RELATION OF SOCIOLOGY WITH OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES

Sociology deals with general subject matter that focuses on the study of whole society. Even when
it focuses on any particular aspect of society/ social behavior, it does so in the context of the larger
society as a bigger system. Other social sciences like economics, political science and psychology
also study social behavior, but they focus on specific aspects, and do not relate to the society as a
whole- only sociology and anthropology relate to entire society. Or we can say that other social
sciences deal with social behavior in atomistic manner, whereas sociology (and anthropology) is
holistic study of human society.

However, this does not mean that various social sciences are totally disassociated with each other.
Rather, no social science can be complete in itself without deriving something from other related
disciplines. Sociology has been assigned the special integrative task as it studies all aspects of
social life taken together. August Comte opined that sociology has the responsibility of integrating
all the social sciences, since it deals with holistic study of society. Thus, it becomes very important
to understand how is sociology related to other social sciences.

I. Sociology and Anthropology

As the name suggests, anthropology deals with the study of mankind. However, unlike sociology,
which deals with only social aspects of man, anthropology deals with social, and physical aspects
of mankind. Thus, in true sense, anthropology is holistic study of man, and sociology is limited to
the social aspect of human behavior. Anthropology is further sub- divided into study of physical
features, covered under physical anthropology, and study of social dimension of society, covered
under social anthropology. Here, since we are dealing with sociology, its relation and comparison
with social anthropology is more significant.

Sociology developed in the backdrop of the problems/ issues created by industrialization process
(and associated capitalism) in the eighteenth century Europe and America. Social anthropology
developed in the colonial pursuit of the European countries in Asia and Africa (as already
mentioned). When the Europeans ventured out to harness the natural resources here, they
encountered indigenous communities with ‘bizarre culture and traditions’. Their administrative
experiences lead to the requirement of studying these primitive people, and social anthropology
developed with its specific focus on tribal societies. Thus, sociology became the study of our
culture, and social anthropology became study of ‘other culture’.

Contrary to sociology, social anthropology deals with the tribal societies and their social
institutions and processes. It is also distinctive in placing more focus on concept of culture. Topics
of interest for a social anthropologist are the customs, economic and political organization, law
and conflict resolution, patterns of consumption and exchange ensuing among the primitive
communities. Contemporary social anthropology has come to be involved with more current issues
of society, such as globalization, ethnic violence, gender studies, transnational aspects as well as
local trends, and the impact of modern technologies like mass media and cyber technology on the
local people.
 Table: Difference between sociology and social anthropology
Features Sociology Social Anthropology
Origin of Sought in terms of requirements to handle Sought in terms of problems originating
Discipline problems associated with capitalism and from tribal administration under colonial
industrialization. context.
Subject Deals with urban society more often, thus Deals with tribal societies more often,
matter involving the study of one’s own culture. thus it more often deals with study of
‘other culture’
Focus More on concept of society More on concept of culture.
Methods • Field work used less. • Field work is the cardinal feature.
• More focus on quantitative • More focus on qualitative research.
research/
statistical data.

Relationship between Sociology and Social Anthropology: The current status of the relationship
between the two disciplines is that in spite of the ensuing difference between the two, sociology
and social anthropology are complementary, rather than contradictory to each other. Thus,
sociology can derive a lot of knowledge from social anthropology. The tribal societies, which fall
within the purview of social anthropology, present a picture of complete society, where basic social
institutions and units can be studied. This helps the sociologist in understanding the functioning of
these social units in the bigger, modern societies.

For example, sociologists study marriage as a simple, monogamous institution, as it exists in many
modern societies. Similarly, religion is also seen in the context of modern societies. But the study
of marriage and religion in tribal communities suggests a wider range of their types and functions
in society, which has been very relevant for sociology. Sociology has thus enriched its base of
knowledge and has matured in its understanding. Apart from this, sociology has enriched its
methodology and conceptual basis as it derives its information from social anthropology.

