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    Jasonbiology 02

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    中华雅思王

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    Le ae BACCALAUREATE HIGHER LEVEL DEVELOPED SPECIFICALLY FOR THE IB DIPLOMA ALAN DAMON e RANDY McGONEGAL LN Stee tte ieee Cl 15 Gtereepceinny HEINEMANN BACCALAUREATE HIGHER LEVEL (plus stanparo LEVEL OPTIONS) iology DEVELOPED SPECIFICALLY FOR THE IB DIPLOMA ALAN DAMON ¢ RANDY McGONEGAL PATRICIA TOSTO ® WILLIAM WARD www.heinemann.co.uk/ib, / Free online support 7 Useful weblinks ¥ 24 hour online ordering eC INTERNATIONAL, Heinemann isan imprint of Pearson Education Limited, a company incorporated in England and Wales, having its registered ofceat Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex, CM20 2JE. Registered company number; 872828 wowcheinemann.co.uk Heinemann isthe registered tradermark of Pearson Education Limited “Text © Pearson Education Limited 2007 First peblished 2007 1211100908, 198765432 British Library Cataloguing ia Publication Data i availabe fom the British Library on request. (SBN 9780 435994 242 Copyright notice All rights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means (including photocopying or staring itn any medium bby electronic means and whether oF not transiently or incidentally to some other vse ofthis publication) without the writen permission ofthe ‘copyright owner, except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms ofa licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Aen, Saffon House, 6-10 Kirby Sree, London ECIN STS (wwrwica.co,uk). Applications for the copyright owner ite permission should be addressed tothe publisher. Edited by Penelope Lyons Designed by Tony Richardson ‘Typeset by Tech-Set Lid ‘Original usteations © Peasson Education Limited 2007 strated by Tech-Set Ltd Gaver design by Tony Richardson Picture research by Chrissie Martin Cover photo © Getty images Printed in China (SWTCIO2) Acknowledgements ‘The author and publisher woud like to zhank the folowing individual and organisations fr permission to reproduce photographs: © Alamy Images/Enigns p620-top let; © Alamy Images p.558-centre lft © Alan Damon pp. 137, 143-centee,145-cenre, 265, 26, 334-centre, 29, 437tap, 442-10p,92; © Corbis pp. 113, 115-cente, 118, 47-top, 320-ight, 33, 339-Lft,339-right, 342 Let, 342-right, 345, 348 429, 42-bottom, 453: leh, 636, 637-top, 638-botton let, 638. centre et, 38-centre middle, 638-cente right, 639-cente let 63, 644-bottom, 647; © Digital Vision pp. 112,190, 437-bottom le, 449, 453-right, 500; © genome gov pp. 81, 101, 103-top; © Getty lage PhotoDisc pp. 114,116, 124-centre, 135, 145-right, 320“, 327-bottom, 339, 334-bottom, 336,338, 414,417, 418-top, 425, 427, 427-botiom centre, 437-borcom eight, 443,638-top eight, 640-centre right, ‘641 -centre right, 644-t0p, 646-t0p; © Harcourt Education Lt/fan Wedgewood p.639-top let; © iSiockPhoto p.628; © NABA pp. 123, 124-top, 125, 127- bottom, 127-centre, 150; Pau Billitp.-top; © Photolibrary/Phototake.Inep. 85; © Photoscom pp. 522, 58-centre right; © Science Photo Library Dp. I-right,143-top, 61,168, 400,420, 421, 621, 648, 646-bottom,/AB Dowsett p19, Adam Gault p.278, Adam Jones p257, Adrian T Sumner pp. 82,268, Agstocl/Darwin Dale p.-lft,/Alex Rakosy, Custom Medical Stock Photo p.515-bottom right /Alfed Paseka pp 1,37, 61, 63,64, 185-top, 166,180, 590-cente, Anatomical Travelogue pp. 174,609, Andrew ] Martinez p.578-centre,/Andrew Syred p.24), ‘Andy Crump, TOR, WHO p.322, {Ast Wolte p.327-top/Astrid & Hanns-Frieder Michler pp 308, 474-centre, Biology Media pp. 24-bottom centre, 24-bottom right, 295, 255, /uophoto Associates pp. 145, 195-bottom, (71, 300,328,633, JBSIP VEM p623, /BSIP faopiniScienceetV p.189, /CAMR AB Dowset pp. 14, 533, /Ca Purcelp.289, CDCINiaidp.17, ‘Chistian Dakin p.5, (Christina Pedrazini p18, (CNRI pp, 24-t0P, 73, 89,221,283, 303, 393,412,515, CVU Eurelios 1p.547-t0p,D.Philips p.315, David Mack np. 56, 485, (David Park p.102,/David Scharf p.518-top left, /Detiev van Raavessveayp.639-10p right, (Dick ‘Wiersma p59, /Don W Faweest pp. 26-bottom, 175, 641-bottom lef Dr Gopal Murti p.105,/D: Jeremy Burgess pp. 26:00, 48, 228, 248, 250,276,472, '520-top, 567,/Dr Keith Wheeler p17, (De Ken MacDonald pA18-bottom, /ER Degginger p.238, Eye of Science pp. 6,83-hottom 16%, 285,515-top tight, 695, (Gary Caron pp, 12,52-bottom, [Gary Meseatoy p.577, (George Bernard j.584, Gilbert § Grant p.585,JGustoimages p08, /Hyorid Medical ‘Animation p 601, /1 Anderton, Oxford Molecular Biology Laboratory p.382, /lan Boddy p.380, p40, 15M p.606,/IC Revy