This chapter covers:

■ the d ifferences between physical an d chemic�! changes

■ how to write word and chemical equ ations
■ the different types of chemical reaction
■ the defi nition of oxidation and reduction
■ how to use state symbols in an equation
■ the writing of ionic equations
■ electricity and chemistry - conductivity of metals
■ electrolysis
■ oxid ising agents, reduci ng agents an d redox reactions.

C4.0l Chemical reactions and Physical change

equations
The Chinese character for chemistry literally means
'change study' (Figure C4.0l). Chemistry deals with how
substances react with each other. Chemical reactions
range from the very simple through to the interconnecting
reactions that keep our bodies alive.
But what is a chemical reaction? How does it differ from a
simple physical change?
Ice, snow and water may look different, but they are all
made of water molecules (H2 O). They are different phy 11
forms of the same substance - water - existing under
different conditions of temperature and pressure. On
form can change into another if those conditions char 1:
In such changes, no new chemical substances are forn 11 ,
Dissolving sugar in ethanol or water is another exampl( •
of a physical change. It produces a solution, but the
substances can easily be separated again by distillatio1 1
 1 1 1 1 c C4.0l The C h i nese sym bols for 'cha nge'.

t w, is what we know a b o u t physical changes:

In a physical cha nge, the su bstances present remain

chemically the same: no new su bsta nces are formed.
l'hysical changes a re often easy to reverse. Any
mixtu res produced a re usually easy to separate.

I I mical change
1 11 1 1 m a gnesi u m b u rns in oxygen ( I m a ge C4.0l), t h e
11 11 1 • sh p rod u ced is a n e w s u bsta n ce - the com po u n d,
1 1 1 s i u m oxide. B u r n i n g m agnesi u m p ro d u ces a Image C4.02 Glow-in-the-dark bracelets. Glow
, 1 1 11,int wh ite fla me. E nergy is given out i n the fo rm of
11 nd light. The rea ction is an exothermic change.
11 c m b i n ation of the two e l e ments, m agnesi u m
1 1 I xygen , to fo rm the new c o m p o u n d i s d iffic u lt to
bracelets are single-use, see-through, plastic tu bes
conta i n i n g isolated chemicals. When the tube is
squeezed, a glass partition keeping the chemicals
apart breaks, and a reaction ta kes place that
■
1 . Some other c h e m i c a l reactions, such a s th ose produ ces chem iluminescence.
l l 1 1orescent 'glow bracelets' ( I m a ge (4.02), p rod u ce
1
1

h milu min escence. They give o u t energy i n the

D u ri n g the reaction betwee n n itrogen a n d oxygen to
1 1 1 1 of light.
m a ke n it roge n mo noxide, heat ene rgy is taken in fro m
the s u r ro u n d i ngs. The rea ction is a n endothermic
c h a n ge. Such reactio n s a re m u ch less co m m o n t h a n
exot h e r m i c ones.

T h is i s what we know a b o u t chemical changes:

The major feature of a chemical change, or reaction, is

that new su bstance(s) are made du ri ng the reaction.
■
■ M a ny reactions, but not a l l of them, a re d ifficult to
reverse.
D u ring a chemical reaction, energy ca n be given
out o r ta ken i n :
■
• when energy is given out, the reaction
is exothermic
• when energy is taken i n, the reaction
is endothermic.
There a re m a ny more exothermi c reactions than
endothermi c reactions.
■

1111111 e C4.0l M agnesi u m burns strongly in oxygen .

 QU ESTI O N S

C4.0l State whether the fol lowing changes are physical

or chemical:
a the melting of ice
b the burning of magnesiu m
c the su blimation of solid carbon dioxide
d the dissolving of sugar in water.
C4.02 State whether the following changes are
exothermic or endothermic:
a the condensation of steam to water
b the burning of magnesium
c the addition of concentrated sulfuric acid
to water
d the evaporation of a volatile liquid.
C4.03 What is the most important thing that shows us
that a chemical reaction has taken place?

I mage (4.03 The decom position of ammonium

dichromate - the 'vo lcano reaction' - produces heat, ligh
and an apparently large amount of powd er.
C4.02 Equations for chemical
reactions
The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen is another
When some chemical reactions occur, it is obvious that
highly exothermic reaction. The reaction has been used I
'som ething has happened'. But this is not the case for
fuel rockets, most notably the now-retired Space Shut t I,
others. When a solid explosive reacts to produce large
Large tanks beneath the'.Shuttle contained liquid hydr
amounts of gas products, the rapid expansion may
and oxygen. In 1986, cracked rubber seals on the fuel i 1 1 1
blast the surroundings apart. The volcano reaction, in
o f the shuttle Challenger caused a catastrophic explo ior
which am monium dichromate is decomposed, gives out
and loss of life. The word equation for this reaction is:
a large amount of energy and produces nitrogen gas
(I mage (4.03). Other reactions produce gases much less hydrogen + oxygen ➔ water
violently. The neutralisation of an acid solution with an Note that, although a large amount of energy is produ
alkali produces no change that you can see. However, a in this reaction, it is not included in the equation.
reaction has happened. The temperature of the mixture An equation includes only the chemical substances
increases, and new substances have formed which can be involved, and energy is not a chemical substance.
separated and purified.
This type of equation gives us some information. But
equations can be made even more useful if we write
Word equations
them using chemical formulae.
We can write out descriptions of chemical reactions, but
these would be q uite long. To understand and group
Balanced symbol equations
similar reactions together, it is useful to have a shorter way
From investigations of a large number of different ch r n
of describing them. The simplest way to do this is in the
form of a word equation.
reactions, a very important point about all reactions I i
been discovered. It i s sum med up in a law, known a s I l l
This type of equation links together the names of the law of conservation of mass.
substances that react (the reactants) with those of
the new substances formed (the products). The word

law of conservation of mass: the total mass of all the prod

quation for burning magnesium in oxygen would be:

m agnesium + oxygen ➔ magnesium oxide of a chemical reaction is equal to the total mass of all the r a
reactants product

