VOL. 60J. Sci.

61 (1), 2020, 101 - 108 :GHANA

Ghana JOURNAL OF SCIENCEhttps://dx.doi.org/10.4314/gjs.v61i1.9
Short Communication 101

THE GHANA HIGHWAY CODE AS A TEACHING

AND LEARNING MATERIAL

N. K. Nsiah-Achampong*, I. K. Yankson, W. K. Agyemang And N. A. Mingle

(N. K. N-A, I. K. Y. & W. K. A.: CSIR - Building and Road Research
Institute (BRRI), Kumasi, Ghana; N. A. M.: CSIR - Institute of Scientific
and Technological Information (INSTI)).
*Corresponding author’s email: n.nsiah@inorbit.com

ABSTRACT
The Ghana Highway Code is the official state-recognised traffic teaching and learning ma-
terial widely used in traffic schools and by motorists in Ghana. Ghana changed its traffic from
left-hand to right-hand drive in 1974; the Code was subsequently published to,
besides other reasons, guide road users to be reconditioned to a fresh standard of behaviour.
However, 46 years after its publication, the content of the Code has been outgrown by new
developments in the road environment and traffic systems, rendering the Code ineffective.
Content analysis was used to ascertain the validity and reliability of the Code. Out of 95 mo-
torists interviewed, 91.5% indicated they use or had ever used the Code, while 3.2% had not
used it before and 5.3% did not know about it at all. Hundred percent of driving schools used
the Code as teaching and learning material. It was concluded that the Code was an obsolete
teaching and learning material. The implication was that, the wide user population of the
Code had an adverse impact on learners. It was recommended that the Code be revised and
republished as new edition.

Keywords: Ghana Highway Code, Educand, Road Environment, Teaching, Learning.

