Aqueous Soliutions

2.1 Define the following terms:

a) electrolyte

b) non – electrolyte

c) concentration

d) dilute solution ( dilution )

e) solution

f) aqueous solution

g) solute

h) solvent

i) dissociation

j) mole

k) molar concentration ( molarity )

l) molar mass

m) acid
Mixtures
- matter can be divided into PURE SUBSTANCES and MIXTURES

PURE SUBSTANCES MIXTURES

( single composition ) ( variable composition )

ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS HOMOGENEOUS HETEROGENEOUS

MIXTURES MIXTURES

- metals - ionic - salts

- nonmetals - molecular - acids

- metalloids - acid - bases

- base - alloys

- mixtures consist of a physical blend of TWO or MORE SUBSTANCES.

- mixtures differ from pure substances due to their variable composition.

Example:

- chocolate chip cookie: mixture of dough and chocolate chips

- beef stew: mixture of meat and vegetables

- brine: mixture of salt and water

a) HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURES

- a mixture that has a COMPLETELY UNIFORM COMPOSITION

- sugar water : mixture of sugar and water. Uniform composition because

the sugar is evenly dispersed throughout the water.

-you cannot see where the sugar starts and the water ends

HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURES ARE CALLED SOLUTIONS

- solutions can be gases, liquids or solids
Examples of mixtures:

GAS – GAS carbon dioxide and oxygen in nitrogen ( air )

LIQUID – GAS water vapor in air ( fog )

GAS – LIQUID carbon dioxide in water ( beverages – colas )

LIQUID – LIQUID acetic acid in water ( vinegar )

SOLID – LIQUID salt in water ( brine )

SOLID – SOLID copper in silver ( sterling silver )

b) HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURES

- a mixture that is NOT UNIFORM in COMPOSITION

- components can be seen as separate throughout the sample.

Examples

- ham and pineapple pizza: mixture of ham, pineapple and tomato sauce

- soil: mixture of clay, sand and rocks

HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURES ARE OFTEN CALLED

MECHANICAL MIXTURES
Aqueous Solutions
- water samples that contain dissolved substances are called AQUEOUS
SOLUTIONS

- aqueous refers to the term “ water ”

- an aqueous solution contains:

i) solute – the dissolved substance

ii) solvent - the dissolving substance ( in this case water )

WATER IS OFTEN CALLED THE “ UNIVERSAL SOLVENT ”

Aqueous solutions are ALWAYS homogeneous solutions.

Example:

salt water - solute - salt

solvent – water

vinegar - solute – acetic acid

solvent - water

koolaid - solute – juice crystals

solvent – water

Chemical Reactions in Aqueous Solutions

- chemical reactions often include mixtures as well as pure substances.

- single and double replacement reactions usually occur in an aqueous

solution.

- using the solvent WATER is an excellent way of breaking down certain types of
chemical bonds in a substance.

- when an ionic compound dissolves in water into its smaller parts ( ions ) it is
called DISSOCIATION
Example:

Na1+(aq)

Cl1-(aq)
add water and stir Cl1-(aq)
Na1+(aq)

Na1+(aq)
water

NaCl(s) salt ( solid ) Na1+(aq) and Cl1-(aq ) ions in

solution

- when you dissolve an ionic solid such as sodium chloride ( NaCl(s) ) the IONIC
BOND between the positive ions ( Na1+(aq) ) and the negative ions ( Cl1-(aq) ) needs
to be BROKEN to separate the IONS.

- dissolving in water helps with this dissociation.

BONDS BROKEN NEW BONDS FORMED

- ionic bond in NaCl(s) - forces between ions and water -

forces between water molecules molecules

ENERGY IS ABSORBED ENERGY IS RELEASED

heat is added to system heat is given off to surroundings

THIS IS DETERMINED BY A TEMPERTURE CHANGE

Uses for Aqueous Solutions
- aqueous solutions are important for living systems, industrial and household
uses.

Example:

- human blood plasma is made up of ions K1+(aq), Na1+(aq), Ca2+(aq), etc. dissolved
in water.