If sociology has developed in terms of depth and maturity of its knowledge base, social
anthropology has also derived immensely from sociology. Though technically speaking social
anthropology specializes in the study of tribal societies, it cannot ignore the study of modern
societies. Today, tribal societies do not exist in isolation- in the words of Robert Redfield, there
occurs a ‘rural- urban continuum’ between rural and urban societies. The interrelation between
tribal and modern societies presents an interface where social anthropology is deriving data and
information from the experiences of sociologists.

For example, customary laws present in the tribal communities are undergoing a lot of changes
because of the efforts of state to codify them. The social anthropologists have to take recourse to
the modern legal system to understand the interaction between the customary laws and modern,
codified laws. It helps the social anthropologists in understanding the context of legal pluralism in
which these customary laws are existing.

II. Sociology and Psychology

Psychology is often defined as the science of human behavior, (where it primarily deals with study
of individual) and the mental processes. Behavior refers to the observable action of an individual,
whereas mental processes refer to an individual’s perceptions. As study of the basic individual
behavior, it focuses on the innate faculties of man which tend to mould his personality. Thus, it
tends to incorporate other aspects of individual behavior such as basic instincts, sympathy,
suggestion, imitation etc., which direct human behavior. It is also concerned with individual’s
learning, memory, intelligence and motivations. It explains the behavior in terms of the functioning
of the nervous system and individual’s reaction to a particular situation.

Psychology tends to investigate phenomena such as sensations, perceptions, thoughts, violations

and emotions, analyses them, classifies them, and tries to reduce them to most fundamental units
of analysis. It studies how do these phenomena operate and applies the laws that govern them. On
the basis of it’s study, psychology tries to arrive at generalizations that describe their characteristic
features.

Further, psychology goes to unravel the philosophical base of these phenomena, and tries to
establish a cause and effect relationship- for instance, if an individual exhibits certain deviant/
abnormal behavior, psychology tries to go into the root cause of the problem, relating to his
personality and mind.

Psychology looks at human behavior from neuroscience perspective, where it focuses on how are
the messages transmitted in the body and how do the physiological features (such as blood
chemistry) affect the moods and motives of the individual. It looks at human behavior from
evolutionary perspective and attempts to analyze how evolution influences behavior tendencies. It
looks at genetic perspective of behavior and focuses to see how genes influence the human
behavior. It looks at behavior from psychodynamic perspective and tries to understand how the
personality traits and disorders can be explained in terms of sexual and aggressive drives. It also
indulges in the cognitive perspective of human behavior and focuses on the manner in which
humans use information in remembering, reasoning and solving problems.

However, in the study of individual behavior, the role of society as the external molding agency
cannot be ruled out. Thus, psychology takes the view that the role of society is crucial in forming
the individual’s personality.

Table: Difference between sociology and Psychology

Features Sociology Psychology

Subject Deals with society and collective behavior Deals with individual and his
matter of mankind. behavior in individual capacity.
Focus More on concept of society, human beings More on individual. Society is only
are sub- ordinate to society and have no important in context of the
independent existence of their own. individual.
Study the relation between man and society. Study the relation of individual with
mind.
Studies the social processes. Studies the mental processes.
Methods Reliance on typical qualitative and Use of more more precisely
quantitative methods. developed scales and tests to
determine the personality types etc.
Experimental methods not used that Relatively easier to carry out
regularly. experimental studies here.
 No tests used as such. Various types of psychological tests
used (personality test, aptitude tests,
interests tests etc.)

Relation between Sociology and Psychology: In spite of the differences between the two
subjects, sociology and psychology are complementary to each other. Psychology relates to study
of individual behavior, but it can only be understood in the backdrop of society. On the other hand,
sociology talks about social behavior of mankind, where understanding individual behavior
becomes important. Thus, psychology gains from sociological studies in understanding the role
of society in forming the human personality.