htl ge C4.04 a A balloon fi lled with hyd rogen a n d oxygen
h ignited spectacu la rly.
h matter how spectacu lar the reaction, this statement is
lways true - though it is easier to col lect all the prod u cts
11 •,ome cases than in others!
1Iii im porta nt law becomes clear if we consider what
Ii ppening to the atoms and m olecu les invo lved in a
, I tion. During a chemical reaction, the atoms of one
l1 1 rnent a re not changed i nto those of another element.
j, 1 do atoms d isappear from the m ixtu re, o r a ppear
" in nowhere. A reaction i nvolves the brea king of some
1 1nds between atoms, and then the making of new
, 1nds between atoms to give the new prod u cts. D u ring
, Ii mica I reaction, some of the atoms present 'change
11 I ners', sometimes spectacula rly (Image C4.04).
1 1k more closely at Figure C4.02:
hydrogen + oxygen ➔ water
1I i molecule of water (formula H 2 O) contains only one
vi , n atom (O). It follows that one molecule of oxygen
1 ) has enough oxygen atoms to produce two molecu les
I w, 1ter (H 2O). Therefore, two molecu les of hyd rogen
I ) will be needed to provide enough hyd rogen atoms
I) I react with each oxygen molecule. The n u m bers of
, I, gen and oxygen atoms a re then the same o n both
11 ' , of the equation.
11 • ymbol eq uation for the reactio n between hyd rogen
11 I < xygen is therefore w ritten:
2H 2 + 02 ➔ 2H 2 O
J,, a ba lanced equ ation. The n u m bers of each type
1 1 1 rn a re the same on both the reactant side and the
II
i
111 t 4.02 The reactio n between hyd rogen a n d
1 n molecu les.
1
hydrogen + oxygen
2H 2 + 02
Figu re C4.03 Summary of the reaction between hyd rogen
a n d oxygen .
p ro d u ct side of the eq uation: fou r hyd rogen atoms a n d
two oxygen atoms on each side (Figure C4.03).
Writing ba lanced equations
A bala nced eq uation gives us more information a bout a
reactio n than we ca n get from a simple word eq uation.
Below is a step-by-step approach to working out the
bala nced equation for a reaction.
WORKED EXAMPLE C4.0l
What is the balanced equation for the reaction
between magnesium and oxygen?
Step 1: Make sure you know what the reactants and
products are. For exa mple, magnesium burns
in air (oxygen) to form magnesium oxide.
Step 2: From this you can write out the word equation:
magnesium + oxygen ➔ magnesium oxide
Step 3: Write out the eq uation using the formu lae of
the elements and com pounds:
Mg + O2 ➔ MgO
Remember that oxygen exists as diatomic
molecules. This equation is not balanced:
there are two oxygen atoms on the left, but
only one on the right.
Step 4: Balance the eq uation:
2Mg + 02 ➔ 2MgO
We can not a lter the formulae of the su bsta nces i nvolved
in the reaction. These a re fixed by the bonding in the
su bstance itself. We can o n ly put m u ltiplyi ng n u m bers in
front of each formula w here necessary.
Chem ica l reactions do n ot o n ly i nvolve elements reacti ng
together. In most reactio ns, compounds a re i nvolved.
Fo r exa mple, potassium metal is very reactive and gives
hyd rogen gas when it comes into contact with water.

I mage C4.05 Potassi u m reacts strongly with water to
prod uce hyd rogen.
Potassium reacts with water to prod uce potassium
hydroxide and hydrogen (Image (4.05). All the alkali metals
do this. So, if you know one of these reactions, you know
them all. In fact, you could learn the general equation:
alkali metal + water ➔ metal hydroxide + hydrogen
Therefore:
potassium + wate r ➔ potassium hydroxide + hydrogen
Then:
K + H 2 O ➔ KOH + H 2
This symbol equation needs to be balanced. An even
number of H atoms is needed on the prod uct side,
because on the reactant side the hydrogen occurs as H 2 0.
Therefore, t h e amount of KOH must be dou bled. T h en the
nu m ber of potassium atoms and water molecules must be
dou bled on the left
2K + 2H 2 O ➔ 2 KOH + H 2
This equation is now balanced . Check for yourself that
the numbers of the three types of atom are the same on
both sid es.
TIP
It is important to remember that you cannot cha nge the
form u lae of the substances themselves when balancing
equations. These a re fixed by the nature of the atoms and
their bonding.
The only things that you can cha nge when balancing are
the num bers in front of the formulae.
QUESTIONS
C4.04 Write word equations for the reas;ttons described
/ '
below.
a Iron rusts because it reacts with oxygen in the
air to form a com pound called iron(111) oxide.
b Sodiu m hydroxide neutralises sulfuric acid to
form sodiu m sulfate and water.
c Sodium reacts strongly with water to give a
solution of sodiu m hydroxide; hydrogen gas is
also given off.
C4.05 Copy out and balance the following equations:
a . . . Cu + 02 ➔ . . . CuO
b N2 + . . . H2 � . . . N H 3
C . . . Na + 02 ➔ . . . Na2 O
d . . . NaOH + H 2 SO4 ➔ Na2 SO4 + . . . H 2O
e . . . Al + . . . Cl2 ➔ . . . AICl3
f . . . Fe + . . . H 2O ➔ . . . Fe3O4 + . . . H 2
C4.03 Types of chemical
reaction
T h ere are very many different chemical reactions.
To make sense of them, it is useful to try to group
certain types of reaction together. These types do
not cover all reactions; and some reactions, such as
red ox reactions, may fit into more than one category.
Organic reactions such as polymerisation have been
left until later chapters.
Synthesis and decomposition
It is possible to distinguish reactions in wh ich complex
compounds are built from simpler su bstances
(synthesis) from those where the reverse happens
(decomposition).
Synthesis (or direct combination) reactions occur whe11•
two or more su bstances react together to form just on
prod uct. The reaction between iron and sulfur is an
example of this (Image C4.06):
iron + sulfur ➔ iron(11) sulfide
Fe + S FeS
➔
H eat is req uired to start the reaction but, once started,
it continues exothermically.
M ost synthesis reactions are exothermic. However,
there is one very important synthesis reaction,
which is endothermic: namely photosynthesis.
 Neutralisation and precipitation
S a lts are a useful type of chemical compound that we will
meet in detail in Chapter CS. A few salts, mainly chlorides,
bromides and iodides, can be made by synthesis (di rect
combination) as mentioned above. The majority have to
be made either by neutralisation or by precipitation.

N eutralisation reactions involve acids. When acids react

neutralised and a salt is produced. Such reactions are

with bases or alkalis, their acidity is destroyed. They are

known as neutralisation reactions. An example is:

H2 SO4 + CuO ➔ CuSO4 + H2 O

+ base ➔
h11,1 e C4.06 The synthesis reaction between
acid salt + water

Precipitation reactions involve the formation of an

It ,m and sulfur.
insoluble product.

I ii•, reaction is essential for life o n Earth. It takes

11 1 1 sunlight. It is a photochem ical reaction. Small

I H in the green leaves of plants and requires energy
precipitation: the sudden formation of a solid, either when
11 11 1 cules of carbon dioxide and water are used to make two solutions a re m ixed or when a gas is bubbled i nto a
11 I, rger molecule glucose: solution
sunlight
, , 11 bon dioxide + water chloro phyll)
glucose + oxygen
6CO2 + 6H2 O _____, C6 H12O6 + 602 T his type of reaction can be used to prepare insoluble

ween pigment ch lorophyll is essential for this

salts and is also the basis for many analytical tests for both

The limewater test for carbon dioxide depends on

11 metal cations and non-metal anions (see Chapter Cl2).
, I Ion because it traps energy from the Sun.

1 mposition reactions have just one reactant,

1 \11 I i breaks down to give two or more simpler
d ucts. Lime for agriculture and for making cement
1 1. 1 1 1ufactured industrially by the decomposition of
, •,l one (calcium carbonate):
precipitation. Here the insoluble product is calcium
carbonate (Image C4.07). A milky suspension of insoluble
calcium carbonate is formed:
CO2 + Ca(OHh ➔ CaCO3 ,t + H2 O

1 1 1 11 1 carbonate � calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

limestone lime

Cao +

q1y. Decom position caused by heat energy is called

1 , actions are endothermic. They requi re heat

1 1 11 I decom position.