Introduction and pedestrians. The Code is patronised wide-

The Ghana Highway Code is the official ly by all of road users in Ghana. The identi-
state-recognised and most widely patronised fied users and educands of the Code include
book for motorists in Ghana. It was pub- the Ghana Education Service (GES), driving
lished and promulgated in 1974 when Ghana schools, learner drivers, practising drivers, the
changed its traffic system from left-hand to police and pedestrians.
right-hand drive. The objectives of the Code Published in 1974, the Code is 46
include teaching road users how to drive, ride years old (1974 - 2016). Currently, the trans-
or walk safely on the roads to avoid road ac- port system and road environment in Ghana
cidents; serve as a standard of behaviour to all have undergone major transformations and
road users; and serve as a source of guidance developments, making the Code relatively ob-
to all road users (Ministry of Roads and Trans- solete. The Code had therefore become opera-
port (MORT), 1974). The rationale behind the tionally ineffective. There are many reprints
Code is the attainment of road safety by the of the Code in circulation with variations in
strict compliance of its provisions by motorists content. These are, however, not marked as
GJS is an Open Access Journal and distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons (CC) License [CC BY 4.0]
102 GHANA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
different editions to meet publishing require-
ments. This makes it difficult for the educand
to form a basis for determining the most recent
and therefore current publication. Researchers
are faced with the additional problem of refer-
encing. A piece of text used for analysis may
not be traced by someone else using the same
references. This is because the same referenc-
es of folio correspond commonly to all other
reprints of the Code irrespective of changes in
page content. The study aimed at determining
the validity and reliability as a teaching and
learning material for road safety education.
Experimental
The setting
The study was carried out in Kumasi where
the study population was drawn from. Kumasi
is the capital town of Ashanti Region. It is lo-
cated on latitude 60 41’N, longitude 1036’W
and has a population of 1,170,270 (Ghana
Statistical Service 2002). It is the most popu-
lous town in the Region and the second largest
city in Ghana after Accra, the national capital.
Kumasi is a nodal settlement with major roads
passing through it to other regions. Kumasi is
linked directly to Accra and Cape Coast in the
South, and Sunyani and Tamale in the North.
Data collection and study variables
The research design was delimited to quali-
tative research, where the quality of the phe-
nomenon under study, validity of the Ghana
Highway Code, was examined. Content anal-
ysis was used as a major instrument to bring
out content-details of the Code. The units of
analysis are authenticity (where authenticity
is defined in terms of recognition by Interna-
tional Serial Book Number); and medium vari-
ables. Using Medium Variables as expounded
by Wimmer and Dominick (1987), the study
formed / used seven units of enquiry as Medi-
VOL. 60
um Variables for Content analysis. These are:
(a) unfamiliar technical terms, (b) inadequate
information on everyday traffic use, (c) text
- ground data inconformity, (d) text - illustra-
tion references, (e) Shadowy illustrations, (f)
doubtful emergency instructions, (g) discourse
problems. Motorists and educands were in-
terviewed to ascertain level of patronage, us-
er-satisfaction and comprehension of the Code.
Sampling
Interviews were conducted among 12 driving
schools; and 95 motorists from different cat-
egories, namely commercial vehicle drivers,
private vehicle drivers, armed forces vehicle
drivers and government vehicle drivers, to
ascertain the user domain magnitude of the
Code. The population of driving schools in
Kumasi was 24 as obtained from the Faith
Progressive Driving school, Ashanti Regional
representative of the Ghana National As-
sociation of Driving Schools. Fifty percent
of the schools were selected by systematic
sampling in order of the list. Using the first
school as first count, every second school was
selected. Driver- respondents were selected by
purposive sampling.
Results and discussion
Motorists’ awareness of the Ghana Highway
Code
Out of 95 motorists interviewed, 87
respondents, representing 91.5% indicated
that they use or had ever used the Code. Three
respondents (3.2%) had not used the Code
before, and five respondents (5.3%) did not
know about the Code at all (Fig. 1). Out of
12 driving schools studied, 100% indicated
that they use the Code as a teaching material.
This shows that the Code is highly patronised
in Ghana by motorists and training instructors.
The situation shows how ready the Ghanaian
VOL. 60 GHANA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
motorist is, to learn. Invariably the driver
had responded to the constant urge by traffic
authorities to study the Code (Donkor, 2002).
Fig. 1: Motorists’ awareness of the Ghana High-
way Code
Presentation of Medium Variables
Unfamiliar Technical Terms
The Ghana Highway Code contains technical
terms, which are not commonly used in ev-
eryday language. Some of the terminologies
are commonly exclusive terms in the traffic
domain but are used without working defini-
tions to indicate their contextual meanings. In
publications that contain technical words or
words with multiple meanings, such words are
explained in a glossary to establish an objec-
tive line of thought from reading the text. The
103
technical terms used in the Code are as fol-
lows: kerb, central islands, traffic subways
(MORT, 1974), kerb drill. (MORT, 1974), cen-
tral reserve (MORT, 1974), expressways, hard
shoulder (MORT, 1974), central reverse (sic)
(MORT, 1974), slip roads; (MORT, 1974),
street refuge or central reservation (MORT,
1974), verges (MORT, 1974).
Inadequate Information on Everyday Traffic
Use
A driver goes through three frequent processes
in the course of driving. These are stopping,
waiting and parking. The three are problem
