BS-PSYCHOLOGY (VIII)

CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY

ASSIGNMENT NO: 01

TOPIC: GENDER AND CULTURE

SUBMITTED BY: FATIMA TARIQ, KHADIJA BIBI, LAIBA KHAN, AIMEN

MUKHTAR, NIMRA ARSHAD and MARYAM AZAD

SUBMITTED TO: MA’AM QARSAM MUNAWAR

DATE: 8TH SEPT 2023

Batch BS_ 2k19

ARMY BURN HALL COLLEGE FOR GIRLS

ABBOTTABAD
 TABLE OF CONTENT

CONTENT GROUP MEMBERS

Definition, where do they come from, types of

Fatima Tariq
Gender Stereotypes

Factors affecting Gender Stereotypes Laiba Khan

Strategies Nimra Arshad

Sex Role Ideology Introduction Aimen Mukhtar

Types & Characteristics of Sex Role Ideology Khadija Bibi

Changing perspectives and progress Maryam Azad

 Gender Role and Stereotypes
Gender:
Attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person’s
biological sex. Gender refers to the characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that
are socially constructed.
Stereotypes:
Belief about social group in terms of the traits or characteristics that they are believed
to share, stereotype are cognitive framework that influence the processing of social
information. .
Gender Stereotypes:
Gender stereotype is beliefs about the personal attributes of females and males.
It can be defined as the overgeneralization of characteristics or differences or
attributes of a certain group based on their sex. Gender stereotyping is defined as an
overgeneralization of characteristics, differences and attributes of a certain group
based on their gender. Gender stereotypes create widely accepted biases about certain
characteristics or traits and perpetuate the notion that each gender and associated
behaviors are binary.
Classification of Gender Stereotypes:
Gender stereotypes have two components, which are:
• Descriptive: Beliefs about how people of a certain gender do act, and their
attributes

• Prescriptive: Beliefs about how people of a specific gender should act and
attributes they should have.

Gender stereotypes can be positive or negative. This doesn’t mean good or

bad—even stereotypes that seem “flattering” can have harmful consequences.5
• Positive gender stereotypes: Describe behaviors or attributes that align with
accepted stereotypical ideas for that gender, and that people of that gender are
encouraged to display (for example, girls should play with dolls and boys
should play with trucks)4

• Negative gender stereotypes: Describe behaviors or attributes that are

stereotypically undesirable for that gender and that people from that gender
 are discouraged from displaying (such as women shouldn’t be assertive, or
men shouldn’t cry)

Themes:
Gender stereotypes tend to be divided into these two generalized themes:
• Communion: This stereotype orients people to others. It includes traits such
as compassionate, nurturing, warm, and expressive, which are stereotypically
associated with girls/women/femininity.

• Agency: This stereotype orients people to the self and is motivated by goal
attainment. It includes traits such as competitiveness, ambition, and
assertiveness, which are stereotypically associated with boys/men/masculinity.

Masculinity:
The behaviors, attributes, attitudes, norms, hierarchy of values, manners, occupations,
social rules and relations associated with men within a particular society.
Feminity:
The behaviors, attributes, attitudes, norms, hierarchy of values, manners, occupations,
social rules and relations associated with girls or women within a particular society.
Gender Stereotyping is mainly visible in:
• Physical appearance.
• Domestic behavior.
• Occupation.
• Personality traits.
 MEN WOMEN

Bread winner of family. Take care of family and h

Social roles portrayed as leaders. Home. Portrayed as
Followers.
Occupation Mechanic, Engineer, Nurse, teacher, fashion
Manager, crew, pilot. Designer, baby sitter.
Personality Traits Active, Dominant, Passive, dependant,
Independent, Aloof. Peaceful, fearful, talkative.

Physical men are expected to be women are expected to be

Appearance Tall and muscular. Thin and graceful.

Where do they come from?