pp. 66, 70,/et Lepore p 586, ‘im Zipp p78, Hohn Bavosi p81, John Mead pp. 638-bottom right, 639-bottom le, john Paul Kay Peter Arnold Ine. p.331, ohn Reader p.436, jon Ducham p.75, {Jon Lomberg p2-top, Kenneth Eward, Biogratxp.630, (Kent Wood p.474-top,/Laguna Design pp. 58,59, 527, /Lauren Shear p.8 Library of Congress p.637-bottom, /Linda Slannaedp.378, (Martin Bond p'523-Cop, Martin Oldfield, SCUBAZOO p.582,/Martyn FChillmaid p77, ‘Mchau Kulykp-160, (Michael P Gidomskip-L-centt,/Michael W Tweedie p430,Microfeld Scientific Lid p 519, JMSF/Javier Trueba p.644-centre, National Libary of Medicine p9, Nell Borden pp. 292, 352y/Pascal Goetgheluck pp. 83-top, 190, 279,44, 488, [Peter Scoones p.464, Petr lates 2.576, Phantacomix p58, /Photo Insolite Realit p.608, Professor David Hall p52, /Profesor P Motta &T Fajita, University La Sapienza, Rome p617, ‘Professor P Mota, T Fujita & M Muto, Universt'La Sapienza; Rome 615, (Professors P Motta 8 T Neguro p21, /Robert Brook p.537-bottom, Roger Hares pp. 291, 351 Russell kightley pp. 515-bottom lef, 547-bottom, Science Saurce p34, SCIMAT p.72, Scott Camazine pp. 461, 499,502, /Shela ‘Terry pul, (Simon Fraser p.523-bottom,/Sinclae Stammers p53, Sovergn, SM p49, SR Magione p55, /St Mary’s Hospital Medical Schoo} [p.542, /Stephen Ausmus, US Department of Agriceeate p.578-bottom,/Steve Allen pp. 159, 316,620, Steve Gschmessner pp 164,612, /Sue Ford p.497, ‘Nanessa Vick p.537-top, Nolker Steger p.103-botom, /Zephyr p.490;© Shirley Burchill pp, 120, 121, 126-top, 126:bottom, 128, 133, 138, 147-bottom, 148-10p, 148-bottom, 424; B Superstock p.465; © US Dept of Agriculture pp. 98,104, 105; © US Geological Survey pp. 131-op, 3i-ceatre Every effort has been made 10 contact copyright holders of material reproduced inthis book, Any omissions wil be rectified in subsequent notices given tothe publishers, ings if ‘The asessment statements ard various examination questions have been seproduced from 180 documents and past examination papers. Our thanks {go tothe International Baccalaureate Organisation for permission to reproduce it intellectual copyright ‘This material has been developed independently bythe publisher andthe content i in no way connected with nor endorsed bythe International Baccalsareate Organisation. The publishers would lke to thank Sue Bastian for her assistance in the development ofthe Theory of Knowledge chapter in this book. Websites ‘There are links to relevant websites in this book. In arder co ens thatthe links are up-to-date, that the links work, and that the sites are not ‘inadvertent linked to sites that could be considered offensive, we have made the links available onthe Heinemann website at wwww-heinerann. co.uk) Fholinks. When you acces the site, the express code is 42422, e @ Contents Introduction Core topics 1: Statistical analysis Introduction 1.1 Statistics Practice questions 2: Cells Introduction ¥2.1 Cell theory ¥ 2.2 Prokaryotic cells V 2.3 Eukaryotic cells, 2.4 Membranes 2.5 Cell division Practice questions 3: The chemistry of life Introduction 3.1 Chemical elements and water 3.2 Carbohydrates, lipids and proteins 3.3 DNA structure 3.4 DNA replication 3.5 Transcription and translation 3.6 Enzymes 3.7 Cell respiration 3.8 Photosynthesis Practice questions 4: Genetics 1 Introduction 4.1 Chromosomes, genes, alleles and mutations 4.2 Meiosis 4.3 Theoretical genetics 4.4 Genetic engineering and biotechnology Practice questions vill 10 12 12 12 16 19 29 38 43 46 46 46 49 55 58 60 66 69 74 79 81 81 81 84 90 100 110 Contents —___ 5: Ecology and evolution 112 Introduction 12 5.1 Communities and ecosystems 12 5.2 The greenhouse effect 122 5.3 Populations 130 4 Evolution 134. 5.5 Classification 142 Practice questions 150 6: Human health and physiology 1 151 Introduction 151 6.1 Digestion 151 6.2 The transport system 157 6.3 Defence against infectious disease 162 6.4 Gas exchange 168 6.5 Nerves, hormones and homeostasis 173, 6.6 Reproduction 185 Practice questions 191 HL topics 7: Nucleic acids and proteins 193 Introduction 193 7.1 DNA structure 193 7.2 DNA replication 197 7.3 Transcription 201 7.4 Translation 203 7.5 Proteins 206 7.6 Enzymes 210 Practice questions 214 8: Cell respiration and photosynthe 217 Introduction 217 8.1 Cell respiration 217 8.2 Photosynthesis 227 Practice questions 237 9: Plant science 238 Introduction 238 9.1 Plant structure and growth 238 9.2 Transport in Angiospermophytes 246 9.3 Reproduction in Angiospermophytes 256 Practice questions 262 10: Genetics 2 265 Introduction 265 10.1 Meiosis 265 10.2 Dihybrid crosses and gene linkage 272 10.3 Polygenic inheritance 278 