METHODS OF STIMULATION

EPL 400: PETROLEUM PRODUCTION

ENGINEERING II

Engr. (Dr.) Sunday S. Ikiensikimama

Professor of Petroleum and Gas Engineering

Adjunct Professor: Department of Gas and Petroleum

Engineering
Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya
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REFERENCES
 Dr. Muhammad Amin: “Well Stimulation Lecture Material for
Dept. of Petroleum Engineering, Soran University”.

 Dr A K Pandey: DGM(Chemistry) Sivasagar “Workshop

Presentation on Well Stimulation Techniques” Workshop on
Technology Imperatives for Exploration and Production of Oil
& Gas

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OUTLINES
 Well Stimulation
 Acidizing
 Matrix Acidizing
 Fracture Acidizing
 Well Stimulation Acids
 Well Stimulation Surfactants
 Well Stimulation Anti-Sludge Agents
 Well Stimulation Corrosion Inhibitors
 Well Stimulation Reaction Time
 Carbonate Acidizing
 Hydraulic Fracturing

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WELL STIMULATION

 Some, petroleum exists in a formation but is unable to flow

readily into the well because the formation has very low
permeability.

 Natural low permeability formation.

 Formation damage around the wellbore caused by invasion of

perforation fluid and charge debris.

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WELL STIMULATION
 Formation damage:

 The reduction of permeability in a reservoir rock caused by the

invasion of drilling fluid

 And treating fluids to the section adjacent to the wellbore. It is

often called skin damage.

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TYPES OF FORMATION ROCK

 Sandstone
 Sand grains cemented by silica / calcium carbonate

 Limestone
 Composed mainly of carbonate

 Shale
 Clay mineral and quartz

 Clay
 Kaolinite, Montmorillonite, Illite, Chlorite

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SOURCES OF FORMATION DAMAGE
Formation damage may occur during the following operations
 Drilling
 Completion
 Workover
 Stimulation
 Production
 Water / Gas Injection
 IOR / EOR

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FORMATION DAMAGE MECHANISMS
 Fines Migration
 Clay Swelling
 Induced particle plugging
 Asphaltene & Sludge deposition
 Emulsion Block
 Scale
 Bacteria
 Water Block
 Wettability Alteration
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ORIGINS OF FORMATION DAMAGE & REMEDIES
 Formation damage during drilling
Damage mechanism Remedial measures

Particle invasion/ Filter cake Matrix acidization, Perforation, Hydraulic

fracturing

Swelling and dispersion of indigenous Matrix acidization

reservoir clays by the mud filtrate

Mutual precipitation of soluble salts in the Matrix acidization

filtrate and formation water

Slumping of unconsolidated sands Sand consolidation techniques, Frac and

Pack

Water block / Emulsion block Surfactant treatment, Matrix acidization

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FORMATION DAMAGE (DRILLING)
 Formation damage during drilling

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ORIGINS OF FORMATION DAMAGE & REMEDIES
 Formation damage during Cementing

Damage mechanism Remedial measures

Fines migration from the cement slurry into Matrix acidization, Perforation, Hydraulic
the formation fracturing

Precipitation of solids from the cement Matrix acidization, Perforation

within the formation

Precipitation of secondary minerals Matrix acidization

following reservoir mineral dissolution

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DAMAGE BY OVERBALANCE PERFORATION
 Formation damage during Perforation

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ORIGINS OF FORMATION DAMAGE & REMEDIES
 Formation damage during completion and workover

Damage Mechanism Remedial Measures

Hydration and swelling of clay Matrix acidization,Clay
minerals stabilization
Movement and plugging by clay Matrix acidization,Clay
size particles in the formation stabilization
Plugging by invading materials
from the wellbore fluids Matrix acidization
Emulsion and water blocks due to Surfactant treatment, Matrix
lost wellbore fluid acidization
Relative permeability effects Surfactant treatment
Precipitation of scales Acidization
Plugged perforations due to
improper perforating conditions Acidization, Perforation
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ORIGINS OF FORMATION DAMAGE & REMEDIES
 Formation damage during sand control