11 1 1position can also be caused by light energy.

, , 1111ple, silver chloride, a white solid, turns grey in
l1pl 1 I because silver metal is formed:

Ap,CI -----,
�
1lwr chloride -----, silver + chlorine
�
2Ag + Cl2

I m age C4.07 Calcium carbonate is precipitated from

1 l ,1 omide and silver iodide behave in the same way.

limewater by carbon d ioxide.

, I 1 h otochemical reactions are the basis of film used
1 1 digital photography and movie-making.
 Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences
Image C4.08 Displacement
reactions. a Zinc will displace
copper from copper(1 ) sulfate
solutio n, a n d the colour of the
solution fades as the copper
forms on the zinc su rface.
b Ch lori n e d isplaces iodine
from a potassium iodide
solution. The colou rless
solution tu rns yellow- brown.
2 250
Displacement reactions
Displacement reactions are useful in working out the
patterns of reactivity of elements of the same type.
A displacement reaction occurs because -a more reactive
element will displace a less reactive one from a solution of
one of its compounds.
Zinc is a more reactive metal than copper. If a piece of
zinc is placed in a copper(1 1) sulfate solution, a red-brown
deposit of copper forms on the zinc (Image C4.08a).
The blue colour of the copper(1 1) sulfate solution fades.
Zinc displaces copper from copper(11) sulfate solution:
Z n + CuSO4 ➔ ZnSO4 + Cu
The halogens can be placed in order of reactivity
using displacemen t reactions. Thus, chlorine gas will
displace iod i n e from potassium iodide solution . The
colourless solution turns yellow -brown as iodine appears
(Image C4.08b):
Cl2 + 2KI ➔ 2KC1 + 12
Combustion, oxidation and red uction
Combustion reactions are of great importance and can be
very usefu I or destructive.
Th combustion of natural gas is an important source
of n rgy for homes and industry. Natural gas is
mainly methane. Its cRmplete combustion produces
carbon dioxide a n d water vapour:
methan e + oxygen ➔ c9-;oon dioxide + water
CH 4 + 202 ➔ CO2 + 2H2 O
Substances such as methane, which undergo combustio
readily and give out a large amount of energy, are known
as fuels.
Our bodies n eed energy to make the reactions that
take place in our cells possible. These reactions
allow us to carry out our everyday activities. We need
energy to stay alive. We get this energy from food.
During digestion, food is broken down into simpler
substances. For example, the carbohydrates in rice,
potatoes and bread are broken down to form glucose.
The combustion of glucose with oxygen in the cells of
our body provides energy:
glucose + oxygen ➔ carbon dioxide + water
C6 H12O6 + 602 ➔ 6CO2 + 6H2O
combustion: the reaction of a su bstance with oxygen causin
the release of e n e rgy; it is exothermic and often involves a fla
burning: com bustion in which a fla m e is p rod uced
This reaction is exothermic and is known by a special
name: respiration.
In combustion reactions, the substance involved is
oxidised. Oxygen is added and oxides are formed. Not all
reactions with oxygen produce a great amount of energy.
For example, when air is passed over heated copper, the
surface becomes coated with black copper(11) oxide. Ther
is no flame, nor is the reaction very exothermic. But it is
still an oxidation reaction (Figure C4.04a):
copper + oxygen copper(11) oxide
2Cu + 2CuO
02
This process can be reversed, and the copper surface
regenerated, if hydrogen gas is passed over the heated
material. The black coating on the surface turns pink as I l l
reaction takes place (Figure C4.04b):
. heat
copper(1 1) oxide + hydrogen � copper + water
During this reaction, the copper(1 1) oxide is losing oxygen .
The copper(1 1) oxide is undergoing red uction - it is losin 1,
 a

excess
hydrogen i n
hydrogen
burn i ng

heat

I !Bure C4.04 a The oxidation of copper to copper(11) oxide. b The red uction of copper(11) oxide back to
npper using hydrogen.

, ygen and being reduced. The hydrogen is gaining

1 ygen. It is being oxidised:
I oxidation 7 reducing agent: an element or com pound that will remove
oxygen from other substances. The com monest red ucing
heat agents are hyd rogen, carbon and carbon monoxide.
CuO + H 2 � Cu + H 20
L reduction _j'

If a su bstance gains oxygen d u ri n g a reaction,

Reduction is very important in industry as it provides

it is oxidised.
a way of extracting metals from the metal oxide ores
that occur in the Earth's crust. A good example is the
If a su bstance loses oxygen d u ri ng a reaction, blast furnace for extracting iron from hematite (Fe203)
it is red uced. (Chapter C9).

Some substances are capable of giving oxygen to others.

II These substances are known as oxidising agents.
M tice that the two processes of oxidation and reduction
1 .ike place together during the same reaction. This is
· 1 11e for a whole range of similar reactions. Consider the
I, !lowing reaction:
oxidising agent: a su bstance that w il l odd oxygen to another
zinc oxide + carbon ➔ zinc + carbon monoxide su bstance. The commonest oxidising agents a re oxygen (or a i r),
1 hyd rogen peroxide, potassiu m manga nate(v11) and potassiu m
I
oxidation
dichromate(v1).
ZnO + C ➔ Zn + CO
L reduction j
II in, in this reaction, the two processes occur together.
,Ince oxidation never takes place without reduction, TIP

11 I better to cal l these reactions oxidation-reduction

, , ctions or redox reactions.
Iii this last example, carbon removes oxygen from
Inc oxide. Carbon is an example of a reducing agent.
Remember that, in the process of acting as a reducing
agent, that substance will itself be oxidised. The reducing
agent will gain the oxygen it is removing from the other
compound. The reverse is true for an oxidising agent.
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

There are two common examples of oxidation reactions

C4.04 A closer "look at reactions,
particularly redox reactions
that we might m eet in our everyday lives.
• Corrosion. If a metal is reactive, its surface may be attacked
State sym bols
is called corrosion. When iron or steel slowly corrodes
by air, water or other substances around it. The effect
So far, our equations have told us nothing about the

call rust. Rust is a form of iron(111) oxide. Rusting weakens

in damp air, the product is a brown, flaky substance we physical state of the reactants and products.

Chemical equations can be made more useful by inclu din

structures such as car bodies, iron railings, ships' hulls and
bridges. Rust prevention is a major economic cost.
• Rancidity. Oxidation also has damaging effects on
state symbols. They show clearly whether a gas is given
symbols that give us this information. These are called
off or a solid precipitate is formed during a reaction.

are oxidised, they become rancid. Their taste and smell

food. When the fats and oils in butter and margarine The four symbols used are shown in Table C4.0l.

The following examples show how they can be used. Th y

change and become very unpleasant. Manufacturers
sometimes add antioxidants to fatty foods and oils to
prevent oxidation. Keeping foods in a refrigerator can slow
down the oxidation process. Storage in airtight containers
also helps. Crisp (chip) manufacturers fill bags of crisps
can show clearly when a gas or a precipitate is produced
bold type). N ote that, when water itself is produced in a
in a reaction (the points of particular interest are shown I n
reaction, it has the symbol (1) for liquid, not (aq).
magnesium + nitric acid ➔ magnesium nitrate + hydrog<

Mg(s) + 2 H N O3 (aq) ➔ Mg(N O3)2 (aq) + H 2 (g)

with nitrogen to prevent the crisps being oxidised.