Practice questions 282 11: Human health and physiology 2 283 Introduction 283 11.1 Defence against infectious disease 263 11.2 Muscles and movement 290 11.3 The kidney 299 11.4 Reproduction 306 Practice questions 317 Options for SL 12 (Option A}: Human nutrition and health 320 Introduction 320 A.1 Components of the human diet 321 A2 Energy in human diets 332 A3 Special issues in human nutrition 342 Practice questions 349 13 (Option B): Physiology of exercise 350 Introduction 350 B.1 Muscles and movement 350 B.2 Training and the pulmonaty system 359 B.3 Training and the cardiovascular system 362 B.4 Exercise and respiration 367 B.5 Fitness and training 372 B.6 Injuries 377 Practice questions 379 14 (Option ©): Calis and energy 382 Introduction 382 C.l Proteins 382 C.2 Enzymes 386 C.3 Cell respiration 390 C4 Photosynthesis 400 Practice questions 410 Contents 17 (Option F): Micr (Option D): Evolution Core (SL and HL) Introduction D.1 Origin of life on Earth D.2 Species and speciation D3 Human evolution Extension (HL only) D4 The Hardy-Weinberg principle D.5 Phylogeny and systematics Practice questions tion E): Neurobiology and behaviour Core (SL and HL) Introduction E.1 Stimulus and response E.2 Perception of stimuli E.3 Innate and learned behaviour Ed Neurotransmitters and synapses Extension (HL only) E.5 The human brain -6 Further studies of behaviour Practice questions and Biotechnology Core (SL and HL) Introduction E.1 Diversity of microbes F.2 Microbes and the environment E3 Microbes and biotechnology Fd Microbes and food production Extension (HL only) E.5 Metabolism of microbes £6 Microbes and disease Practice questions 18 (Option G): Ecology and conservation Core (SL and HL) Introduction 444 448 458 461 461 465 471 481 489 499 505 510 510 511 519 525 529 552 G.1 Community ecology G.2 Ecosystems and biomes G.3 Impact of humans on ecosystems Extension (HL only) G4 Conservation of biodiversity G.5 Population ecology Practice questions Option for HL 19 (Option H): Further human physiology Introduction H.1 Hormonal control H.2 Digestion H.3 Absorption of digested foods H4 Functions of the liver HLS The transport system H.6 Gas exchange Practice questions 20 Theory of knowledge Advice for IB biology students on internal assessment Advice for IB students on extended essays in biology Advice for IB biology students on examination strat uestions Answers to exercises and pract Index 553 562 972 582 589 601 601 601 605 oil 614 618 627 635 636 648 650 652 655 703 @ Introduction Welcome to your new course! This book is designed to act as a comprehensive course book, covering both the core material and all the options you might take while studying for the IB Diploma in Biology. It will also help you to prepare for your examinations in a thorough and methodical way. Content ‘As you will see when you look at the table of contents, there is a chapter for each of the core topics, another for each of the HL topics and another for each of the options you might choose to take. Within each chapter, at the end of each numbered section, there are numbered exercises for you to practise and apply the knowledge which you have gained. They will also help you to assess your progress. Sometimes, there are worked examples which show you how to tackle a particularly tricky or awkward question. Here is an example Worked example a Compare two groups of barnacles living on a rocky shore, Measure the width of their shells to see if a significant size difference is found depending on how close they live to the water. One group lives between ® and 10 metres from th level. The second group lives between 10 and 20 metres above the water level water Measurement as taken of the width of the shells in millimetres. 15 shells were measured from each group. The mean of the group closer to the water indicates that living closer to the water causes the barnacles to have a larger shell. 1f the value of ris 2.25, is that a significant difference? Solution The degree of freedom is 28 (15 + 15 — 2.25's just above 2.05. = 28), / Referring to the bottom of this column in the table, p = 0.05 so the probability that chance alone could produce that result is only 5%. The confidence level is 959, We are 95% confident that the difference between the barnacles is significant. Barn: shell than those living 10 metres or more away from the water. les living nearer the water have a significantly larger At the end of each chapter, there are practice questions taken from past exam papers. These also include a markscheme. Towards the end of the book, just before the index, you will find pages with suggested answers