For example, focus of psychology is on personality formation of the individual members, where
role of parents, kin members and peer group becomes very important. Sociology helps in
understanding how do these members mould the individual behavior through the process of
socialization. Talcott Parsons, an eminent sociologist, has extensively discussed the role of family
in socialization and in the process of stabilization of adult personalities. In the context of a family,
the children develop positive personalities only when the parents present to them positive role
models and provide positive atmosphere for their development. A negative environment in the
family and negative role models only lead to formation of negative personalities.

On the other hand, role of psychology in understanding social aspects of human behavior can be
analyzed in the context of study of deviant or criminal behavior. Sociological study of criminal
behavior is dominated by psychological school, which explains the relation between personality
types and criminal/ deviant tendencies in individuals. Psychological analysis explains the relation
of brain functioning/ dis-functioning with problematic learning process, which ultimately leads to
formation of criminal personalities. Similarly, the concept of id, ego and superego can be used to
explain why some people become criminals, while others are normal, social and responsible
beings.

As discussed above, the subject matter of sociology and psychology is different but correlated.
The gap between the two disciplines is quite narrow, and this gap is further abridged by social
psychology. Social psychology is a branch of psychology that uses scientific methods to
understand and explain the ways in which individual thoughts, feelings and behavior get
influenced by collective living. It broadly studies the impact of social environment and group
interaction on attitudes and behavior of individuals. Thus, it covers a wide range of issues such as
individual behavior in group, role of social perception in personality development, non verbal
behavior, conformity of individual behavior with social norms, aggression in social context etc.

III. Sociology and History

History is the study of the events that have actually taken place in the past. It is the interpretation
and analysis of human past that enables us to understand continuity and change in society. Scope
of history requires a truthful and honest depiction of past events, facts and happenings of a
particular period. It is an important subject that tells us about the past and heritage of any person,
event or nation. While studying the past sequence of events, a historian tries to present a picture
of how the society functioned, what were the customs that prevailed, what were the beliefs that
molded human thinking and what were the various social institutions which fulfilled different
functions of society. Obviously, not all historians have adopted such analysis of the past events-
in fact many of them have mainly concentrated on interesting accounts of the rulers, the
administrative system and the events of war. These accounts present only a narrow understanding
of the old scholars.

The trend is changing greatly in the present historiographic works- the historians now focus on the
various aspects of past society by indulging in empirical studies of contemporary societies. For
example a historian may study the history of hill stations- for this he will have to study the
documentary evidences of the past records, as well the current hill stations.

Historians use all sorts of evidences to examine, interpret, revisit and reinterpret the past of human
society. They use primary sources to develop a chronology of events belonging to a particular time
block. In their historical accounts of different time periods, they depend upon both material and
non- material evidences. Thus, written documents, oral communications, and objects such as
buildings, artifacts, paintings etc. are used by them to build vivid accounts of the past. They are
trained in the methods of discovering and evaluating these sources, and in making historical sense
out of them.

Contemporary history aims to conceptualize some aspects of recent past, or provide a historical
account of current trends or developments. It describes the time period that is closely connected to
the present day, without any intervening period – it is thus connected to modern history.
Contemporary historians have plentiful archival sources to work upon. Most of the modern states
have relatively good record maintaining practices. The dawn of electronic age has further
facilitated the availability of the records. Additionally, even if archives are not available in a
particular country, archives can be obtained from other countries. It has become relevant in the
modern context in terms of explaining modern international relations and contemporary society.