Using the above notes and other information to answer the following
questions:
1. Why is water a key component in living systems?

2. Why are industrial factories located by a water source?

3. Why are medications often administered intravenously ( into the vein ) rather than
in a solid form?

4. In baking we often dissolve baking soda in water. This chemical reaction gives off
the product carbon dioxide gas. How do you know this gas is produced?
Properties of Solutions
i) - water is called a “ Universal Solvent ” because of its unique properties.

- a water molecule is composed of two hydrogen and one oxygen atom.

- the covalent bonds within the water molecule involve hydrogen and
oxygen SHARING ELECTRONS so that each atom obtains a full energy
level.

H O Lewis Dot Diagram

- the shape that is formed when the electrons share is called a BENT
SHAPE

- this shape is significant because it allow an unequal sharing of electrons

which results in the water molecule having a partial positive charge ( δ )
on one end and a partial negative charge ( δ ) on the other end.

H1 δ+ O2 δ -

H1 δ+

This results in a NEUTRAL WATER MOLECULE

- the uneven charge distribution is why water is called a POLAR

MOLECULE.

- the special or unique properties of water are due to its POLAR nature.

- because water is a POLAR MOLECULE it can DISSOLVE other

POLAR MOLECULES.

‘ LIKE DISSOLVES LIKE ’

- ionic crystals are POLAR because they are made up of negative and
positive charges.

ALL IONIC COMPOUNDS DISSOLVE IN WATER TO SOME EXTENT

ii) Electrolytes

- when an ionic compound dissolves in water the BONDS between the

ions are broken by the water molecules.

- the ions now exist as FREE MOVING IONS in water.

- the breaking down of an ionic compound into its smaller parts is called

DISSOCIATION.

- when ionic compounds dissociate they produce negatively charges

and positively charged ions.

Na(s) Na1+(aq)

atom dissolved ion ( note the aqueous state )

Cl(g) Cl1-(aq)

atom dissolved ion ( note the aqueous state )

- a simple test called a CONDUCTIVITY TEST will determine if you

have free- moving ions in a solution.

- if the ions are free to move they will be attracted to one of the electrodes
of the conductivity apparatus.

‘ LIKE CHARGES REPEL and UNLIKE CHARGES ATTRACT ’

- positive ions (+) are attracted to the negative (-) electrode

- negative ions (-) are attracted to the positive (+) electrode

THE RESULTING MOVEMENT OF THESE IONS COMPLETES

AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT.
- solutes that conduct an electric current when in solution are called
ELECTROLYTES.
iii) Non – Electrolytes

- water CANNOT break the covalent bonds between the atoms in a

molecular compound.

- molecular compounds DO NOT DISSOCIATE like ionic compounds.

- water simply SEPARATES the molecules so that the compound is

dissolved in the water but NO IONS are produce.

C12H22O11(s)** C12H22O11(aq)**
solid table sugar dissolved table sugar or sugar water

*** Note the state of each compound.

- if you DO NOT separate into positive and negative ions you DO NOT
CONDUCT ELECTRICITY.

- a substance that forms a NON – CONDUCTIVE solution is called a

NON-ELECTROLYTE
Using the above notes and information from class to answer the following
questions:

Name Type of Compound Electrolyte or Non-

Electrolyte
Eg. NaCl(s) ionic electrolyte

CO2(g)

Al2O3(s)

H2O2(l)

P2O5(g)

CaF2(s)

NH3(g)

K3N(s)

MgO(s)
Concentration of Solutions
i) Definition of a solution

- a solution is a solute dissolved in a solvent.

- many consumer products that we use are SOLUTIONS

eg. beverages

medicines

household cleaners

hair products

- these are called COMMERCIAL SOLUTIONS

- to make these solutions safe for the consumer you need to make sure the
ratio of solute to solvent is appropriate for the solution.

- if you change the ratio of solute to solvent you change the properties of
the solution.