to all the exercises and practice questions that have been included. The answers are grouped into Exercises and Practice questions for each chapter. | Afier the options chapters, you will find a Theory of Knowledge chapter, which should stimulate wider research and the consideration of moral and ethical issues in the field of biology. Finally, there are three short chapters offering advice on internal assessment, on ‘writing extended essays, and on developing examination strategies. Information boxes ‘Throughout the book you will see a number of coloured boxes interspersed through each chapter. Bach of these boxes provides different information and stimulus as follows, Assessment statements 2.1.1 Outline the cell theory. 2.1.2 _ Discuss the evidence for the cell theory. 2.1.3 State that unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life. You will find a box like this at the start of each section in each chapter. They are the numbered objectives for the section you are about to tead and they set out what content and aspects of learning are covered in that section. 6 In addition to the Theory of ‘nirilel were On Ria a Knowledge chapter, there are TOK ‘been passed down generation after pooellnranpaaaegc 5 boxes throughout the book. These «someone sa can ould hey boxes are there to stimulate thought have chicken knowing tht they might and consideration of any TOK issues ee as they arise and in context. Often Weak velit eae they will just contain a question to «+ How mia parents et when they Find stimulate your own thoughts and coutthey have passed the gene ono discussion thelr ofpring? «stele for people who have genetic diseases to nd someone ‘marry? Alob? Life insurance? ‘These boxes contain interesting information which will add to your wider knowledge but which does not fit within the main body of the text. ‘These are key facts which are drawn out of the main text and highlighted This makes them easily identifiable for quick reference. The boxes also enable you to identify the core learning points within a section. Introduction = “To what degree co you think the following ae factors in malnuttion? ‘© poverty and wealth: ‘+ cultural lfferences concerning dietary Preference; ‘© climatic conditions fs. anual aint); ‘© poor distribution of fod the Insufficient roads, bridges ratways) ‘© anomadic lifestyle; ars: «© corrupt poltilans misusing agriculture ‘raid money, «= lack of healthcare leacing toa cycle of disease and poverty. Examiner's hint: When showing crosses and offspring, dort forget to Include such important details as «© genotypes ofthe parents 4 3 key of what the letters mean {although many questions state this; shenotypes ofthe offspring: + ales found inthe gametes. A global perspective is important to the International Baccalaureate, ‘These boxes indicate examples of internationalism within the area of study. The information given offers you the chance to think about how biology fits into the global landscape. The boxes also cover environmental and political issues raised by biology. Examiner's hints can be found alongside questions, exercises and worked examples. They provide insight into how to answer a question in order to achieve the highest marks in an examination. They also identify common pitfalls when answering, ‘such questions and suggest approaches that examiners like to see. ‘These boxes direct you to the Heinemann website, which in am will take you to the relevant website(s). On the web pages you will find background information to support the topic, perhaps video simulations and the like. Now you are ready to start. Good luck with your studies! @ Statistical analysis @ Introduction ‘This mixed oak forests armature stage inthe development of plant communities surounding ‘bodies of water. Studying the growth rate of the tees such as maple, beech, oak and hickory ‘gives us evidence ofthe health ofthese plant communities. v a “This isan Aficanized honey bee (AH), |AHBs have spread tothe USA from Braz ‘They te nowin competition with the local bee population, which ae European honey bees (HE). EHBS were brought to America by European colonists in the 1600s, ABs are now out-competing Bsn areas the formes invade, A isis the common bean plant used by ‘many students in ther dasstooms Bean plants grow in about 30 days under banks of artificial ight Seeds are e350 obtain, Germinated seeds can be placed in paper cupswithsterlized soll Many factors can In this chapter, you will learn how scientists analyse the evidence they collect, be tested to determine whether or not they when they perform experiments. You will be designing your own experiments, so _affet the rowth ofthe bean pants this information will be very useful to you. You will be learning about: * means; © standard deviation; © error bars; ‘© significant difference; © tests '* causation and correlation. Have your calculator by you to practise calculations for standard deviation and t-test so that you can use these methods of analysing data when you do your own experiments. @ Statistics Assessment statements 1.1.1. State that error bars are a graphical representation of the variability of data, 1.1.2 Calculate the mean and standard deviation of a set of values. 