Table: Difference between sociology and history

Features Sociology History
Subject Deals with society in its present Deals with society in the past.
matter context.
It is more analytical and deals with It is more descriptive and concrete.
concepts that are quite often
abstract.
It is more generalizing in its It is individualising- talks about certain events
approach. or people, without attempting any
generalizations.
Methods Works on basis of well developed Works on the basis of evidences collected
research plan and believes in first from the historical sites, and places these
hand data collection through evidences in their temporal perceptive.
various stages of research.
It is more realistic as it deals with Can be pretty conjectural as the historian
study of present societies that are tends to visualize how societies may have
available for evaluation. existed in the past on the basis of artifact etc
found from the historical sites.
Relation Between Sociology and History: Needless to say, our present is handed over to us by
ancestors. Our thinking and way of living is a gift from the past. Or we can say that there occurs a
very important link between the past and the present. Sociology provides the base for
understanding institutions of the present society, and the historian is able to build up his conjectures
of the past society on the basis of this information.

For example, when various material objects are found in the burials from old sites, the historian
can make conjectures about human attitude/ feelings about after death, and develop information
about religion. The human figurines found from the various sites also tell us about the gods and
goddesses that were worshipped by human ancestors. The cave paintings are a reflection of how
man related to nature in the past and how his inquisitiveness helped in developing religion. The
study of the Buddhist sites helps in understanding where did the religion originate, how did it
develop and spread to various parts of the world. A historian is able to make all these conjectures
only on the basis of the understanding of contemporary religion provided by sociologists.

Sociology can get enriched by knowing about the past of contemporary institutions, studied by the
historians. For example, caste system in India has existed since the Vedic period. Historians
provide an elaborate understanding of the caste system by referring to the Vedic texts. The
sociologist can develop a good understanding of the origin and development of the caste system
in India through these historical accounts provided by ancient historians. It helps in understanding
the function of caste system in analyzing the basic foundation of division of labor in Indian society.
It helps in understanding how did the jajmani system develop and lead to the continuity of this
system from the Vedic period to the present Indian society. It helps in understanding the changes
that have developed in this institution since its inception.

Thus, sociology and history are related to each other in a very comprehensive way. In fact, G. E.
Howard marks the relationship between the two by saying that history is the past of sociology and
sociology is the present of history. History supplies information to sociology about the past of
human society and helps in doing an in- depth analysis of social facts. According to Bierstedt, if
the past is the continuous cloth unrolling through the centuries, history deals with the study of the
threads and strands that make up the cloth, while sociology is interested in its patterns.

Often terms like social history and historical sociology are used, which define the
interrelationship between sociology and history. Social history refers to that branch of history
which concentrates upon the social, economic and cultural institutions of people. It tends to
emphasize upon social structures and interactions of different groups in society. Historical
sociology on the other hand is an outgrowth of sociology that is associated with the study of the
historical emergence, reproduction and breakdown of the various social orders in the world.

IV. Sociology and Political Science

Political science is older than sociology and largely deals with the study of political activities of
man. Although it was formally laid down as a discipline in the nineteenth century, when all social
sciences had been established, origin of political science can be traced back to about 2,500 years
ago. Eminent political thinkers like Aristotle and Plato can be said to be founding fathers of
political science. In the Indian context, Kautilya holds an important position in Ancient history as
a political thinker. Even before that epics like Mahabharta talk about state and duties of king in
elabote manner under Shantiparva.

Political science has been mainly concerned with study of government, public policies, political
processes and political systems. Political theory, political philosophy, political ideology, political
economy, policy studies and analysis, comparative international relations fall within the purview
of various subfields of political science. The political scientists use both humanistic and scientific
perspectives and tools and methodologies to examine the political process, political systems and
political dynamics of all countries of the world.

State is the focal concern for the political scientists - the various elements of state, i.e. population,
territory, government and sovereignty form important part of the subject area of political science.
Organization of social groups under the sovereign state, allocation of power in decision making,
role of government and international organizations in the process of governance become important
issues for them. Further, the political scientists study governance and specific state policies by
examining factors such as stability, justice, material wealth and peace.