Damage mechanism Remedial measures

Fines migration Acidization, Clay stabilization , Frac & Pack,

Acidization with foam based fluids

Perforation plugging Acidization

Polymer invasion Surfactant treatment, Matrix acidization,

Surfactant acidization
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ORIGINS OF FORMATION DAMAGE & REMEDIES
 Formation damage during Water Injection & Different EOR Methods
Damage Mechanism Remedial Measures
Acidization, Hydraulic
Solid invasion fracturing
Acidization,Clay stabilization
Fines migration treatment
Clay swelling High saline fluid
Surfactant treatment,
Clay flocculation stabilization treatment
Acidization, Hydraulic
Formation dissolution fracturing
Skim oil entrainment Surfactant treatment
Sand influx Sand consolidation treatment
Formation of insoluble Surfactant treatment,
scales and Emulsification solvent treatment
Precipitate formation Acidization 15
WELL STIMULATION
 Any of several operations used to increase the production of a
well or a treatment performed to restore or enhance the
productivity of a well such as:
1) Acidizing

2) Fracturing

3) Explosives to break
up the rock

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ACIDIZING

 Acidizing

 The pumping of acid into the wellbore to remove near-

well formation damage and other damaging substances.

 This procedure commonly enhances production by

increasing the effective well radius.

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ACIDIZING
 The two basic types of acidizing are characterized
through injection rates and pressures:

 Injection rates below fracture pressure are termed

Matrix acidizing.

 Injection rates above fracture pressure are termed

Fracture acidizing.

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MATRIX ACIDIZING
Matrix acidizing
 Matrix acidizing is applied primarily to remove skin
damage caused by drilling , completion, workover , well-
killing, or injection fluids, and by precipitation of scale
deposits from produced or injected water.
 During matrix acidizing the acids dissolve the sediments
and mud solids within the pores that are inhibiting the
permeability of the rock.
 It is mostly used in sandstone formations.
 Due to the extremely large surface area contacted by acid
in a matrix treatment, the time spent is very short.
Therefore, it is difficult to affect formation more than a few
feet from the wellbore. 19
MATRIX ACIDIZING

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MECHANISM OF MATRIX ACID JOB:
Matrix acidizing
 To inject acid into formation at a pressure less than the
pressure at which fracture can occur
 To dissolve the clays, mud solids near the wellbore which
had choked the pores
 To enlarge the pore spaces
 To leave the sand and remaining fines in a water-wet
condition

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FLUID SELECTION

 Acid Type

 Concentration

 Volume

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ACID FORMULATION
Lab studies involved
 Stimulation history
 Acid solubility
 Mineralogy (type of clay)
 Emulsion test
 Sludge test
 Core flow study

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TYPES OF CLAYS
 Kaolinite
 Minimum effect by acid

 Migrating clay, requires clay stabilizer

 Illite
 Migrating

 Can be treated with HF

 Chlorite
 Contains High Amount of Iron (Contains Iron)

 Treatment with Iron Sequestering Agent

 Smectite (Montmorillonite)
 Water sensitive (swells)

 Can be dissolved by weak HF 24

TYPE OF ACID

 Carbonate reservoirs
 HCl is used as basic rock dissolution chemical

 Sandstone reservoir
 HCl + HF (mud acid) is used as basic rock dissolution chemical

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FRACTURE ACIDIZING
 Fracture acidizing
 Fracture acidizing is an alternative to hydraulic fracturing
and propping in carbonate reservoirs. In fracture acidizing,
the reservoir is hydraulically fractured and then the fracture
faces are etched with acid to provide linear flow channels to
wellbore.
 As such, the application of acid fracturing is confined to
carbonate reservoirs and should never be used to stimulate
sandstone, shale, or coal-seam reservoirs.
 Long etched fractures are difficult to obtain, because of high
leak off and rapid acid reaction with the formation
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WELL STIMULATION

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WELL STIMULATION ACIDS
 WELL STIMULATION ACIDS
The basic types of acid used are:
 Hydrochloric