1.1.3. State that the term standard deviation is used to summarize the spread of values around the mean, and that 68% of values fall within one standard deviation of the mean. 1.1.4 Explain how the standard deviation is useful for comparing the means and spread of data between two or more samples. 1.1.5. Deduce the significance of the difference between two sets of data using calculated values for t and the appropriate tables. 1.1.6 Explain that the existence of a correlation does not establish that there is €@ causal relationship between two variables. Statistical analysis = Satstiescan beusedtodescibe Standard deviation We use standard deviation to semmarize the spread of values around the mean and to compare the means and spread of data between two or more samples. ‘Summarizing the spread of values around the mean In a normal distribution, about 68% of all values lie within *1 standard deviation of the mean, This rises to about 95% for 2 standard deviations from the mean. ‘To help understand this difficult concept, let’s look back to the bean plants growing in sunlight and shade, First, the bean plants in the sunlight: suppose our sample is 100 bean plants. Of that 100 plants, you might guess that a few will be very short (maybe the soil they ar¢ in is slightly sandier). A few may be much taller than the rest (possibly the soil they are in holds more water). However, all ‘we can measure is the height of a the bean plants growing in the sunlight. If we then plot a graph of the heights, the graph is likely to be similar to a bell curve (see Figure 1.3). In this graph, the number of bean plants is plotted on the y axis and the heights ranging from short to medium to tall are plotted on the x axis Many data sets do not have a distribution which is this perfect. Sometimes, the bell-shape is very flat. This indicates that the data is spread out widely from the ‘mean, In some cases, the bell-shape is very tall and narrow. This shows the data is very close to the mean and not spread out ‘The standard deviation tells us how tightly the data points are clustered around the mean. When the data points are clustered together, the standard deviation is, small; when they are spread apart, the standatd deviation is large. Calculating the standard deviation of a data set is easily done on your calculator. Look at Figure 1.4. This graph of normal distribution may help you understand what standard deviation really means, The dotted area represents one standard deviation in either direction from the mean. About 68% of the data in this graph is located in the dotted area. Thus, we say that for normally distributed data, 668% of all values lie within +1 standard deviation from the mean, Two standard deviations from the mean (the dotted and the cross-hatched areas) contain about 95% of the data. If this bell curve were flatter, the standard deviation would have to be larger to account for the 68% or 95% of the data set. Now you can see why standard deviation tells you how widespread your data points are from the mean of the data set. How is this useful? For one thing, it tells you how many extremes are in the data. If there are many extremes, the standard deviation will be large; with few extremes the standard deviation will be small. 4 Figure 1.4 This graph shows normal ation key 1 standard ho a — Fordrectons onhowto cake standard deviation with aTH86 Be astandara calculator visit heinemanncouky prknyrtic cel kv. Cell theory SN cating coal Batceerty Theories are developed ater It has taken several hundred years of research to formulate modern cell theory. the accumulation of much data Many scientists have contributed to developing the three main principles of this ‘Sometimes, theories are completely abandoned because ofconficting theory. These are: evidence © all organisms are composed of one or more cells; » cells are the smallest units of life; © all cells come from pre-existing cells. ‘This theory has amassed tremendous credibility, largely through use of the microscope — an