Conventionally political science had been concerned with political theory and political
administration, which did not exactly touch political behavior as such. However, modern political
science relates more to the political behavior of mankind in a more holistic manner. It can adopt
positivist temperament and carry out observations of the political behavior in controlled
environments. Use of experimental methods has thus become increasingly common under modern
political science. The modern political scientists consider political science as observational
science, where they have historically observed political elites, institutions and individual and group
behavior in order to identify patterns, draw generalizations and build theories of politics.

Table: Difference between sociology and political Science

Features Sociology Political Science
Subject matter It is a general science and deals with It is more specific in its scope and
over all social behavior of mankind. deals with political behavior of
mankind.
Focus More on concept of whole of More on concept of state, and relation
society, and relation of human with of man with state.
society
Types of societies Focus on both organized and Deals mainly with organized
studied unorganized societies. societies
Studies all types of social Studies mainly specific (political)
institutions and associations. institutions and associations.
Types of means Deals with both formal and Deals only with formal social control
of social control informal social control. within the purview of state.
Types of relations All types of social relations – formal Formal relations in context of state.
as well as informal.

Relationship Between Sociology and Political Science:

As a study of state, political science is associated with those systems that are related to state. It
focuses on the various elements of state, viz. population, territory, government and sovereignty.
All these elements of state also fall under the subject area of sociology, though the treatment of
these concepts is different in both the disciplines. For instance, population under political science
refers to the community living within the state boundary, enjoying all the civic rights. Under
sociology this population acquires the status of society and it is treated as a social group, which
forms its basic concept.

For a political scientist, territory refers to the boundary within which state can exercise its legal
control and carry out its activities. In sociology territory is the geographical boundary within which
the community lives and carries out its social activities. The physical features of the territory
determine both the type of political organization and various social institutions (such as family,
marriage, kinship organization, economic activities). Thus, territory is important concept both in
political science and sociology, though it receives different treatment under both the disciplines.

Another important issue, which may be raised here, is the fact that state acts as the most eminent
and important legal force of social control. By formulating the laws and by laying down expected
codes of behavior, state acts as a coercive agent of social control and brings about uniformity and
regularity in society. The government also removes many social evils (such as poverty, inequality,
unemployment etc.) and gives financial assistance to people in times of dire need, such as natural
calamities (floods, feminine etc.). This is a very important aspect of the relationship between state
and society, which no political scientist or sociologist can ignore.

The interrelationship between sociology and political science can be explored through the
following examples. In sociology, law, which is laid down by state, becomes the important means
of regulating society- thus social order is maintained and basic functioning of society is possible
because law brings social control using the coercive force of the state. Thus, studying how laws
are laid down is relevant for a sociologist. On the other hand, presence of customary laws in
society, and its acceptance under the constitution, provides important context of legal pluralism,
with which a political scientist will be concerned. The traditional mechanisms of dispute resolution
in the the indigenous communities reflect important aspect of political behavior, which cannot be
ignored in the modern context.

The interdependence between the two disciplines has increased in modern days- so much so that
sometimes it becomes difficult to make out that a particular work is done by a sociologist or a
political scientist. Both political science and sociology are related and have a mutual influence on
each other. In fact, sociology has a specific branch (called political sociology) that deals with the
study of political institutions and political behavior of mankind. However, the approach and focus
of study under political sociology is different than political science. Contrary to political science,
political sociology deals with the social aspect of political behavior- it studies the manner in which
the political institutions influence the other social institutions of a community.

V. Sociology and Economics

Economics is the social science that deals with the study of processes of production, distribution
and consumption of goods and services. According to an eminent economist Alfred Marshal,
economics deals with the basic needs of mankind and the other related aspects. Since these can
only be met through material means, we can define economics as the study of those human
activities which are associated with acquisition of material means to satisfy the basic needs. Or we
may say that economics is about how man earns money and how does he spend it to satisfy his
basic needs.