Q U ESTIO N S

C4. 6 The halogens are a grou p of elements showing hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide
➔ sodium chloride + wat
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ➔ NaCl(aq) + H 20(1)
trends in colour, state and reaction with other

a
halide ions.
Copy and com plete the word eq uation for
the reaction of chlorine with aqueous
copper(11) sulfate + sodium hydroxide
potassi u m bromide.
➔ c'opper(11) hydroxide + sodium sulf t
CuSO4 (aq) + 2 NaOH (aq) ➔ Cu(OH) 2 (s) + Na2 SO4 (aq)
chlorine + potassi u m bromide ➔ . , . . . . . . . . . . . .
b Explain why an aqueous solution of iod ine

C4. 7
does not react with potassiu m chloride.
Ionic equations
decomposition neutralisation
Some types of chemical reaction are listed below.

combustion oxidation-reduction (redox)

The last two examples above are useful for showing a
further modification in writing equations. This modificatl
Which reaction type best describes the identifies more clearly those particles that are actually

a
following changes? taking part in a particular reaction. These two reactions
hexane + oxygen ➔ carbon dioxide + water
b calci u m carbonate
involve mixing solutions that contain ions. Only some of
the ions present actually change their status - by changin
➔ calciu m oxide + carbon dioxide
c present are simply spectator ions to the change; they d
either their bonding or their physical state. The other ion
magnesium + copper oxide

d
➔ magnesium oxide + copper not take part in the reaction.
hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide

Symbol I Meani ng
➔ sod i u m chloride + water
C4. 8
••
Write word and balanced chem ical eq uations for

a
the reactions between:

b
sod i um and water
liquid

c calcium and oxygen

magnesi u m and steam
g gas
d bro m i n e and potassium iodide solution
e zi nc and copper sulfate solution.
aq aqueous solution, i.e. dissolved in water

Table C4.01 The state symbo ls used in chemical equation

 • Redox reactions
<l O 0 0
')
0 "
0 ,, 0
oo O 0
b
1 1 ure C4.05 A precipitation reaction in which
t w solutions containing ions a re mixed: a the overall
, nction, an d b the net reaction with the spectator
It n not shown.
I I i equation given above for n eutralising hydrochloric
1 Id with sodiu m hydroxide solution is:
H Cl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ➔NaCl(aq) + H 2O(1)
Ni I 'ing out all the ions present, we get:
[W (aq) + E+-faet}J + [tffi•faet} + o H- (aq)]
➔ [N-a·(aq) 1 Cl-(att}] + H 2 O(1)
I Ii use of state sym bols clearly shows which ions
l1,1v not changed during the reaction. They have been
1 0 sed out (like tl1is) and can b e left out of the equation.
I Iii leaves us with the essential ionic equation for all
, 11 utralisatio n reactions:
1 1 lying t h e same principles to a precipitation reactio n
�, i l n gives u s a clear picture o f which ions are reacting
II I ure C4.05).
I I \ equation:
1, 1 'he precipitation of copper(11) hydroxide, which was
IV n above, becomes:
I Ill is the essential ionic equatio n for the precipitation
,I t opper(11) hydroxide; the spectator ions (sulfate and
, i llum ions) have been left out.
Chemists' ideas about oxidation and reduction have
expanded as a wider range of reactions have been studied.
Look again at the reaction between copper and oxygen:
copper + oxyge n copper (11) oxi d e
heat
)
2Cu + 02 2CuO
heat
)
It is clear that copper has been oxidised; but what has
been reduced? We can ap ply the ideas behind ionic
equatio ns to analyse the changes taking place during this
reaction. It then becomes clear that:
• th e copper atoms in the metal have become copper
ions (Cu 2•) in copper(11) oxide
• the oxygen molecules in the gas have split and become
oxide ions (02-) in the black solid copper(11) oxide.
The copper atoms, which clearly were oxidised during the
reaction, have in the process lost electrons. The oxygen
atoms have gained electrons in th e process.
A n ew, broader definitio n of oxidation and reduction
can now be put forward.
■ Oxidation is the loss of electrons.
■ Reduction is the gain of electrons.
We can remember this by using the memory aid 'OIL RIG':
OIL RIG
Oxidation Is the Loss of electrons
Reduction Is the Gain of electrons
This new definition of redox changes increases t h e
n u mber of reactions that can be called redox reactions.
For instance, displacement reactions where th ere is no
transfer of oxygen are now included. This is best seen by
looking at an ionic equation. For exam ple:
r---
As an io n ic equation this becomes:
reduction ------:J.,
Z n (s) + Cu 2• (aq) ➔ Z n 2• (aq) + Cu(s)
L_ oxidation _j
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences
Zinc has lost two electrons and copper has gained them.
This reaction is a redox reaction as there has been both
loss and gain of electrons by different elements du ring
the reaction.
It is on the basis of this definition that chlorine, for
instance, is a good oxidising agent. It displaces iodine
from potassium iodide solution (see Image C4.08). Is this
reaction a redox reaction?
Cl2 (aq) + 2 I - (aq) ➔ 2Cl- (aq) + I 2 (aq)
From the ionic equation we can see that c hlorine atoms
have gained electrons to become chloride ions. They have
been reduced. The iodide ions have lost electrons to form
iodine. They have been oxidised.
QU ESTI ONS
C4.09 a Explain the meaning of the sym bols (s), (I),
(aq) and (g) i n the fol lowing equation, with
reference to each reactant and prod uct:
Na2CO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq)
➔ 2NaCl(aq) + H 2O(1) + CO2 (g)
b Write an ionic eq uation, including state
silver nitrate solution + sodium chloride
symbols, for each of the following reactions:
solution
ii
➔ silver chloride + silver nitrate solution
sodium su lfate solution + bariu m nitrate
solution
➔ sodium nitrate solution + bariu m
iii dilute hyd rochloric acid + potassiu m
sulfate
hydroxide solution
➔ potassiu m chloride solution + water
iv dilute hyd rochloric acid + copper
carbonate
➔ copper chloride solution + water
C4. 10
+ carbon dioxide
Copy and com plete the following statement:
................. is the gain of electrons; ................ .
is the loss of electrons. During a redox reaction
the oxidising agent .. ....... ........ electrons; the
oxidising agent is itself . ................ d u ring
the reaction.
C4.0S Electrolysis
1 ctricity has had a great effect on our way of living.
function without the electricity supply. The results
L rge urban areas, such as Hong Kong, could not
of the large-scale supply Rf electricity can be seen in
the pylons and power lines that mark o u r l�ndscape.
But electricity is also important on tre very small scale.
The silicon c hip enables a vast rang� of produ cts to work,
and many people now have access to products containl 1 1
electronic circuits - from MP3 players to washing machi1 1
Conductivity in solids - conductors
and insulators
The ability to conduct electricity is the major simple
difference between elements that are metals and
elements that are non-metals. All m etals conduct
electricity, but carbon in the form of graphite is the only
non-metallic element that conducts electricity. A simplP
circuit can be used to test whether any solid conducts
or not (Figure (4.06). The circuit is made up of a battery
(a source of direct current), some connecting copper
wires fitted with clips, and a light bulb to show when a
current is flowing. The material to be tested is clipped 1 1 1 1 <
electrical con d u ctor.
the circuit. I f the bulb lights up, then the material i s an
For a solid to conduct, it m ust have a structu re that
contains 'free' electrons that are able to flow through it
There is a flow of electrons in the completed circuit. The•
battery acts as an 'ele�tron pump'. Electrons are repellc •d
(pushed) into the circui:t from the negative terminal of
the battery. They are attracted to the positive terminal.
Metals (and graphite) conduct electricity because they
have mobile free electrons in their structure. The batt r y
'pumps' all the free electrons in one direction. Metallic
alloys are held together by the same type of bonding •,
the m etal elements, so they also can conduct electricit y
Solid covalent non-metals do not conduct electricity.
Whether they are giant molec ular or simple molecular
structures, there are no electrons that are not involved I n
called non-condu ctors or insu lators (Table C4.02).
bonding - there are n o free electrons. Such substance
electrons epelled into electrons attracted
wi e from negative to positive termi n a l
term i n a l of batte y 0 0 o f batte y
battery
carbon rod bulb
Figure C4.06 Testing a solid m ateri a l to see if it cond uct
electricity, by whether it lights a b u lb.
Con d u cto rs I nsu lators ( non-con d u ctors) E lectrolytes I Non-electrolytes
\ Gia nt molec u l a r S i m ple molec u l a r sulfuric acid distilled water
Opper diamond sulfur molten lead bromide ethanol
l iver poly(ethene) iodine sodium chloride solution petrol
1luminium poly(chloroethene) , PVC hydrochloric acid paraffin
I el poly(tetrafluo roethene), copper(11) chloride solution molten sulfur
PTFE sodium hydroxide solution sugar solution