important tool. Robert Hooke first described cells in 1665 while fee ena livin. They ean nokcay cathe obsesving cork with a microscope he built himself. A few years later, Antonie van Poe Leeuwenhoek observed the ist living clls and referred to them as‘animaleules, Howeve hey do tie cls to ‘meaning little animals. In 1838, botanist Mathias Schleiden stated that plants are Papert thems ‘made of ‘independent, separate beings’ called cells, One year later, the zoologist ‘Theodor Schwann made a similar statement about animals, ‘The second principle continues to gain support today, as we have not been able to find any living entity that is not made of at least one cell. Some very famous scientists, such as Louis Pasteur in the 1860s, have performed experiments to support the last principle. After sterilizing chicken broth by boiling, Pasteur showed that living organisms would not ‘spontaneously’ reappear, Only after exposure to pre-existing cells was life able to re-establish itself in the sterilized chicken broth, Functions of life All organisms exist in either a unicellular or a multicellular form, And all ~ organisms carry out all the functions of life, These functions include: Penne ee © metabolism; #9 (Cheprnt vesctms) typeset oxgarom ttle © gr00t on pak protein. foxms mainte same general © reproduction; functions © response; aa penct te GHwulas SEBE You may se cient tems for © homeostasis; PYRE ange als fron plots) these functions in ether sources. © nutrition. energy { protats / mivarel / Vitwmin All these functions are tied together to produce a functioning living unit. © Metabolism includes all the chemical reactions that occur within an organism. © Growth may be limited but is always evident in one way or another. ‘© Reproduction involves hereditary molecules that can be passed to offspring. «Response tothe environment is imperative tothe survival of the organism. = Homeostasis refers to maintaining a constant internal environment. Examples of constant internal environments may involve temperature and acid~base levels. «Nutrition is all about providing a source of compounds with many chemical bonds which can be broken to provide the organism with the energy and the ‘nutrients necessary to maintain life. Cells and sizes Calls are made up of a number of different subunits. These subunits are often of particular size, but all are microscopically small. In most cases, microscopes with high magnification and resolution are needed to observe cells and especially their subunits. Resolution refers to the clarity of a viewed object. Cells Most cells are upto 100 micrometres; organelles safe up to 10 micrometres. Bacteria ateup 10 1 micrometre, ‘ruses ae up to 100 nanometes, Membranes are 10 nanometves thick ane molecules are near | nanomete. ‘Allof these objects arethree- dimensional Drawings or photograpis are often enlarged. To csleulate the ‘magnification, you seed this formula: ‘© magnification = sizeof mage Aided by sizeof specimen. ‘Sphere formulas: + surface area = founiaiadius squared) = ar ‘© volume = four thirdsipnadius 6 Light microscopes use light, which passes through the living or dead specimen, to form an image. Stains may be used to improve viewing of parts. Electron microscopes provide us with the greatest magnification (over 100 000x) and resolution. These use electrons passing through a specimen to form an image. It is hard to understand or visualize very small sizes, so it is important to appreciate relative size. Cellgare.yelat e, and then in decreasing size order are: . veel < ae nde © bacteria; SC mht wll) ° e viTuses; pratate + BRAWA a ose 5 olesules (O60) meraty Mame in If you want to calculate the actual sit ofa specimen seen with #microstOpe, you need to know the diameter of the microscope’s field of vision. This may be calculated with a special micrometer or with a simple ruler on a light microscope. The size of the specimen can then be calculated in the field. Scale bars are often used with a micrograph or drawing so that actual size can be determined ge Sele eran rotte SA: boo” a _ Ve vent Limiting cell size Cham 5p. So, the cell isa small object. You may wonder why cells do not grow to larger sizes, especially since growth is one of the functions of life. There is a factor called the surface area to volume ratio that effectively limits the size of cells. In the cell, the rate of heat and waste production and rate of resource consumption are functions of (depend on) its volume. Most of the chemical reactions occur in the interior of the cell and its size affects the rate of these reactions. The surface of the cell, the