military and scientific advancements made by Britain brought the country closer to the United
States, both for political and financial reasons. However, in the early 1960s, Britain's interest
shifted towards joining the newly formed European Community (EC). The desire to regain lost
political power on the international stage and actively participate in European politics drove
Britain's interest in joining the Community.

The weakening of Britain's international position became evident during the Suez Crisis in Egypt.
Until 1956, Britain had control over the Suez Canal, but when Egypt decided to take it over, Britain,
along with France and Israel, launched an attack. However, the United States and the rest of the
world strongly disapproved of Britain's actions and forced the withdrawal of British troops from
Egypt. The Suez Crisis shattered Britain's perception of being an equal player in international
relations, particularly with the United States and the Soviet Union. It also led to challenges to
Britain's authority from weaker countries in Asia and Africa, notably the Arab countries. The Suez
Crisis triggered an internal debate within Britain as politicians grappled with defining the country's
new international role following such a humiliating political defeat.

During this period, working people in Britain experienced a significantly improved standard of
living compared to previous years. There was an abundance of employment opportunities,
ensuring that everyone had work. Wages had risen by about 30% since 1939, while prices
remained relatively stable. This increase in income provided people with leisure time and the
means to enjoy themselves.

Weekends became a time for watching football matches in newly constructed stadiums, and
evenings were spent at the cinema. The concept of affordable "holiday camps" emerged, allowing
more people to go on vacations. The production of cars doubled from 1939 to 1950, and by 1960,
car ownership extended beyond the wealthier class to include individuals with lower incomes. This
period was often perceived as a prosperous time in Britain, with one Prime Minister famously
remarking, "You've never had it so good."

Additionally, this era was characterized by the influence and empowerment of youth. Young people
had more disposable income, thanks to improved wages for those entering the workforce. As a
result, they began to shape fashion trends, particularly in clothing and music. The Beatles, with
their internationally renowned music, exemplified the youthful "pop" culture of the 1960s.

The Beatles, hailing from working-class backgrounds in Liverpool, were not just a coincidence. They
embodied the essence of popular culture during their time. As youth culture began to emerge,
young people started questioning authority and challenging the societal norms they had been
raised with. They particularly rebelled against the traditional sexual rules imposed by Christian
society. Some young individuals chose to live together without getting married, a trend that started
with a small percentage but grew to 20% within two decades.
Advancements in birth control methods contributed to the increased openness in sexual behavior.
Divorce also became more accessible, with one in three marriages ending in divorce by 1975,
marking the highest divorce rate in Europe. These societal changes, which older generations found
alarming, earned the label of the "permissive society" from critics. The mini skirt became a
prominent symbol of this permissive age, as it introduced a significantly shorter skirt length than
ever seen before.

However, there were limits to what the permissive society was willing to accept. Two cabinet
ministers, one in 1963 and another in 1983, had to leave the government when their extramarital
sexual relationships became public knowledge. This demonstrated that public disapproval could
still arise unexpectedly and hold strong sway over societal judgments.

By 1985, Britain had lost most of its former colonial possessions, and the few that remained were
being claimed by other countries. Hong Kong was being claimed by China, the Falklands/Malvinas
by Argentina, and Gibraltar by Spain. In response to the Argentinian invasion of the Falklands,
Britain went to war in 1982 to retake the islands. Despite the considerable distance involved,
British forces swiftly recaptured the territory. The operation garnered significant popularity in
Britain, as it seemed to reaffirm the country's status as a global power.

However, the military victory posed challenges for finding a long-term solution and proved to be an
expensive endeavor. The war itself incurred costs amounting to £900 million, but the total expense
of defending the Falklands since 1982 had soared to £3 billion by 1987. The victorious outcome
complicated the resolution of the territorial dispute and burdened Britain with substantial financial
commitments.

Violence has persisted in Northern Ireland, characterized by bomb attacks and shootings carried
out by republican groups. The British army has made efforts to prevent such acts. In 1972, the
Northern Ireland government was removed, and direct rule from London was established. Since
then, Britain has been committed to finding a solution that can satisfy the majority of the
population and bring about peace for all.

In 1985, Britain and Ireland reached a formal agreement known as the Hillsborough Agreement,
which involved regular exchanges of views on Northern Ireland. This agreement faced strong
opposition from Protestant political leaders in the province. However, their inability to halt the
implementation of the Hillsborough Agreement led to a growing challenge from Protestants who
sought to continue the struggle outside of Parliament, potentially resorting to military actions.

In recent times, Britain has faced new social challenges, especially with the influx of immigrants
into the country. While there have been historical instances of large-scale immigration to Britain,
the immigrants were typically Europeans and not markedly different from the native population.
However, in the 1950s, the arrival of the first black immigrants from the West Indies seeking
employment marked a significant change. By 1960, there were 250,000 "coloured" immigrants in
Britain, and tensions between young white individuals and immigrants began to emerge. These
developments highlighted the growing complexities and issues associated with racial and cultural
diversity in British society.

In subsequent years, Asian immigrants began arriving in Britain from India, Pakistan, and East
Africa. These immigrants predominantly settled in impoverished urban areas. Cities such as
Leicester, Wolverhampton, and Bradford saw a significant influx of immigrants, with Leicester's
population consisting of 16 percent immigrants. By 1985, the number of recent immigrants and
their children reached approximately five million, accounting for a considerable portion of the total
population of around fifty-six million. Additionally, nearly half of the black population in Britain by
1985 were born in the country itself. However, there were still segments of the white population
that harbored the notion that black individuals could be sent back to their supposed "home"
countries, despite Britain being their actual home.

During this period, as unemployment rates rose, the new immigrants were sometimes wrongly
blamed for the economic challenges. In reality, immigrants were often willing to take on
undesirable or less desirable jobs in factories, hospitals, and other sectors. The relationship
between black immigrants and the white population in Britain faced difficulties. Black individuals
encountered greater obstacles in securing employment and were often relegated to subpar
housing conditions. The government introduced legislation to address discrimination against black
individuals and also to control the inflow of immigrants to Britain.

In the 1980s, Britain faced a range of challenges, and many people attributed these issues to the
newly elected Conservative government, led by Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. Thatcher's
election in 1979 had been driven by her promise of a fresh start for the country. The need for a
departure from the past had been widely acknowledged for some time. Consequently, the
traditional agreement between the Conservative and Labour parties regarding the guiding
principles of the welfare state had already dissolved.

Within the Conservative Party, there was a notable shift toward the right-wing, while the Labour
Party underwent a similar shift toward the left. Both parties moved farther away from the political
"center" than they had been in recent memory. This ideological divergence fueled a growing
polarization in British politics during that period.

When assessing the present state of Britain, it is crucial to acknowledge the significant advantages
derived from its historical legacy. Few nations can boast such a lengthy tradition of political
stability, stretching back almost uninterrupted to the Norman Conquest. Similarly, few countries
have experienced extended periods of economic prosperity and social welfare to the extent that
Britain has. These historical foundations have played a pivotal role in shaping the country's present
circumstances.