Gender stereotypes are complex and originate from local culture and traditions.
Children learn what constitutes female and male behavior from their family and
friends, the media and institutions including schools and religious bodies. Gender
stereotypes can have an adverse effect on all genders, as young people find
themselves regularly exposed to messages about how boys and girls should look,
behave and play. These socially accepted and often unconscious ideas start to form in
infancy.
Origin:
Experts often discuss the origin of gender stereotypes— while many attribute them to
biological factors, others point out that it all comes from sociological aspects.
Whatever may be the case, it’s clear that gender roles as we know them today mostly
originated during the Victorian era.
The Victorian era, which comprises most of the 19th century, was characterized by
strong ideas regarding the roles of each gender in society. Mostly, men were expected
to present themselves in public spheres, such as politics and business. Women were
expected to stay at home, taking care of the private sphere.
Difference between gender and sex:
Sex is a multidimensional biological construct based on anatomy, physiology,
genetics, and hormones. (These components are sometimes referred to together
as sex traits).
Sex refers to biological differences; chromosomes, hormonal profiles, internal and
external sex organs.
Gender can be broadly defined as a multidimensional construct that
encompasses gender identity and expression, as well as social and cultural
expectations about status, characteristics, and behavior as they are associated
with certain sex traits
Gender describes the characteristics that a society or culture delineates as masculine
or feminine.
Difference between sex and gender:
SEX GENDER
Biologically
a. determined Socially constructed
Determined by organs of birth Determined by social roles based on
gender
Anatomy of reproductive system Personal identification of one’s own
gender.
Will have secondary sexual
characters Will be based on internal awareness
Denotes physical differences
between male and female Denotes behavioral and cultural
practice
Results from chromosomes and
other biological factors Results from socialization process
It has expectations in physical
appearance It has social expectations
Concept of sex is same all over the
world Varies between and within the
societies
No difference Gender roles are different at different
history
 CULTURAL FACTOR:

Cultural factors play a substantial role in shaping and perpetuating gender stereotypes.
Here are some ways in which culture influences these stereotypes:

• Traditional Gender Roles: Many cultures have long-standing traditions and

expectations regarding the roles and responsibilities of men and women. These
traditions can lead to the reinforcement of specific stereotypes about what is
considered appropriate behavior for each gender.
• Media and Entertainment: The media, including television, movies, and
advertising, often portrays and reinforces gender stereotypes. These portrayals
can influence how people perceive gender roles and identities. For example,
women might be depicted as primarily concerned with appearance and
domestic duties, while men are portrayed as dominant and career-focused.
• Religious Beliefs: Religious beliefs and teachings can have a significant
impact on gender stereotypes. Some religious traditions have specific
expectations for the roles and behaviors of men and women, which can
reinforce traditional gender norms.
• Education: Educational systems can either challenge or reinforce gender
stereotypes. For example, if textbooks and curricula portray historical figures
or scientists predominantly as male, it can subtly communicate that certain
fields or achievements are more appropriate for men.
• Language: Language can reflect and perpetuate gender stereotypes through
the use of gendered words and phrases. For instance, languages with gendered
nouns may assign specific objects or concepts to a particular gender, which
can reinforce gender associations.
• Family and Peer Influences: Families and peer groups often transmit
cultural beliefs about gender roles and expectations. Children learn from their
parents, siblings, and friends what is considered normal behavior for boys and
girls.
• Social Norms: Cultural norms, which can vary widely between societies,
influence how people are expected to behave based on their gender. These
norms can be restrictive and lead to discrimination against those who do not
conform to them.
 • Economic Factors: Economic opportunities and access to certain
professions can also be influenced by gender stereotypes. In some cultures,
certain careers or industries may be seen as more suitable for one gender over
the other.

Disrupt gender stereotypes at home

Parents and caregivers are children’s first models for how gender is performed. Adults
can model language and behavior that challenge binary and harmful stereotypes, such
as the belief that women should do more housework – even when they have full-time
employment. For example, in households with more than one parent, and especially in
different-gender couples, parents can share parenting responsibilities and household
tasks. Actions speak louder than words, and children are more likely to reject the idea
of traditional gender norms when their parents exhibit fairness and divide domestic
labor equitably, not just mention it as something they value.Parents can switch up
children’s chores so they learn about housekeeping in a no gendered way. Boys can
do dishes, and girls can take out the garbage. Parents can also ensure allowance is
equitable, as the gender pay gap can start at home. Research suggests girls earn less
allowance even when they do more chores.

Help children gain comfort with a broader range of activities, regardless of their
gender.

Observe the ways children's choices seem influenced by gender lines varying
groupings during free play/choice time.

Establish non-sexist routines and experiences by ensuring that all children have equal
responsibility in assigned jobs.

Help children develop skills for thinking critically and taking action.

Have them explore their ideas about gender identity and think about what is or is not
“fair with respect to gender.

Teach them ways to address hurtful gender put-down.

Honor children when they stand up for themselves or others in the face of gender bias.

Watch for signs of domestic violence

Get some help and support if you know a friend or acquaintance is suffering from
domestic violence or other abuse. This type of violence is not restricted to physical
aggression. Verbal attacks (curses and threats) and psychological abuse (controlling,
manipulative and intimidating behavior) also affect women. Often, all these things
occur together. If you experience domestic violence, be aware that you are not alone.
Report it!