- a solution that contains a LARGE amount of solute to solvent is called a

CONCENTRATED SOLUTION

- the ratio of the quantity of solute to the quantity of solvent is called

CONCENTRATION

ii) Quantitative Properties of Concentration

- you cannot always determine concentration by its Qualitative Properties

(color, taste, odor )

- but you can determine concentration by its Quantitative Properties

- one way of determining concentration is by using a CONDUCTIVITY

APPARATUS

- the greater the concentration the more free – flowing electrons and
the greater the electrical conductivity.

- another method to determine concentration is to look at the chemical

characteristics such as how the solution reacts.

- the greater the concentration the FASTER the reaction.

 COLLISION REACTION THEORY

- a chemical reaction is a result of COLLISIONS between particles.

- the greater number of particles in a solution, the greater chance of

collisions occurring, thus a greater chance of a chemical reaction
happening.

- a concentrated solution has more particles; therefore there is an

increase of probability of a chemical reaction

iii) Methods of Determining Concentration

a) Percent by Volume ( % V/V )

- commonly used for liquids dissolved in liquids.

eg. beverages and household cleaners

volume of solute dissolved ( mL )

% V/V = 𝑽𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆/𝑽𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 x 100

concentration of solution volume of solution ( mL )

( percent by volume )
 Example:

1) A bottle of insect repellent states that 70 mL of DEET is dissolved in 500 mL of water.

What is the percent by volume of this bottle?

% V/V = 𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒/𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 x 100

= 70 𝑚𝐿/500 𝑚𝐿 x 100

= 14 %
The percent by volume of the insect repellent DEET is 14 %.

NOTE: ALL ANSWERS MUST BE IN SIGNIFICANT DIGITS ( SIG DIGS )

SIGNIFICANT DIGIT RULES

-rules state that the FINAL ANSWER is expressed to the same number of significant

digits as the value with the LEAST number of significant digits in question.

2) A gardener requires 2000 mL of insecticidal soap solution with a percent by

volume concentration of 7.00 %. The amount of volume of the solute insecticidal
soap needed is ?

% V/V = 𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒/𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 x 100

7.00 % = 𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒/2000 𝑚𝐿 x 100

0.0700 = 𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒/2000 𝑚𝐿

v solute = ( 0.0700 ) ( 2000 mL ) = 140 mL

You would need 140 mL of insecticidal soap to produce a 7.00 % percent by volume
concentration.
Using the above notes and information from class to answer the following
questions:

1. A 10% V/V solution is used for making pickles. What volume of salt is present in a
750 mL solution?

2. What % V/V of hydrogen peroxide do you have if you buy a 450 mL bottle that
contains 13.5 mL of solute?

3. Cows milk contain 4.5 mL of lactose per 100 mL of milk. What percent by
volume is present?

4. A hair product is 14.3% percent by volume. What is the volume of the solvent if the
product contains 20.0 mL of solute?

5. What is the percent by volume of a product that contains 75 mL of solute and 230
mL of solvent?
b) Parts per Million ( ppm )

- this method of calculating concentration is used for VERY DILUTE

SOLUTIONS.

eg. toxic elements in drinking water

particles in blood

level of PCB’s in fish

mass of solute ( g )

parts per million ( ppm ) = 𝑴𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆/𝑴𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 x 106 ppm

concentration of solution mass of solution ( g)

Example:

1. Hardwater contains 120 ppm of dissolved minerals. If 2.0 g of hardwater in a

kettle is boiled to dryness what mass of minerals would be obtained?

parts per million ( ppm ) = 𝑀𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒/𝑀𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 x 106 ppm

120 ppm = 𝑀𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒/2.0 𝑔 x 106 ppm

= 2.4 x 10-4 g or 0.00024 g

You would have 2.4 x 10-4 g of minerals in a 120 ppm concentrated solution.
2. What is the concentration in ppm of carbon monoxide in the lungs if the solution
contains 9.6 g of air and 1.9 g of CO2(g)?

ppm = 1.9 𝑔/9.6 𝑔 x 106 ppm

= 197916.6667 ppm

= 1.8 x 105 ppm

The concentration of carbon monoxide in the lungs is 1.8 x 105 ppm.

Using the above notes and information from class answer the following
questions:
1. What concentration in ppm of brass would you have if you dissolved 54 g of zinc in
a 127 g solution of copper?