 Hydrochloric-Hydrofluoric

 Acetic

 Formic

 Sulfamic

 Fluoboric

 Also, various combinations of these acids are

employed in specific applications.
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WELL STIMULATION ACIDS
 ACID ADDITIVES:
Acidizing can cause a number of well problems.
Acid may :
(1) release fines
(2) create precipitants
(3) form emulsions
(4) create sludge
(5) corrode steel
 Additives are available to correct these and a number
of other problems
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WELL STIMULATION SURFACTANTS
 Surfactants should be used on all acid jobs to reduce
surface and interfacial tension, to prevent emulsions,
to water-wet the formation, and to safeguard against
other associated problems.
 Suspending Agents: Most carbonate formations
contain insolubles which can block formation pores or
fractures if fines released by acid are allowed to settle
and bridge.

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WELL STIMULATION SURFACTANTS

 Suspension should be differentiated from dispersion.

Dispersed particles usually settle in a short time.
 A suspending surfactant, such as Halliburton's HC-2, in
concentrations of about five gallons per 1,000 gallons
of acid may suspend fines for more than 24 hours, and
possibly as long as seven days. Suspending agents are
usually polymers or surfactants

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SURFACTANT
Can act to :
 Change surface and interfacial tensions

 Disperse or flocculate clays and fines

 Break, weaken emulsions
 Change or maintain the wettability of reservoir
 Reduce acid-induced sludging
 Create or break foams
 Promote or prevent water blocks

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WELL STIMULATION ANTI-SLUDGE AGENTS
Anti-Sludge Agents:
 Some crudes, particularly heavy asphaltic crudes, form an
insoluble sludge when contacted with acid, with greater
problem experiences with high strength acid. Dissolved Fe(III) in
acid appreciably increases the possibility of sludge.

 The primary ingredients of a sludge are usually asphaltenes.

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WELL STIMULATION ANTI-SLUDGE AGENTS
 Sludges may also contain resins and paraffin waxes, high-
molecular weight hydrocarbons, formation fines, clays, and
other materials.

 The addition of certain surfactants can prevent the formation

of sludge by keeping colloidal material dispersed.

 These sludge-preventing surfactants usually prevent emulsion

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ANTI SLUDGE AGENT
 “Sludge” is a precipitate formed from reaction of high
strength acid with crude oil
 Methods of sludge prevention
 Solvent (Xylene, Toluene) pre-flush to minimize physical
contact
 Use of low strength acid
 Anionic surfactant to minimize precipitation of colloidal
suspension

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WELL STIMULATION CORROSION INHIBITORS
 Corrosion inhibitors for acid are chemical additives that
reduce the rate of corrosion of steel by acid.

There are two primary reasons for using corrosion

inhibitors:

(1) to protect the acid pumping and handling equipment

(2) to protect well equipment.

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WELL STIMULATION CORROSION INHIBITORS

Factors that govern the degree of acid attack on steel are:

1) type of steel including hardness
2) temperature
3) type of acid
4) acid concentration
5) acid contact time

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CARBONATE ACIDIZING
 CARBONATE ACIDIZING

 The objective of acidizing limestone and dolomite wells is

to remove damage near the wellbore or to create linear
flow channels by fracturing and etching.

 Acid may also be used in sandstone wells to dissolve

carbonates in the form of sand grain cementing materials,
discrete particles, and carbonate scale.

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CARBONATE ACIDIZING
 Carbonate formations generally have a low permeability and
can be highly fissured
 HCl is used as basic rock dissolution agent
 Wormholes form in the process of dissolution of rock
 Other additives are used as per compatibility with rock
minerals.