membrane, contzols what materials move in and out of the cell surface area per unit volume are able to move more materials in and out of the cell, for each unit volume of the cell. Cells with more As the width of an object such as a cell increases, the surface area also increases but at a much slower rate than the volume. This is shown by the following table in which you can see that the volume increases by a factor calculated by cubing, the radius: at the same time, the surface area increases by a factor calculated by squaring the radius. Geliradus( | 0.25 units | OSunits | 1.25 unis | Surface area 0.79 units | 3.14 units | 7.07 units Volume 0.06 units | 0.52 units | 1.77 units | ‘Surface area : volume 13.17 a 6.04:1 3.99 1 | ‘This means that @ large cell has relatively less surface area to bring in needed materials and to rid the cell of waste, than a small cell, Because of this cells are limited as to the size they can attain and stil be able to carry out the functions oF life. Thus, large animals do not have larger cells, they have more cells. Cells that are larger in size have modifications that allow them to function efficiently, This is accomplished by shape changes such as from spherical to long and thin. Also, some larger cells have infoldings or outfoldings to increase their surface relative to their volume. Cell reproduction and differentiation (One of the functions that many cells retain is the ability to reproduce themselves, In multicellular organisms, this allows the possibility of growth. It also allows far the replacement of damaged or dead cell. ‘Multiceifular organisms like ourselves usually start out ‘asa single cell after some type of sexual reproduction. This single cell has the ability to reproduce at a very rapid rate, and the resulting cells then go through a differentiation process to produce all the required cell types that are necessary for the well-being of the ‘organism, The number of different cell types from the one original cell may indeed be staggering. This differentiation process is che result of the expression of “ ee 299 cll fertized during in vivo certain specific genes but not others. Genes, segments of ferizaton and now undergoing te fist coll chson DNA on a chromosome, allow for the production of all the different cells in the organism. Therefore, each cell contains all the genetic information for the production of the complete organistn. However, each cell becomes a specific type of cell dependent on which DNA segment becomes active. Some cells have a greatly, or even completely, diminished ability to reproduce once they become specialized. Nerve and muscle cells are prime examples of this type of cell. Other cells, such as epithelial ceils like skin, retain the ability to rapidly reproduce throughoat their life. The offspring of these rapidly reproducing cells then differemtiate into the same cell type as the parent. Afperentiette. Stem cells TH gpeerelned calf There are populations of cells within organisms that retain their ability to divide and differentiate into various cell types. These cells are called stem cells. Plants contain such cells in regions of meristematic tissue. Meristematic areas ‘occur near root and stem tips and are composed of rapidly reproducing cells that produce new cells capable of becoming various types of tissue within the root ar stem, Gardeners take advantage of these cells when they take cutiags from stems fF roots and use them to produce new plants. In the early 1980s, scientists found pluripotent or embryonic stem cells in mice. ‘These stem cells retain the ability to form any type of cell in an organism and can. even form a complete organism. When stem cells divide to form a specific type of tissue, they also produce some cells that remain as stem cells. This allows for the continual production of a particular type of tissue. Medical experts immediately noted the possibilities of such cells in treating certain human diseases. But a problem discovered early in the research was that stem cells cannot be distinguished by their appearance. They can only be isolated from other cells on the basis of their behaviour. Stem cell research and treatments ‘Some of the most promising research recently has been directed towards growing large numbers of embryonic stem» zets in culture so that they could be used to Cells —__ Internationally there has been ‘much sharing of data invatiing stem cel research, Many nations have banned or limited research in this area due tolocal, cultural ant ‘elgioustraditions ‘Where do you stand in the debate ‘bout the nature of stem cell research! How do you feel