Ta ble C4.03 Some electrolytes a nd non-electrolytes.

,rass
i.raphite

I 1 ble C4.02 Solid electrical conductors and insu lators.

no chemical change takes place when liquid metals
conduct electricity.

If liquid compounds or solutions are tested using

electrical conductor: a su bstance that conducts electricity
but is not chemically changed in the process
1 1 1 re is no chemical change when an electric current is
, , I ' sed through a metal or graphite. The copper wire is still
, pper when the current is switched off!
the apparatus in Figure C4.07, then the result
will depend on the type of bonding holding the
compound together.
If the compound is bonded covalently, then it will
not conduct electricity as a liquid or as a solution.
Examples of such liquids are ethanol, petrol,
pure water and sugar solution (Table (4.03). Ionic

nductivity in liquids - electrolytes and
11 n-electrolytes
I I H ' conductivity of liquids can be tested in a similar
, 1y to solids, but the simple testing circuit is changed
1 11,ure C4.07). Instead of clipping the solid material to
u I' sted into the circuit, graphite rods are dipped into
1!1 1 1 est liquid. Liquid compounds, solutions and molten
1 1 , 1 1 rials can all be tested in this way. Molten metals,
1 1 I mercury, which is liquid at room temperature,
, 1 1duct electricity. Electrons are still able to move through
■
compounds will conduct electricity if they are either
molten or dissolved in water. Examples of these are
molten lead bromide, sodium chloride solution and
copper(11) sulfate solution.
When these liquids conduct, they do so in a different
way from metals. In this case, they conduct because the
ions present can move through the liquid; when metals
conduct, electrons move through the metal.
Ionic compounds will not conduct electricity
when they are solid because their ions are fixed in

electricity by movement of ions are called electro lytes.

position and cannot move. Liquids that conduct
111 1 liquid metal to carry the charge. As in solid metals,

no n- electrolytes.
Liquids that do not conduct in this way are called

When electrolytes conduct electricity, chemical change

takes place and the ionic compound is split up.
bulb ammeter A
For example, lead bromide is changed to lead
and bromine:

PbBr2 (1) ➔ Pb(I) + Br2 (g)

This type of change is called electrolysis and is described

graphite ro graphite rod

1-11 in more detail below.

- ii
••
liquid under test

heat if necessary

I 1 1 (4.07 The apparatus for testing the co nductivity

electrolysis: the breakdown of an ionic compound, molten or

1 llquids.
i n aq ueous solution, by the use of electricity
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

.-------1r----�t------�
eL "
battery

In summary, the following substances are electrolytes: <±>

■ molten salts
■ solutions of salts in water
■ solutions of acids
■ solutions of alkalis.
graphite graphite
cathode anode

The two distinct types of electrical conductivity are called

metallic and electrolytic conductivity. They differ from
U-tu be

each other in im portant ways.

copper(11) ch romate(v1)

Metallic conductivity:
■ electrons flow Figure C4.08 A demonstration to show ionic movement
■ a property of elements (metals, and carbon as by using a salt solution conta ining coloured ions. The acid
graphite) and alloys solution was colou rless at the start of the experim ent.
■ takes place in solids and liquids
■ no chemical change takes place.
ACTIVITY C4 .0 1
Electrolytic conductivity:
■ ions flow
•. The conductivity of liquids and aqueous

■ a property of ionic com pounds

solutions

■ takes place in liquids and solutions (not solids)

Skills:
AO3. 1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to safely use
techniques, apparatus and materials (including
■ chemical decomposition takes place.
following a sequence of instructions where
appropriate)
AO3.2 Plan experiments a nd investigations
The movement of ions

AO3.3 Make and record observations, measurements

The conductivity of ionic compounds is explained by the fact
that ions move in a particular direction in an electric field.
This can be shown in experiments with coloured salts.
For example, copper(11) chromate(v1) (CuCr04) dissolves in
water to give a green solution. This solution is placed in
the lower part of a U-tube. A colourless solution of dilute
hydrochloric acid is then layered on top of the salt solution in
each arm, and graphite rods are fitted (Figure (4.08). These
rods carry the current into and out of the solution. T hey are
known as electrodes. In electrolysis, the negative electrode
is called the cathode; the positive electrode is the anode.
After passing the current for a short time, the solution
around the cathode becomes blue. Around the a node the
solution becomes yellow. These colours are produced by
the movement (migration) of the ions in the salt. T he positive
copper ions (Cu2+) are blue in solution. They are attracted to
the cathode (the negative electrode). The negative chromate
ions (Cro/-) are yellow in solution. They are attracted to the
node (the positive electrode). The use of coloured ions in
olution has shown the direction that positive a nd negative
ion move in an electric field. The use of chromates in
and estimates
This experiment tests which of a series of liquids and
solutions will conduct electricity, i.e. whether they are
electrolytes or non-electrolytes.
A worksheet, with a self-assessment checklist, is
included on the CD-ROM.
experiments is not now advised in school la boratories, but
a similar experiment could be carried out using potassium
manganate(v11). In this case the purple colour of the
manganate ions would accumulate at the a node.
During electrolysis:
■ positive ions (metal ions or W ions) move towards
the cathode; they are known as cations
■ negative ions (non-metal ions) move towards the
anode; they are known as anions.