areas of traffic to both the driver and Traffic
Law Enforcement Agents (TLEAs) especial-
ly in urban areas where the density of traffic
is high. These driving restrictions are not ex-
plained in the Code to show the differences
among the three. An attempt is made at ex-
plaining what “No Waiting” and “No Parking”
mean (MORT, 1974): “No Parking” is unequi-
vocally explained to mean same as the “No
Parking Sign”.
It is not clear what is meant by “not
letting your vehicle stand” (MORT, 1974).
The educand’s understanding of no parking,
or not letting vehicle stand is interfered with,
with the introduction of the “Clear Way” sign
in the discourse. This is because the Code
itself does not show what a clear way sign is
among the list of signs displayed on pages 32
to 39. The educand can only make a guess if
the “Road Clear” (MORT, 1974) is the same
as “Clear Way”. In another development,
“Stopping” and “Parking” are given (MORT,
1974) only as precautions being part of the
general driving principles on the motorway
(MORT 1974).
104 GHANA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
Text - Ground Data Inconformities
Some text information in the Code does not
match corresponding realistic data on the
ground. This creates incongruity in the objec-
tive understanding-by-application method of
learning. That is, when the educand wants to
apply information in the Code to what is in
reality, he finds the visual complement to be
untrue. Examples of such unconformities are:
“Yellow lines on the road guide, warn, or give
orders” (MORT, 1974).
“Do not cross double unbroken yellow lines in
the middle of the road (MORT, 1974).
“Keep between the traffic lane markings the
short broken yellow lines which divide the
road into lanes” (MORT, 1974).
Fig. 2: One of the illustrations on pages 36 to 38 of the
Code showing yellow lines instead of white.
VOL. 60
Text - Illustration References
One text reference (MORT, 1974) does not
match corresponding folio on pages 39 to 42
as indicated. The reference may either be re-
ferring to pages 29 to 39 or 32 to 39.
Shadowy Illustrations
Illustrations in the Code are made up of 153
drawings on 20 pages, and one picture on one
page. The drawings though illustrate the text
messages, there is however, more room for
quality improvement. For example, in Figure
3, the picture (MORT, 1974) does not illus-
trate the text information definitely because it
is unclear. The picture illustration is a combi-
nation of Half Tone Copy and Line Copy. The
combination is not skillfully done to simulate
both in one whole piece. The warning triangle
appears independent of the black mass above
it. It may take the educand some guesswork to
identify all the elements in the black mass.
Doubtful Emergency Instructions
The Ghana Highway Code gives instructions
on control measures in times of emergency.
One of them is as follows:
“If your acceleration pedal jams. (sic) turn off
the ignition and brake to a stop, leaving the ve-
hicle in gear”. (MORT, 1974).
Inversion is found in the emergency instruction
stated above. The disadvantage of inversion in
language is that it changes the sequential or-
der of items in a message. According to Ew-
les and Simnett (1996), it is even more serious
in a verbal message when a word link such as
“after” is not heard by the listener. Similarly,
in the emergency instruction given above, the
inversion used makes the sequence appear as
follows:
VOL. 60 GHANA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
(1) turn off ignition
(2) Step on brakes
(3) Leave vehicle in gear.
The same instruction could be put this way if
the inversion is avoided:
“If your acceleration pedal jams, turn off your
ignition, leave the vehicle in gear and brake to
a stop”.
In this option, the sequence becomes:
(1) turn off ignition
(2) leave vehicle in gear
(3) step on brakes.
From 1974, when the Code was published
to date, vehicles have undergone mechanical
transformations. In the 1970s, vehicle con-
trol systems such as the braking and steering
mechanisms were predominantly manually
operated and would work when the ignition is
turned off.
On the contrary, energy-powered
controls have enormously replaced the obso-
lete manual system in the contemporary era.
Brakes are now servo-assisted systems. Hy-
draulic steering is gradually giving way to
powered-steering. For these types of vehicles,
when the ignition is turned off, the steering and
braking systems cease functioning. Another
type of vehicle, the automatic gear system, is
not catered for in the emergency instructions.
If the brake does not function when the igni-
tion is turned off, the alternate mechanism of
bringing the vehicle to a stop is the gear in mo-
tion.
105
Language ambiguities
Language is a subjective and sensitive subject
that requires precision in composition to carry
the intended meaning. In the Code, language
seem to be so hurriedly composed that they
are beset with omissions, typographical errors
and ambiguity that disturb the meaning of
information.
Nine omissions on eight pages and 18
typographical errors on 13 pages were identi-
fied in the Code. The educand has to imagine
a substitute for the omission, and make a
probable guess for the typographical error. The
academic (or school education) background
of the target group for the Code is varied,
from holders of the Middle School Leaving
Certificate to PhD (Nsiah-Achampong, 2004).
Thinking abilities are also in varied degrees.
The sociological perceptions of people differ
from one person to another. A strict-minded
perfectionist may not notice an omission, or
typographical error, or ambiguity as such and
may take its meaning just as it appears. If each
educand has to make an individual guess or
personal substitution, different meanings will
be assigned to information in the Code and
road user attitudes will not be tailored along
definite, common lines. This is because the
absence of, or the wrong insertion of even a
punctuation mark or an article, can affect the
meaning of a sentence. An example is as fol-
lows:
“You get into a rear wheel skid; do NOT brake
Suddenly, turn your steering wheel in the di-