2. If you buy a 450 g bottle of shampoo with a concentration of 300 ppm how many
grams of chemicals have you purchased?

3. Calculate the concentration in ppm of 7.00 g potassium permanganate dissolved in

30.0 mL of water? ( Note: 1 mL of water = 1 g of water )

4. If you have 1.60 x 104 ppm concentration of water in a reservoir and the original
solute contains 4.00 x 106 g of water. What is the amount of the original solution?

5. If you take 15.5 g of disinfectant solution and add 2.3 g of solute, determine the
concentration of the resulting solution in ppm.
c) Molar Concentration

- the third method of calculating concentration is called MOLAR

CONCENTRATION.

- molar concentration calculates the number of particles ( atoms, ions, or

molecules ) in a solution.

- many chemical reactions occur in solution so concentrations are often

communicated using MOLAR CONCENTRATION or MOLARITY.

number of moles of solute dissolved ( mol )

C = 𝒏𝒗

concentration of solution ( mol/L ) total volume of solution ( L )

What is a MOLE???

MOLE = a specific amount of a substance that contains 6.02 x 1023 particles

( Avogadro’s Number )
You can calculate moles by knowing: - mass

- molar mass

- concentration

- volume

- molar volume ( gases only )

- number of particles

THE MOST COMMON USE OF MOLES IS WITH MASS, MOLAR MASS AND
CONCENTRATION.

a) MASS ( g )

mass of substance ( g )

n = 𝒎𝑴

number of moles molar mass ( g/mol )

Example:

i) How many moles are in 24.0 g of NaCl(s)?

moles = ?

mass = 24.0 g

molar mass = 1 Na = 22.99 g/mol****

1 Cl = 35.45 g/mol****

Total molar mass = 58.44 g/mol

n = 24.0 𝑔(58.44 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙)

= 0.411 moles
There are 0.411 moles in 24.0 g of NaCl(s)
 ii) How many grams are in 0.0112 moles of Al2O3(s)?

moles = 0.0112 moles

mass = ??

molar mass = 2Al = 2 ( 26.98 g/mol ) = 53.96 g/mol

3O = 3 ( 16.00 g/mol ) = 48.00 g/mol

Total molar mass = 101.96 g/mol

0.0112 moles = 𝑚(101.96 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙)

m = ( 0.0112 mol ) ( 101.96 g/mol )

= 1.14 g
There are 1.14 g in 0.0112 moles of Al2O3(s)

b) CONCENTRATION ( mol/L )

number of moles of solute dissolved ( mol )

C = 𝒏𝒗

concentration of solution ( mol/L ) total volume of solution ( L 0

- you need to KNOW MOLES before you can use this formula.

- many questions include MASS rather than MOLES so you often need to use
the mass formula n = 𝒎𝑴 first before you use the concentration formula.
Example:

i) What is the concentration of 2.00 moles of KBr(aq) that is diluted to make a

250 L solution?

moles = 2.00 moles

volume = 250 L

concentration = ???

C = 2.00 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠/250 𝐿
= 0.00800 mol/L

= 8.00 x10-3 mol/L

The concentration needed for 2.00 moles of KBr(aq) is 8.00 10-3 mol/L

ii) What is the concentration of a 7.00 g solution of KCl(aq) that is prepared in

a 335 mL solution?

moles = ???

mass = 7.00 g

molar mass = 1 K = 39.10 g/mol

1 Cl = 35.34 g/mol

Total molar mass = 74.55 g/mol

volume = 335 mL = 0.335 L***

concentration = ????

*** Note: volume must ALWAYS be in liters ( L ). If question has volume in mL you
divide by 1000 to get liters ( L )

n = 7.00 g74.55 g/mol

= 0.0939 moles

C = 0.0939 moles0.335 L
= 0.280 mol/L
The concentration of 7.00 g of KCl(aq) is 0.280 mol/L
Using the above notes and information from class answer the following
question:
Fill in the following blanks:

Name Molar Mass ( g ) Moles Volume Concentration

Mass ( mol/L )
(g/mol ) (mL or L)

Silver nitrate 0.600 4.00 L

moles

Fe ( NO3)3(aq) 22.0 g 0.850 mol/L

Li2CO3(aq) 500 mL 0.750 mol/L

Zinc fluoride 4.50 g 165 mL

 Using the above notes and information from class answer the following
questions:
1. What is the molar concentration of a solution containing 0.350 moles of H2SO4(aq)
dissolved in 500 mL of solution?