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CARBONATE ACIDIZING
Reactions
 Calcite: 2HCl+CaCO3 → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O

 Dolomite: 4HCl+CaMg(CO3) → CaCl2 + MgCl2 + 2CO2 + 2H2O

 Siderite: 2HCl + FeCO3 → FeCl2 + CO2 + H2O

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CARBONATE ACIDIZING
 For effective stimulation of carbonate reservoir the following
acid systems are used:
 Emulsified acid system
 Acid emulsified with hydrocarbon(diesel)

 Gelled acid system

 Acid modified with gelling agent
(polymer/(polymer/viscoelastic surfactants))

Role of emulsified/Gelled acid is

 To provide retardation
 To achieve deep penetration
 Compatible at high reservoir temperature

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SAND STONE ACIDIZATION

Causes of Damage
 Mud & Mud filtrate invasion
 Cement solid & filtrate invasion
 Cutting invasion
 Perforation damage
 Created emulsions

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SAND STONE ACIDIZATION
 Mud acid (HCl + HF) is used as basic rock dissolution
agent for acidization of sandstone reservoir
 A pre-flush of HCl or organic acid is normally used prior to
injection of mud acid used
 Additives are selected based on the rock mineralogy and
reservoir fluid properties.
 An after-flush is injected to push all the mud acid into
formation

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SAND STONE ACIDIZATION
Reactions
 Sand 4HF + SiO2 SiF4 + 2H2O

SiF4 + 2HF H2SiF6

SiF4 (silicon tetrafluoride)

H2SiF6 (fluosilicic acid)

 Clay Al2Si4O10(OH)2 + 36HF →→4 H2SiF6 + 12H2O + H3AlF6

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ACIDIZATION STEPS IN GENERAL
 Pre-flush Stage (5% - 10% HCl) )
 50 to 100 gal/ft of formation in general
 To remove carbonates
 To push NaCl or KCl away from wellbore

 Acid Stage
 HF to dissolve clay / sand
 HCl to dissolve carbonates

 After-flush stage (10% Ethylene Glycol MonoButyl

Ether(EGMBE))
 To make the formation water wet
 To displace acid away from wellbore

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NON EMULSIFIER
 Contains water soluble group (polymer)
 Temperature sensitive
 More versatile & results in
 Prevention of emulsion formation
 Lowered surface tension
 Damage prevention

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MUTUAL SOLVENT
Reasons for using a mutual solvent
 To maintain a water wet formation
 To water wet insoluble formation fines
 To reduce water saturation near the wellbore
 To help reduce the absorption of surfactants and
inhibitors on the formation

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CLAY STABILIZER
Reasons for using Clay Stabilizer

 To keep clays and fines in suspension and to prevent

migration and swelling of clays

 Normal treating concentrations

normally up to 1% (V/V)

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DIVERTING AGENT
 Why Diverting Agent?
To place the reactive fluid evenly

 Among the pay zones in wells completed in multiple layers

with permeability contrast

 Wells completed in single layer with very long interval with

heterogeneity within the layer

 Wells completed in single layer with different magnitude of

damage within the layer

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WELL STIMULATION REACTION TIME

 The time required for a specified volume and

concentration of HCl acid to be used up to about 3.2% in a
selected formation under given conditions is defined as
Acid Reaction Time.

A major problem in fracture acidizing of

carbonate formations is that acids tend to
react too fast with carbonates and spent
near the wellbore.

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WELL STIMULATION REACTION TIME
Factors controlling the reaction rate of acid are:
 area of contact per unit volume of acid
 formation temperature
 pressure
 acid concentration
 acid type
 physical and chemical properties of formation rock
 flow velocity of acid

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WELL STIMULATION REACTION TIME

 Retardation of Acid:
To achieve deeper penetration in fracture acidizing, it is
often desirable to retard acid reaction rate. This can be
done by
 gelling,
 emulsifying
 chemically retarding the acid

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WELL STIMULATION REACTION TIME

Gelled Acid:
 The use of gelled acid for fracture acidizing has increased
to the point that it is now the most used technique.
 The introduction of more temperature-stable gelling
agents with ready application up to temperatures of about
400°F has been a major factor in selecting gelled acid for
acid fracturing. Two types of gelling systems, polymers and
surfactants, are in common use.