rection of the skid. As the vehicle begins to
straighten out, straighten thie (sic) front wheel
also”. (MORT, 1974).
In this statement, it is not clear if the uppercase
“S” in “Suddenly” suggests that there is a full
stop at the end of “brake” which has been
106 GHANA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
omitted. If there is not, then the word “Sudden-
ly” becomes a modifier that affects the action
of braking. If there is no full stop at the end
of “brake”, then the modifier “Suddenly” af-
fects the turning action of the steering wheel.
Braking or braking suddenly, in precision re-
quired performances, are two entirely differ-
ent actions; so are, suddenly turning steering
wheel or turning steering wheel. This way, the
Ghana Highway Code becomes a teaching and
learning material that leaves the learner in a
doubtful state of traffic knowledge.
Another problem about the grammati-
cal errors in the Code is the effect it has on pu-
pils in the primary schools. Excerpts are taken
from the Code and used as English reading
material for pupils in the primary school (Cur-
riculum Research and Development Division,
2001). The rationale behind this is that the pu-
pils will be learning English Language and be
acquiring traffic knowledge at the same time.
If such errors form the basis of learning for the
young brain
in the primary school, then a poor foundation
is being created for the learning of English
Language. Ferris (1999) points out that lin-
guistic errors made by students learning En-
glish as second language are bothersome and
affect their overall evaluation. Wornyo (2016)
reiterates the essence of English grammar in
one’s progress in academic work to the extent
that poor language proficiency affects the per-
formance of students in other disciplines and
affect academic progress.
Omissions
The following are omissions identified in the
Ghana Highway Code. (An omission is indi-
cated by an underscore):
“... where there are slower vehicle_in the lane
when you have passed them”. (MORT, 1974).
VOL. 60
“… or the driver behind you wants_overtake,
you should stop at a passing place.” MORT,
1974).
“Box junction_have Criss-cross yellow lines
painted on the road”. (MORT, 1974). “… Be
particularly careful about cyclist_” (MORT,
1974).
“…The sign should be place_at least 50 yards
(46 metres) before the obstruction, and on the
same side of the road … (MORT, 1974).
“… keep any animal in your change in the
vehicle or under proper control_the verge”
(MORT, 1974).
“… use a motorway if you are_learner driver”
(MORT, 1974).
“… Remove casualty from immediate dan-
ger if_likelihood of fire form spilled petrol.
(MORT, 1974).
“Stopping distance increase_greatly with wet
and slippery roads, whole number” (MORT,
1974)
Typographical errors
The following are typographical errors iden-
tified in the Code. (An error is underlined):
“You must give way once they have stopped
unto the crossing …” (MORT, 1974). “Unless
road makings indicate otherwise ...” (MORT,
1974).
“... or when joining if from a side road ...”
(MORT, 1974).
“... if you see warnings signs and the flashing
lights ...” (MORT, 1974).
VOL. 60 GHANA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
“... a speed of 50 m.p.h. or 81 km.p.h may fell
like” (MORT, 1974).
“Never stop on or immediately beyond and
any level crossing” (MORT, 1974).
“You must not - allow your dog to be off its
lead … unless your dog is kept for tending
sheep or cattle or is in under proper control for
sporting purposes”. (MORT, 1974).
“… not stop your vehicle within the limits of a
pedestrians crossing ...” (MORT, 1974).
“… your use of the vehicle is properly insured
and that there are no restrictions in the rele-
vant insurance policy (eg. as to who drive)”
(MORT, 1974).
“… sound your horn While stationary”
(MORT, 1974).
“… keep any animal in your change in the
vehicle or under proper control the verge”
(MORT, 1974).
“… Remove casualty from immediate dan-
ger if likelihood of fire form spilled petrol”.
(MORT, 1974).
Conclusions
In its current state, the Ghana Highway Code
has outlived its purpose; published 46 years
ago, new developments in the road environ-
ment and traffic systems have rendered the
Code obsolete.
Some errors in the Code set a precedent for
arbitrary substitutions by the learner.
It is not clear what the marking scheme for
DVLA examination indicates as correct an-
swers to questions relating to lines on the road,
107
and in other areas where learners make arbi-
trary substitutes.
Recommendations
Found to be obsolete, the Ghana Highway
Code should be republished professionally by
the DVLA. The new version should take care
of contemporary traffic situations and elim-
inate language problems associated with the
current issue.
Graphics in publishing is now enhanced by
technology as compared with graphics in 1974
when the Code was published. The quality
of graphics in the new edition should be im-
proved to reflect contemporary times.
References
CURRICULUM RESEARCH AND DEVELOP-
MENT DIVISION (2001) Teaching Syllabus
for English (Primary school). Ministry of Edu-
cation, Accra, Ghana. pp.113 - 114.
Donkor, S (2002) Road Users Advised to Study High-
way Code. Daily Graphic, January 12, 2002.
p.18.
Ewles, L. & Simnett, I. (1996) Promoting Health. A
Practical Guide. Bailliere Tindall,
London. p.148.
Ferris, D. R. (1999) The case for grammar correction
in L2 writing classes: A response to
Truscott (1996). Journal of Second Language
Writing 8, 1 - 10.
GHANA STATISTICAL SERVICE (2002) 2000 Pop-
ulation and Housing Census. Special Report
on 20 Largest Localities. p.42.
MINISTRY OF ROADS AND TRANSPORT (1974)
Ghana Highway Code. Right Hand Traffic pp.
1 - 47
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Education in Ghana. The Case of Selected
Geographical Areas in Ashanti Region of
Ghana. Unpublished Thesis submitted to the
School of Graduate Studies, KNUST, Kumasi.
p.278
Wornyo A. A. (2016) Attending to the Grammatical
Errors of Students using ConstructiveTeaching
and Learning Activities. Journal of Education
and Practice 7, (7).

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Received 21 Jan 20; revised 07 Aug 20.