2. What is the concentration of a solution that contains 100 g of sodium hydroxide

dissolved in 7.40 L of solution?

3. How many moles of H3PO4(s) are necessary to prepare 650 mL of 0.200 mol/L
solution?

Dilution
- dilution solutions contain only small amounts of solute compared to solvent.
- solutions of known concentrations are usually available but often DILUTE
SOLUTIONS of known concentration are required.
- a solution can be made LESS CONCENTRATED by adding more solvent.

** The NUMBER OF MOLES of solute DOES NOT CHANGE when a solution is

diluted. Only the VOLUME and CONCENTRATION is affected.

If moles do not change then:

C 1V 1 = C 2V 2
Initial concentration Final concentration
 Example:

i) How would you prepare 100 mL of a 0.40 mol/L MgSO4(aq) solution from a stock
solution of 2.0 mol/L MgSO4(aq)?

V1 = 0.020 L or 20 mL

You would need 20 mL of stock solution to prepare 100 mL of a 0.40 mol/L

solution of MgSO4(aq)

Example:

ii) What is the concentration of a solution if 30.0 mL of 1.50 mol/L NaCl(aq) is

diluted to a new volume of 1.30 L?

C2 = 0.0346 mol/L

If you dilute a solution from 30.0 mL to 1.30 L your concentration decreases from
1.50 mol/L to 0.0346 mol/L.
How to Prepare a Solution
- solutions of accurate concentration called STANDARD SOLUTIONS are
routinely prepared for use in laboratories and in industrial processes.

- the steps for preparing a STANDARD SOLUTION never change.

Step 1: calculate the mass of solute required ( given to you in lab question )

also called ( pre – lab )

Step 2: using a balance to accurately weigh the required mass from Step 1.

Step 3: in a beaker dissolve the correctly weighed mass in less than the final
required volume ( usually ½ of final volume ). Stir until all mass is
dissolved.

Step 4: transfer to VOLUMETRIC FLASK by using a funnel. Make sure you

rinse the beaker and funnel carefully to get all dissolved mass.

* volumetric flask is used because it is very accurate and precise

Step 5: dilute the solution to the final volume required.

final volume is indicated in lab question and is accurately measured in

volumetric flask.

Step 6: stopper the flask and invert flask several times so solute is dispersed
throughout solution.

How to Dilute a Prepared Solution

- once you have prepared your STANDARD SOLUTION ( stock solution )
you may want to dilute it.
- the steps for preparing a diluted solution never change.

Step 1: using a pipette* transfer the required amount of stock solution from
original volumetric flask into a NEW, CLEAN volumetric flask.

* pipette is used because it is very accurate and precise.

Step 2: add distilled water until the volume is just below the final required volume
from lab.

using an eye dropper and meniscus finder accurately add water until final
volume is obtained.

Step 3: stopper the flask and mix the solution by inverting the flask several times.
Using the above notes and information from class answer the following
questions.
1. A concentrated 19.1 mol/L with a volume of 10 L solution is diluted to 400 L. What is the
new concentration of the solution?

2. What volume of 14.8 mol/L concentrated aqueous ammonia is needed to prepare 5.0 L of
a 0.70 mol/L solution of household ammonia?

3. To what volume must 10.0 L of 17.2 mol/L ethanol be diluted to prepare 10.3 mol/L
ethanol solution?

4. Calculate the new concentration of 1.2 L of a 3.2 mol/L salt solution diluted by adding 0.8
L of water.

5. What is the volume of a stock solution with a concentration of 14.6 mol/L that was
created from a 0.400 mol/L and a volume of 1.50 L solution?