TIP
It is important to remember that it is the electrons that
move through the wire when a metal conducts. However,
when a salt solution conducts, it is the ions in the solution
that move to the electrodes. They are then discharged at
the electrodes.
A solid ionic compound will not conduct electricity,
because the ions are in fixed positions in a solid; they
cannot move. The electrolyte must be melted or dissolved
in water for it to conduct.
The electrolytic cell
fhe apparatus in which electrolysis is carried out is
l<nown as an electrolytic cell. The direct current is
'iupplied by a battery or power pack. Graphite electrodes
carry the current into and out of the liquid electrolyte.
Graphite is chosen because it is quite unreactive (inert).
It will not react with the electrolyte or with the products
of electrolysis. Electrons flow from the negative terminal
of the battery around the circuit and back to the positive
terminal. In the electrolyte it is the ions that move to carry
the current.
Electrolysis of molten compounds
An electrolytic cell can be used to electrolyse molten
compounds. Heat must be supplied to keep the salt
molten. The electrolysis of lead(11) bromide to form lead
and bromine vapour is summarised diagrammatically in
Figure C4.09. Electrolysis of molten salts is easier if the
melting point of the salt is not too high.

b ro m i n e
va pour
'-------
In the electrolysis of molten lead bromide:
♦ lead atoms are released at the negative electrode
♦ bromine molecules are released at the positive
electrode.
At the negative electrode, lead ions gain electrons
(e-) to become lead atoms:
Pb2+ + e- ➔ Pb
But an ion with a charge of 2+ needs to gai n two
electrons to become an atom. We have to ba lance
You must use a the ha lf-equation like this:
fu me c upboard.

/
lead ion
Pb2+
1 e- ➔ Pb

two electrons
�
lead atom
from the electrode (no charge)

At the positive electrode, bromide ions lose electrons

"-::,--..,,_.,._ bead of lead to form bromine molecules:
metal
Br- ➔ Br2 + e-

electricity Each bromide ion needs to lose one electron to

lead b romide - lead + bromine become an atom. Bromine atoms form molecules
containing two atoms. We have to balance
the hal f -e quation like this:

2Br- Br2 + 2e-

electrode G G) electrode � / -------
two bromide one bromine two electrons
ions molecule to the electrode
molten (no charge)
lead
b romide

lead ion b romide ion

p

I lgure C4.09 The electrolysis of lead ( 1) bro m ide.

 When a molten ionic compound is electrolysed:

■ the metal is always formed at the cathode

■ the non-metal is always formed at the anode.

Figure C4.10 shows the electrolysis of molten zinc chloride.

When the switch is closed, the current flows and chlorine
gas (which is pale green) begins to bubble off at the anode.
molten zinc
After a little time, a bead of molten zinc collects at the chloride (ZnC/2 )

...
cathode. The electrical energy from the cell has caused a
chemical change (decomposition). The cell decomposes
the molten zinc chloride because the ions present move

are discharged). Figure C4.10 shows this movement. The

to opposite electrodes where they lose their charge (they
heat

Figure C4.10 The m ovement of ions in the electrolysis of

molten sa lt, zinc ch loride.
chloride ions (Ct-) move to the anode. Each chloride ion
gives up (donates) one electron to become a chlorine atom:

at the anode
Table C4.04 shows some further examples of this
Then two chlorine atoms bond together to make a type of electrolysis.
chlorine molecule:

Cl + Cl ➔ Cl2 I ndustrial electrolysis of molten compounds

The zinc ions (Zn2•) move to the cathode. There, each
zinc ion picks up (accepts) two electrons and becomes
a zinc atom:
at the cathode Zn2• + 2e- ➔ Zn
During electrolysis, the flow of electrons continues through
the circuit. For every two electrons taken from the cathode
by a zinc ion, two electrons are set free at the anode by
two chloride ions. So, overall, the electrons released at
the anode flow th rough the circuit towards the cathode.
During the electrolysis of molten salts, the metal ions,
which are always positive (cations), move to the cathode
and are discharged. N on-metal ions (except hydrogen),
however, are always negative. They are anions and move
to the anode to be discharged.
Electrolysis is important industrially because it is the
only method of extraction available for the most reactiv •
metals. Metals in Groups I and II, and aluminium, are to
reactive to be extracte,d by chemical reduction using
carbon like other metals. Metals such as sodium and
magnesium are obtained by electrolysis of their molten
chlorides. The metal is produced at the cathode.
One of the most important discoveries in industrial
electrolysis was finding suitable conditions for extractin
aluminium from its mineral ore, bauxite. The bauxite ore•
is first treated to produce pure aluminium oxide. This
is then dissolved in molten cryolite (sodium aluminium
fluoride). The melting point of the mixture is much
lower than that of pure aluminium oxide. The mixture i
electrolysed between graphite electrodes (Figure C4.1J)

sodium chloride, N aCl sodium (Na) and

chlorine (Cl2)
potassium iodide, Kl potassium (K) and iodine (1 2)
copper(11) bromide, CuBr2 copper (Cu) and Cu2• + 2e- ➔ Cu
bromine (Br2)
/a/ These anode reactions are the sum of the two stages written in the text. The lass of an electron from a negative ion like Cf- can also be written
2CI - 2e- ➔ C/2.

Ta ble C4.04 Some exa m ples of the electrolysis of molten salts.

 ,aphite lining Not enough ions are produced for pure water to conduct
(t lhode)
electricity very well. During electrolysis, however, these
hydrogen and hydroxide ions are also able to move to
solid crust the electrodes. T hey compete with the ions from the acid
forming on or salt to be discharged at the electrodes. But at each
mixture
electrode just o n e type of ion gets discharged.
aluminium
oxide
dissolved
in cryolite At the cathode:
molten
a l u m in iu m
■ The more reactive a metal, the more it tends to
stay as ions and not be discharged. The W ions will
I llUre C4.ll The industrial electrolysis of molten accept electrons instead. Hydrogen molecules will
luminium oxide to produce alu mi ni um. be formed, leaving the ions of the reactive metal,
for example Na+ ions, in solution.
11 Iten aluminium is attracted to the cathode and collects In contrast, the ions of less reactive metals, for example
I I he bottom of the cell: Cu2+ ions, will accept electrons readily and form metal
■
at the cathode Al3+ + 3e- ➔ Al atoms. In this case, the metal will be discharged,
leaving the W ions in solution (Image (4.09).
1 ygen is released at the anodes:
at the anode
I ! he operating temperature of about 1000 °C, the
1 , 1phite anodes burn away in the oxygen to give
u bon dioxide. So they have to be replaced regularly.
I mage C4.09 Copper is
1 1 ctrolysis of solutions q u ite u n reactive so it
l it electrolysis of ionic solutions also produces chemical can be seen deposited
1 1, nge. However, the products from electrolysis of a on the cathode
, lution of a salt may be different from those obtained by when copper(11)
I, trolysis of the molten salt This is because water itself su lfate solution is
11 1 duces ions. electrolysed.
At the anod e:
■ If the ions of a halogen (Cl-, Br or 1-) are present
in a high enough concentration, they will give up
electrons more readily than OH - ions will. Molecules
TIP

of chlorine, bromine or iodine are formed. The OH­

The following general principles a pply to the electrolysis

ions remain in solution.

of solutions of ionic compounds.