Economics is also viewed as the study of how people make choices between the available resources
to meet their basic requirements. These resources include land, buildings, equipments and tools,
and the time and talent required to utilize these resources. Definition of Marshall Shalins is
important here- he says that economics is the science that studies human behavior as a relationship
between given ends and scare means, which have alternative uses.

Economics also seeks to ensure the well being of the people, and how this well being can be
increased overtime, to evaluate the well being of the rich and the poor. Apart from this, it seeks to
address individual as well as collective behavior of people, and of the behavior of the industries
and businesses, of governments and countries and of the globe as a whole. *

Table: Difference between sociology and economics

Features Sociology Economics
Subject A general science of society that deals It is a specific science that deals with
matter overall social behavior of mankind. economic aspect of human
relations.
A social science of relatively recent Has attained advanced degree of
emergence, hence lagging behind in maturity.
terms of intellectual maturity.
Focus Whole of society and social behavior. Specifically studies economic
Studies social relations, social behavior, economic institutions and
institutions and social processes economic processes.
Methodology Equally uses both quantitative and Quantitative research methods
qualitative research methods focused more.

Relation between Sociology and Economics: The economist focuses on the economic activities,
but these activities can only be studied as a part of the wider social activities. The fact that society
is influenced by economic factors, while the economic processes are largely determined by the
social environment in which people live, clearly sets forth the interdependence of the two
disciplines. The economic activities can be carried out only when the society lays down the means
and ways of conducting these activities. It would be apt to say that economic activities are guided
by social, religious and cultural values set by the society. It is the society that dictates which means
are to be adopted by the members for fulfilling their needs, and which means are unjustified. On
the other hand, the economic institutions and processes are closely related to basic requirements
which must be met if society is to sustain as a social unit. This indicates a very close association
between economic system and the social system.

Economics does not deal with man only as a consumer- it also studies his consumption pattern in
a society. His consumption level will depend upon his purchasing power, which will in turn is
determined by his economic status. The consumption level of the individual will in turn determine
his social status- i.e. his social position in the society. Economic status of the individual
determines both his purchasing power and his social power- this again reflects the close and
indispensable association between economic and social sphere.
Economics talks about the economic/ materialistic welfare of humans, but this economic welfare
can only be possible when we consider the social aspects of any society, which falls within the
purview of sociology. Thus, when an economist talks about solving the economic problems of as
society, (such as unemployment, poverty etc.), he has to take into cognizance the social aspects of
these problems. For instance, in Indian society, the problem of poverty is intertwined with the caste
factor- people belonging to the lower caste tend to be poor because the out castes people (belonging
to the scheduled caste category) have been socially marginalized and excluded for ages. Thus, in
India, poverty cannot be removed without addressing the caste factor.

This shows interdependence between economics and sociology- both study the economic behavior
of man and both influence each other mutually. Obviously, the method of study of the economic
behavior and the focus of study would be different in both the disciplines. Also, the subject area
of economics is very specific- it focuses only on the economic or material aspect of man; it does
not necessarily take into account the wider society when studying the economic behavior of
mankind. But sociology cannot take atomistic approach in studying the economic behavior of
mankind- it has to study the economic aspect in the wider context of the society, or the relevance
of the study would be totally lost.

We may sum up the relation between economics and sociology by saying that though the two
disciplines show great interdependence and both mutually affect each other, the subject areas and
the methodology of the two are totally different.

Economic sociology has developed as a branch within sociology that focuses more on the
economic aspect of human behavior, within the larger context of society. Technically speaking,
economic sociology is the study of social cause and effect relationship associated with various
economic phenomena. It focuses on the study of institutional, network, power and cognitive
dimension of economic behavior of mankind, with its main substantive areas as development,
globalization and financial markets.

Sociology is a holistic study of society, and involves the study of mechanisms that help in
functioning society. Role of law is very important in this. Because there exists a relationship
between society and law, relevance of sociology for the discipline of law can be studied. The
relationship between the two disciplines, sociology and law, is very important, and it is touched in
the next chapter.