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WELL STIMULATION REACTION TIME
Emulsified Acid:
 For many years the primary retarded acid for fracture
acidizing was an acid-in-oil emulsion. This type of retarded
acid is very functional but is no longer the primary fracture
acid method used.
 It has limited temperature range and stability, with high
viscosity and high friction loss.
 It does, however, have the ability to restrict contact
between the acid and formation, to reduce fluid loss, and
to retain large quantities of the treating fluid in the
fracture.
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WELL STIMULATION REACTION TIME
Chemically-Retarded:
 Chemical-Retardation of HCl is obtained by the addition of
unique surfactants to the acid which form protective films
on the surface of limestone or dolomite.
 These films retard reaction rate in much the same way
that an acid corrosion inhibitor protects metal.
 In addition to retarding acid reaction rate, chemical
retarders tend to promote nonuniform etching of fracture
faces, thus increasing fracture conductivity.

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HYDRAULIC FRACTURING

Hydraulic Fracturing
 The objective of hydraulic fracturing for well stimulation is
to increase well productivity by creating a highly
conductive path (compared to reservoir permeability)
some distance away from the wellbore into the formation.
 Usually the conductivity is maintained by propping with
sand to hold the fracture faces apart.

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HYDRAULIC FRACTURING

 Acid fracturing involves most of the same

considerations as hydraulic fracturing except that
conductivity is generated by removing portions of the
fracture face with acid, leaving etched channels after
the fracture closes

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HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
 Hydraulic fracturing is the most common mechanism for
increasing well productivity

 In certain carbonate reservoirs fracturing is performed

with acid

 In other carbonate and sandstone reservoirs propped

fracturing is used

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HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
Why Fracture?
 By-pass near wellbore damage
 Increase well production by changing flow regime from
radial to linear
 Reduce sand production
 Increase access to the reservoir from the well bore

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HYDRAULIC FRACTURING

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HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
 During a fracture job or hydraulic fracturing, a service company
injects large volumes of fracture fluids under high pressure into
the well to fracture the reservoir rock. Fracture jobs are done
either in an open-hole or a cased well with perforations.

 Common fracture fluid is a gel formed by water and polymers,

long organic molecules that form a thick liquid when mixed with
water.

 Oil-based fracture fluid and foam-based fracture fluids using

bubbles of nitrogen, or carbon dioxide can also be used to
minimize formation damage.

 The fracture fluid is transported out to the fracture job in large

trailers
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HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
Acid Fracturing

 Non Acid Fluid Fracturing

 Water Based
 HC Based
 Poly Emulsion

 Non Conventional
 Nuclear
 Explosive
 HEGS (high energy gas stimulation)

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GOOD CANDIDATES FOR FRACTURING
 Sufficient Recoverable Reserves
 Sufficient Reservoir Pressure
 Low Permeability (Less Than 10 mD)
 O/W And O/G contacts Not Very Close
 Good Cementation

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FRAC FLUIDS - PROPERTIES
 Reservoir Compatibility
 Low leak off rate
 Ability to carry the propping agent
 Low friction loss
 Easy removal from the formation
 Stability at reservoir condition
 Availability
 Safety
 Cost (economics)

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TYPE OF FRAC FLUIDS
 Water base
 Oil base
 Acid base
 Fluid emulsions
 Foamed fluid

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CHARACTERISTICS OF MAJOR FLUID SYSTEMS

 Water base

 Gelled water: medium viscosity, low friction

 Cross linked water gel: high viscosity, high proppant carrying

capacity, low friction loss (with the help of delayed cross
linker)

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CHARACTERISTICS OF MAJOR FLUID SYSTEMS
 Oil base
 Compatible with reservoir, high viscosity, high friction loss

 Emulsion base
 Good viscosity, low fluid loss, good clean up

 Acid base
 Low viscosity, unstable at high temperature

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HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
A fracture job is done in three steps:
 First, a pad of fracture fluid is injected into the well
by several, large, pumping units on trucks to initiate
fracturing the reservoir.

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HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
 Next, a slurry of fracture fluid and propping agents are pumped
down the well to extend the fractures and fill them with
propping agents. Propping agents or proppants are small
spheres that hold open the fractures after pumping has
stopped.

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HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
 The propping agents are usually well sorted quartz sand grains,
ceramic spheres, or aluminum oxide pellets. The well is then
back flushed in the third stage to remove the fracture fluid.

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