If no halogen ions are present, the OH- ions will

■ Metals or hydrogen a re released at the negative
■
give up electrons more easily than any other
electrode (cathode).
■ Non-meta ls (other than hydrogen) a re formed at
the positive electrode (anode). non-metal anion. Sulfate and nitrate ions are not
discharged in preference to O H- ions. When OH­
ions are discharged, oxygen is formed.

li hough water is a simple molecular substance, a very

111, II fraction of its molecules split into hydrogen ions (W)
1 1d hydroxide ions (OH -):
Electrolysis of dilute sulfuric acid solution
As mentioned above, pure water is a very poor conductor of
electricity. However, it can be made to decompose if some
H2O � W + OH -
most molecules intact only a very few d ilute sulfuric acid is added. A cell such as the one shown in
molecules splil into ions
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

ACTIVITY C4.02
--+--- hydrogen

«-1) The electrolysis of concentrated sodium

I
"-,,i' .,;

Skills:
elect rolysis
chloride solution

A03.1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to safely use

cell fitted
sodium

techniques, appa ratus and materials (including

with
chloride graphite

following a sequence of instructions where

solution electrodes

appropriate)
A03.3 Make and record observations, measurements
and estim ates
A03.4 I nterpret a nd eva luate experimental
observations and data
f flow
/4ectron elec�
flow
0
I nvestigate the products formed when a solution of
d.c. power supply

Figure C4.12 The m ovement a nd discharge of ions i n the

sodium chloride is electrolysed. The experiment is

electrolysis of concentrated sodium ch loride solution.

sum marised in Figure C4.12.

There are four different ions present i n the solution. The

Figure C4.12 or a Hofmann voltameter (Figure C4. 13) can be
positive ions (cations), Na• a nd W, flow to the cathode,
used to keep the gases produced separate. After a short
attracted by its n egative charge. The negative ions
time, the volume of gas in each arm ca n be measured and
(anions), Cl- and OH -, travel to the a n ode.

At the cathode, it is the W ions that accept electrons, as

tested. The gas collected above the cathode is hydrogen .
Oxygen collects at the anode. The ratio o f the volumes
is approximately 2 : 1. This experiment is effectively the sodium is more reactive than hydrogen :
electrolysis of water. W + e- ➔ H

Then two hydrogen atoms combine to form a hydrogen

molecule:
oxygen hydrogen
H + H ➔ H2

So, overall, hydrogen gas bubbles off at the cathode:

2W + 2e - ➔ H 2
At the a node, the c 1 - ions are discharged more readily
platinum tha n the OH- ions:
electrodes
cl - ➔ Cl + e-

"
Then two chlorin e atoms combi ne to make a
chlorine molecule:

Cl + Cl ➔ Cl2
--------------------- So, overall, pale green chlorine gas bubbles off at

Figu re C4.13 The H ofmann volta meter for the electrolysis

the anode:

of di lute su lfu ric acid. 2c1- ➔ c 12 + 2e-

Electrolysis of concentrated sodium
chloride solution
A concentrated solution of sodium chloride can be
1 c trolysed in the laboratory (Figure C4.12).
Left behi nd in solution are Na• a nd OH- ions; this is sodi u r
hydroxide solution. The solution therefore becomes
alkaline. This ca n be shown by adding i ndicator to the
solution. These products - hydrogen, chlorine a nd
sodium hydroxide - are very important industrially as
 chlorine Electroplating
The fact that an unreactive metal can be coated on to the
out

surface of the cathode by electrolysis (see Image C4.09)

-.
�

means that useful metal objects can be 'plated' with a

brine t ""----tvt---'
ci ion-exchange

chosen metal. Electroplating can be used to coat one

..;
00
membrane
0
0

metal with another.

�r-t--r- bubbles
bubbles of--t---ta-e::
of hydrogen

For electroplating , the electrolysis cell is adapted from

chlorine 0
0

Na•
the type usually used. T he cathode is the object to be
plated and the anode is made from the metal being used
titanium ------

to plate it. The electrolyte is a salt of the same metal. As

0 the process proceeds, the anode dissolves away into the
solution, replacing the metal plated on to the object, and
sod i u m hydroxide

1 lgure C4. 14 The mem brane cell for the electrolysis of

anode cathode
the concentration of the solution remains the same.
solution out

ncentrated brine. The selective ion-excha nge mem brane
1llows only Na• ions to pass t hrough it.
lh basis for the chlor-alkali ind ustry. So the electrolysis
nf concentrated brine (salt water) is a very important
1 1 1 nufacturing process.
The most commonly used metals for electroplating are
copper, chromium, silver and tin. To electroplate a metal
object with copper, the object must be made the negative
electrode. The anode is made of pure copper and a
solution of copper(11) sulfate used as the electrolyte.

he industrial electrolysis of brine TIP

t'Veral different types of electrolytic cell have been used Usually the electrodes used in electrolysis are inert
I, r the electrolysis of brine. The modern membrane (graphite or platinum). However, in electroplating

, II (Figure C4. 14) is the safest for the environment and

the anode is made of the metal to be plated. It is not

11 11 s the least electricity. Other types of cell use either a

inert, and it reacts. Remember the key observations

1 1 wing mercury cathode, or a diaphragm (partition) made

during electroplating:
■
111 m asbestos.
The object thickens as it becomes plated.
■
1 1 ! mem b rane cell has a titanium anode and a
The anode dissolves away.
■ The electrolyte solution maintains the same
111 kel cathode. Titanium is chosen for the anode concentration (thus, if it is coloured, the intensity of
1
It is not attacked by chlorine. The anode and the colour stays the same).

1 1 hode compartments are separated by a membrane.

,

I Ill membrane is selective; it allows Na+ ions and

,lter to flow through , but no other ions. This means
lii1t the products are kept separate and cannot react
l l h each other. The Na+ and O H- ions collect in the
1l hode compartment. The sodium hydroxide solution is
111oved and purified.
One purpose of electroplating is to give a
'I
protective coating to the metal underneath; an
example is the tin-plating of steel cans to prevent them
rusting. This is also the idea behind chromium-plating
articles such as car bumpers, kettles and bath taps, etc.
Chromium d oes not corrode; it is a hard metal that resists
scratching and wear, and it can also be polished to give an
attractive finish .