Reject chauvinist and racist attitudes

Do not make comments that ridicule, demean or humiliate women, black people,
indigenous people, members of the LGBTQI community or any other historically
marginalized groups. And don’t keep quiet if you hear such comments. Talk to your
colleagues, friends and family frankly and tell them to stop with the chauvinist, racist,
homophobic and transphobic insults.

Create an Inclusive Environment in Schools

As a teacher, you set the tone in your classroom, and what you choose to share and
highlight can help you create a bias-free environment. For example, what type of
images decorates the classroom walls and feature in material – do they represent all
cultures and a balance of genders? Is the room accessible for students with
disabilities?

Plan Policies to Meet the Needs of All Genders

If you're a part of a government agency, a business executive, or a leader of a community

organization, you might have the opportunity to have an impact on eliminating gender
stereotypes. When you're creating policies for your organization, simply pay attention to
what all of your employees need and create policies that make it easier for everyone to
fulfill those needs within your organization.

Sex Role Ideology:

Sex role ideology refers to a set of beliefs, expectations, and norms in society
regarding the roles, behaviors, and responsibilities associated with individuals based
on their biological sex. It can encompass traditional or stereotypical views about what
is considered appropriate for men and women. These ideologies have evolved over
time and can vary significantly across cultures and historical periods. Modern
societies have been working towards more equitable and flexible gender roles, aiming
to reduce the impact of rigid sex role ideologies.
Historical Background of Sex Ideology:
The historical background of sex role ideology is complex and has evolved
significantly over time. Here's a brief overview of its historical development:

1. Ancient Societies: In many ancient societies, including those in Mesopotamia,

Egypt, Greece, and Rome, there were clear gender roles and expectations.
Men were typically seen as the providers and warriors, while women were
primarily responsible for household duties and child-rearing. These roles were
often tied to the economic and social structures of the time.
2. Middle Ages and Renaissance: During the middle Ages and Renaissance
periods in Europe, Christian religious teachings reinforced traditional gender
roles, emphasizing the submission of women to men. Women were expected
to be chaste, obedient, and focused on domestic roles.
3. Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th
centuries brought significant changes to gender roles. As industrialization
progressed, men increasingly left the home to work in factories, while women
were expected to maintain the household. This marked the emergence of the
"separate spheres" ideology, where men were associated with the public
sphere (work) and women with the private sphere (home).
4. Suffrage and Feminism: The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the rise
of women's suffrage movements and the first waves of feminism. Women
began advocating for equal rights, including the right to vote and access to
education and employment opportunities.
5. World Wars: The world wars of the 20th century led to significant changes in
gender roles. Women entered the workforce in large numbers to replace men
who were serving in the military. This challenged traditional notions of
women's roles and contributed to the feminist movements of the mid-20th
century.
6. Second Wave Feminism: The 1960s and 1970s saw the emergence of the
second wave of feminism. This movement focused on issues such as
reproductive rights, workplace equality, and challenging traditional gender
roles. It played a pivotal role in reshaping societal attitudes toward gender.
 7. Ongoing Evolution: In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, there has been
ongoing progress toward more equitable gender roles and a broader
acceptance of diverse gender identities. Laws and social norms have evolved
to promote greater gender equality in many parts of the world.

Types of Sex Role Ideology

Sex role ideology refers to an individual's beliefs and attitudes about the appropriate
roles and responsibilities of men and women in society, particularly how these roles
are shaped by societal expectations rather than biological factors. This ideology has a
significant impact on various aspects of individuals' lives, including their career
choices, family roles, and overall life patterns.
Three main types of gender role ideology are discussed: traditional (distinct gender
roles), egalitarian (gender roles should not be segregated), and transitional (midway
between traditional and egalitarian).