about the soure of pluripotent stem calst } replace differentiated cells lost due to injury and disease. This involves therapeutic cloning, Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer’s disease are caused by loss of brain cells, and it is hoped that implanted stem cells could replace many of these lost brain cells thus relieving the disease symptoms. Certain forms of diabetes deplete the pancreas of essential cells and itis hoped that a stem cell implant in this organ could have positive effects. As most of the research at present is accutring in mice, it is likely to be quite a time before this treatment approach becomes possible in Iumans, However, there is 4 type of stem cell treatment that has been proceeding successfully in humans for many years. Besides enrbtyonic or pluripotent stem cells, there are tissue-specific stem cells. These stem cells reside in certain tissue types and can only produce new cells of that particular tissue. For example, blood stem cells have been routinely introduced into humans to replace the damaged bone marrow of some leukaemia patients ‘There are important ethical issues involved in stem cell research. Especially controversial isthe use of embryonic or pluripotent stem cells. This is because ‘these cells come ftom embryos often obtained from laboratories carrying out -vitro fertilization (LE). To gather these cells involves death of the embryo and opponents argue that this represents the taking of a human life. On the other hand, it is argued that this research could result in the significant reduction of human suffering and is, therefore, otally acceptable. = How the scientiic community convey inforration concesing ts research fo wider society 's very important. This information must be accurate, complete and understandable so that society can make informed decisions ast the appropriateness ofthe research, For example, In.2005, ste ces successfully helped to restoe the lost insulation oFnerve cells in rats thus sesulting in greater mobility ofthe animals. ‘ur there sa need to balance the very areat opportunities of this type of esearch with the potential sk. For example, there I recent evidence that some types of cancer may be caused by stem cells undergoing & malignant transformation This shows possible risk inthe Implantation of tem cel 11 How would the excretion of metabolic wastes from cells be elated to the concept of surface ‘tea to volume ratio? Name two disadvantages of using an election microscope. ows des specialization in muscle and nerve ces affect their ail to reproduce? What would prevent ste cel ftom other species being successfulin humans? @® Prokaryotic cells Assessment statements 2.2.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of Escherichia coli {E. coll as an example of a prokaryote 2.2.2 Asnotate the diagram with the functions of each named structure. 2.2.3 Identify structures from 2.2.1 in electron micrographs of E. coli. 2.2.4 State that prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission. What is a prokaryotic cell? After exhaustive studies of cells itis apparent that al cells use common molecular mechanisms. There are huge differences between the forms of life but cells are the basic unit of life and have many characteristics in common, Cells are often divided into certain groups based on major characteristics. One such grouping divides cells into two groups: prokaryotic and eukaryotic, Prokaryotic cells are much smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells. In fact, most prokaryotic cells are less than 1 micrometre in diameter. Because of this and many other reasons to be discussed later, the prokaryotic cells are thought to have appeared on Earth first. As bacteria are prokaryotic cells, ou can see that such cells play a large role in the world today. Features of prokaryotic cells Study Figure 2.1 and be sure you can identify: the cell walls—w Soma Comppatt & protect) the plasma membrane; = aght wamtinne, » out tetas flagella; WLC pamenaeke) nk ote ribosomes; ARMS Crche pevinin) the pucleoid (a region containing free DNA). capsule cytoplasm. fibosomes cell wall plasmid = ‘The word prokaryotic‘ rom the Greek ro, which means before ‘and karyon, which means kernel ‘refering tothe nucleus. @ Examiner's hint: Pacise drawing 2 typical pokaryott cell Label clearly allthe parts stotedin the text. Once you have completed the drawing 3 labelling, annotate che diagram with the functions ofeach named stucture, 4 Fgure21 Tiss 3 fe colour scanning eecton mcogaph Sea of the bacterium Eichetcha al Blow 52

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