TIP
or these examples of industrial electrolysis, you will not
be expected to draw a diagram. You will need to be able
to recognise and label a diagram and give the electrode
half-equations.
You will also be expected to know the major reasons for
·he distinctive aspects of the process.
T h e basic rules for electroplating an object with a
metal M:
The object must be made the cathode.
■
■ The electrolyte must be a solution of a salt of metal M.
The anode is made of a strip of metal M.
■
QUESTIONS
C4.ll An experim ent was ca rried out to investigate
the effect of electricity on mo lten lead (11)
bromide (PbBr2).
a What h a ppens to a compound
d u ring electrolysis?
b Why does solid lead (11) bromide not
a llow the passage of electricity?
c What colour is the vapour seen at the
positive electrode?
d G ive one reason w hy this electrolysis
shou ld be carried out in a fu me cupboard .
e What is the a lternative name for the
negative electrode?
C4.12 A meta l object is to be copper p lated.
a Which electrode should the object be made?
sod ium su lfate oxygen
si lver nitrate oxygen
concentrated sod i u m ch loride chlori ne
sod ium nitrate
ACTIVITY C4.03
• Electrolysis of copper(u) sulfate solution
Skills:
A03. 1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to safely use
techniques, apparatus and materials (includi n g
following a sequence o f i nstructions where
appropriate)
A03.2 Plan experiments and i nvestigations
A03.3 M a ke and record observations, measurements
and estimates
b Name a solution that coul,d be used as
' '
the electrolyte.
C4.13 In the electrolysis of mo lten lead (11) bromide, the
reaction occurring at the negative electrode was:
Pb2• + 2e- ➔ Pb
a Write the equation for the reaction taking plac
at the positive electrode.
b Why is the reaction taking p lace at the negative
electrode viewed as a redu ction reaction?
C4.14 The ta bles list the resu lts of the electrolysis
of a number of aqueous solutions using inert
electrodes.
Use the information in the first table to com plete t
second tab le. The solutions were electrolysed und
exactly the same conditions as the ones above.
sod i u m su lfate
nitric acid
hyd rogen sod i u m nitrate
A03.4 I nterpret and evaluate experimental observatio
and data
A03.5 Evaluate methods and suggest possible
improvements
This experim ent is designed to demonstrate the d ifferent
products obtai ned when the electrolysis of copper(11) sulf
solution is carried out first with in ert gra ph ite electrodes
then with copper electrodes. The use of copper electrode
illustrates how cop per is refi ned ind ustria lly.
A worksheet is i ncluded on the CD-ROM.
QU,ESTIONS
C4.15 a The apparatus below was used to plate a strip
of meta l with copper. One electrode was made
of copper a n d the other was the metal strip to
be plated.
d . c . supply
0
electrolyte
about the nature of chemica l reactions and how they
differ from physical changes
how to represent the changes in a reaction using word
equations and balanced chemical equations
how equations can be made more informative by
including state symbols
how equations for reactions involving ions can be
simplified to Include on ly those ions taking part
in the reaction
a bout the exothermic or endothermic energy changes
involved in reactions
a bout the variety of different types of chemical
reaction such as combustion, neutralisation, and
displacement reactions
a bout the importance of oxidation and reduction
reactions (redox)
how the definitions of oxidation and red uction can be
extended to include reactions involving the transfer of
i Which electrode, X or Y, is the m etal strip?
ii Is the metal strip an a node or a cathode?
b If graphite were used i nstead of the copper
electrode in a, what change would you notice
to the electrolyte during the experi m ent?
c I n ind ustry, some plastics a re electroplated.
Why must the plastic be coated with a thin fi lm
of graphite before plati ng?
electrons - oxidation being the loss of electrons and
reduction the gain of electrons
■ a bout the electrical conductivity of metals and gra phite
■ a bout the conductivity of ionic com pounds when
molten or dissolved in water that resu lts in a chemica l
change (electrolysis)
■ that electrolytic cells consist of positive (anode) and
negative (cathode) electrodes and an electrolyte
■ a bo ut the factors that decide which ions are
discharged at the electrodes
■ how to write the reactions taking place at the
electrodes as ionic half-equations
■ a bout electroplating, which can be used to produce
a protective and/or decorative layer of one metal
on a nother
■ how electrolysis is industria lly im portant for the
extraction of very reactive metals such as aluminium
and the production of sodium hyd roxide and chlorine.
I
Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences

I\

End-of-chapter questions
J
,,
1 A group of students is conducting a n experiment investigating the action of heat on solid copper
carbonate and zinc carbonate. The two experiments gave them the results summarised here:

positive test for carbon dioxide gas given off

copper carbonate heat

green powder

I I
cool down
black powde ------ b la c k po wd e_,
� ...._______
r

positive test for carbon dioxide gas given off

zinc carbonate
white powder heat
cool down
yellow powder ------ white powder

a What evidence is there that a chemical reaction has taken place in both cases?
b What is the major a n d most reliable evidence of a reaction here?
c Write word equations for the two reactions.
d Write a brief description of what you would see happen if zinc oxide powder were heated
strongly a n d then allowed to cool down.
e Would this cha nge have been a chem ical reaction?
2 When a strip of burning magnesium ribbo n is lowered into a gas jar of carbon dioxide, the
following reaction takes place:
2Mg + CO2 ➔ 2Mg0 + C
a What observation would show that carbon had been p roduced?
b Write a word equation for this reaction.
c Which substances have been:
red uced in this reaction?
ii oxidised in this reaction?
d Magnesium oxide reacts with hyd rochloric acid to make the salt magnesium chloride and water.
Write the symbol equation for this reaction.
e Magnesium sulfate is produced when magnesiu m is added to zinc sulfate solution.
Mg + ZnS0 4 ➔ MgS04 + Zn
Write an ionic equation for this reaction.
ii Explain why magnesium is a reducing agent in this reaction.
3 The equations A a n d B below show two reactions which lead to the formation of acid rain.
A S + 02 ➔ S02
B S02 + 03 ➔ S03 + 02
 a Write a wo rd equation for reaction A. [2]
b Which two of the fo llowing statements a bout reaction B are correct?
S02 is oxid ised to S03; S02 is red uced to S03
03 is red uced to 02 ; 03 is oxid ised to 02 [2]
c Com plete the equation to show how an aqueous solution of sulfuric acid, H 2 S04,
is fo rmed from S03
S03 + . . . . . . . ➔ H 2 S04 [1]
[Cambridge /GCSE Chemistry 0620 Poper 21 Q7 a June 2012}

Some su bsta n ces con d u ct electricity, others do not.

a Which three of the fo l lowing co n d uct electricity?

aqueous sodium chloride; cera mics; copper;
gra ph ite; sod ium chloride crysta ls; su lfu r [3]
b State the name given to a su bsta n ce, such as plastic, which d oes n ot co nd uct electricity. [1]
c Molten zinc ch loride was electrolysed usin g the appa ratus shown below.

positive ---• ___ negative

electrode electrode

-=:.--'------ molten zinc

--- chloride

Choose a word from the list below which descri bes the positive electrode.
anion anode cathode cation
■
[1]
ii State the name of the product formed d u ring this electrolysis at
• the n egative e lectrode.
• the positive electrode. [2]
iii Suggest the name of a non-metal which can be used for the electrodes i n this electro lysis. [1]
[Cambridge /GCSE Chemistry 0620 Poper 21 QB June 2010}

The d iagram shows the ap paratus used to electro lyse concentrated aqueous sod i u m chloride.
gases

concentrated
aqueous sodium chloride

anod

ive a description of this e lectrolysis. In you r d escription i nclude:

what su bsta n ce the electrodes a re made from and the reason for using this substance [2]
b what you wo u ld o bserve d u ring the electrolysis [2]
the na mes of the su bstances pro d u ced at each electro d e. [2)
[Cambridge !GCSE Chemistry 0620 Poper 22 QS c November 2011)