Types of Sex
Role
Ideology

Traditional Egalitarian Transitional

1. Traditional Sex Role Ideology

Traditional sex role ideology revolves around firmly established and distinct
gender roles that align with historical norms. It asserts that men and women
possess inherently different traits and are suited for specific societal roles.
Men are expected to serve as primary breadwinners and providers for their
families, while women are predominantly assigned responsibilities related to
domestic chores, caregiving, and nurturing. This ideology enforces rigid
gender boundaries, leaving minimal room for deviation or role reversal.
Traditional sex role ideology often draws from cultural and historical contexts,
contributing to the perpetuation of gender stereotypes and inequalities. It tends
 to limit opportunities for women in education, careers, and leadership
positions, and can also discourage men from actively participating in
caregiving and household duties.
2. Egalitarian Sex Role Ideology
Egalitarian sex role ideology challenges traditional gender norms by
advocating for equal rights, opportunities, and responsibilities for individuals
irrespective of their gender. This ideology rejects the notion of fixed gender
roles and emphasizes individual choice and competence. It encourages men
and women to pursue roles and activities based on their personal interests and
capabilities, rather than predefined gender expectations. Egalitarian beliefs
promote a more equitable division of labor within families and relationships.
By envisioning a society without rigid gender boundaries, this ideology fosters
gender equality and social justice. It aims to break away from limiting gender
stereotypes, enabling individuals to explore diverse roles and contribute to
various spheres of life.
3. Transitional Sex Role Ideology
Transitional sex role ideology occupies a middle ground between traditional
and egalitarian ideologies, acknowledging the evolving nature of gender roles
while retaining certain traditional elements. It recognizes that societal norms
are changing, allowing for greater flexibility in gender roles. While
individuals adhering to transitional beliefs may embrace certain modern values
and roles, they might still retain some traditional expectations in specific areas.
This ideology acts as a bridge for individuals transitioning from traditional to
more egalitarian beliefs. It reflects a society in flux, where some gender norms
are becoming less rigid. Transitional sex role ideology enables a degree of role
flexibility while offering a level of continuity with familiar practices from the
past.

Characteristics of Sex Role Ideology

Sex role ideology refers to a set of beliefs and attitudes held by individuals or within a
society regarding the appropriate roles, behaviors, and expectations for men and
women. These ideologies often influence social norms, perceptions of gender, and the
division of labor between sexes. Here are some detailed characteristics of sex role
ideology:
1. Traditional Roles and Responsibilities: Sex role ideology often includes the
promotion of traditional gender roles, where men are perceived as the
breadwinners and women are seen as homemakers and caregivers. This
ideology assigns distinct responsibilities to each gender based on historical
norms.
2. Division of Labor: Sex role ideology dictates the types of work considered
suitable for each gender. It enforces the idea that certain jobs or tasks are more
suitable for men or women. For instance, it might suggest that men should
pursue careers in engineering or construction while women should work in
fields like nursing or teaching.
3. Hierarchy and Power: Traditional sex role ideology tends to uphold a
hierarchical structure, where men are given more decision-making power and
authority, both within the household and in broader societal contexts. This can
result in the marginalization of women in positions of leadership and influence.
4. Gendered Behavior: Sex role ideology often prescribes specific behaviors
and traits as appropriate for each gender. For instance, men might be
encouraged to display traits such as assertiveness, independence, and
rationality, while women might be expected to exhibit qualities like nurturing,
empathy, and submissiveness.
5. Parental and Family Roles: This ideology influences expectations around
parenting and family roles. Men might be seen as less involved in childcare
and household chores, while women are expected to primarily take on these
responsibilities. This can contribute to the "second shift" phenomenon, where
women work outside the home and then come home to perform domestic
duties.
6. Media and Representation: Sex role ideology can be reinforced through
media portrayal of gender roles. Traditional roles are often perpetuated in
movies, advertisements, and other forms of media, further shaping societal
perceptions and expectations.
7. Education and Career: Sex role ideology can impact educational and career
choices. For example, it might discourage women from pursuing careers in
STEM fields and steer them towards humanities or social sciences, reinforcing
gender-based occupational segregation.
 8. Body Image and Beauty Standards: The ideology can also influence
perceptions of beauty and body image. It can lead to the objectification of
women's bodies and set unrealistic standards of beauty, while also
discouraging men from expressing vulnerability or displaying emotions.
9. Social Norms and Expectations: Individuals are often socialized into
adhering to sex role ideology from a young age. These norms and expectations
can become deeply ingrained and shape people's behaviors, decisions, and
self-concept.
10. Resistance and Change: Over time, societies have seen shifts in sex role
ideology as movements advocating for gender equality and challenging
traditional roles have gained traction. Many societies are moving towards
more egalitarian views, acknowledging that gender should not dictate one's
rights, opportunities, or potential.

FEMINISM MOVEMENT
History:
The term feminism can be used to describe a political, cultural or economic
movement aimed at establishing equal rights and legal protection for women.
Feminism involves political and sociological theories and philosophies concerned
with issues of gender difference, as well as a movement that advocates gender
equality for women and campaigns for women's rights and interests.
Feminism has altered predominant perspectives in a wide range of areas within
Western society, ranging from culture to law. Feminist activists have campaigned for
women's legal rights (rights of contract, property rights, voting rights); for women's
right to bodily integrity and autonomy, for abortion rights, and for reproductive rights
(including access to contraception and quality prenatal care); for protection of women
and girls from domestic violence, sexual harassment and rape; for workplace rights,
including maternity leave and equal pay; against misogyny; and against other forms
of gender-specific discrimination against women.

Reformers and revolutionaries

Initially, women energized by Friedan’s book joined with government leaders and
union representatives who had been lobbying the federal government for equal pay
and for protection against employment discrimination. By June 1966 they had
concluded that polite requests were insufficient. They would need their own national
pressure group—a women’s equivalent of the National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). With this, the National Organization for
Women(NOW) was born.
The organization was not an instant success. By the end of its second year, NOW had
just 1,035 members and was racked by ideological divisions. When the group tried to
write a Bill of Rights for Women, it found consensus on six measures essential to
ensuring women’s equality: enforcement of laws banning employment discrimination;
maternity leave rights; child-care centers that could enable mothers to work; tax
deductions for child-care expenses; equal and unsegregated education; and equal job-
training opportunities for poor women.
Introduction: Tremendous Progress and Determined Opposition
The modern-day movement for the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and
queer (LGBTQ) Americans often is hailed as beginning in 1969. That’s when
LGBTQ patrons of New York’s Stonewall Inn fought back against police harassment.
At that time, every state in the nation but one criminalized most forms of same-sex
sexual intimacy. No state granted any form of legal recognition of same-sex
relationships. No jurisdiction prohibited discrimination based on sexual orientation or
gender identity.
How the nation has changed. The U.S. Supreme Court has recognized that consensual
adult sexual conduct is constitutionally protected. It also has ruled that same-sex
couples have a constitutional right to marry. A majority of Americans now live in
jurisdictions that provide express, comprehensive protections against sexual
orientation and gender identity discrimination. In 2020, the Supreme Court ruled that
Title VII, the federal statute barring sex discrimination in employment, extends to
discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity as well.
These developments have brought the movement for LGBTQ rights more rapid
success than any other civil rights struggle in our nation’s history. It has not been a
straight line, however (pun intended). Powerful opposing forces have mounted repeals
of nondiscrimination protections, attempted to create significant exceptions to
statutory advances, and even amended state constitutions to limit their protections of
LGBTQ people. Most recently, that opposition has set its sights on the basic freedoms
of transgender people, particularly transgender youth. The battle to secure LGBTQ
rights clearly is far from done.
This article traces the evolution of constitutional and statutory protections of LGBTQ
rights at the federal, state, and local levels. In doing so, it salutes the brave plaintiffs
and criminally charged defendants who came forward to fight for their communities,
the tireless work of their advocates and allies, countless legislative heroes, and the
jurists who, thus far, have gotten it right more often than wrong.
Obtaining Legal Recognition of Same-Sex Relationships
A number of local governments again led the way in providing recognition to same-
sex couples as “domestic partners” and providing health-care benefits to the partners
of their employees in same-sex relationships. California passed the first statewide
domestic partnership law, and state constitutional claims gave rise to civil unions in
Vermont and New Jersey. An early victory in Hawaii was overturned by voters
amending the state’s constitution. That was followed by amendments of state
constitutions in 28 states to preclude reliance on state constitutional protections in
challenges to restrictive marriage laws.
Religious Exemptions
As LGBTQ people gained protections against discrimination, some who wished to
continue to deny equal treatment to LGBTQ people sought refuge in constitutional
and statutory protections of freedom of religion. The Supreme Court largely
sidestepped these issues in its rulings in Masterpiece Cakeshop v. Colorado Civil
Rights Commission and Fulton v. Philadelphia. Ongoing cases involving the Free
Exercise Clause, the Religious Freedom Restoration Act, and the scope of the
constitutional ministerial exception and Title VII’s coreligionist exemption will
determine whether protections against discrimination provide relief for LGBTQ
people or not when dealing with religious institutions and with secular businesses
whose owners assert religious objections to employing, housing, or serving LGBTQ
people.
Those Too Often Left Behind
While dramatic progress has been achieved for the LGBTQ community in general;
Black, Indigenous, and people of color; disabled; noncitizen; and low-income
LGBTQ people remain the most vulnerable members of the LGBTQ community.
Many have suffered horrific violence, police misconduct, unremedied discrimination,
and poverty. Developing strategies to address the ways in which various grounds of
discrimination intersect with and compound one another is a crucial part of the work
ahead.
Conclusion
There’s a wonderful social media post I’ve seen that says, “People who wonder if the
glass is half full miss the point. The glass is refillable.” The work of LGBTQ
advocates and their allies has been spectacular, but it remains unfinished, with
significant challenges remaining. That requires refilling the glass of legal and political
advocacy to one day fulfill America’s promise of liberty and justice for all.