0 An Investigation of Motivation and Experience in Virtual

Education and Information Technologies
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-018-9784-5
An investigation of motivation and experience in virtual

learning environments: a self-determination theory
Yu-Chih Huang 1 & Sheila J. Backman 2 & Kenneth F. Backman 2 &

Francis A. McGuire 2 & DeWayne Moore 3
Received: 4 March 2018 / Accepted: 31 July 2018/

# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2018
Abstract
With the development and evaluation of information technology, virtual reality tech-
nology provides opportunities to offer an immersive and interactive experience for
supplementing traditional classroom lecture and creating innovative online learning in
education curricula and professional training. Given that the arena of 3D entertainment-
oriented virtual worlds is creative and quickly evolving, applying a theory-based
motivational model to examine the properties of virtual world environments in the
context of education remains relatively unexplored territory. Thus, the present study
applies the research frameworks of Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and hedonic
theory to an understanding of how 3D virtual reality technology contexts satisfy or
obstruct psychological needs and thus foster or undermine sustained engagement,
affecting behavioral intentions. This study extends existing literature in the field by
showing that psychological needs and hedonic experience are important components in
understanding virtual reality technology and human interaction. The findings are
important in explaining the value of 3D virtual reality technology in educational
applications that contribute to the overall enhancement of the learner’s motivation
and learning experience.
Keywords Virtual reality technology . Self-determination theory . Hedonic theory .

Intrinsic motivation . Virtual experience
1 Introduction
Information technology has continued to evolve from web-based interfaces to the

interactive and dynamic era of virtual reality technologies (Johnson et al. 2009;
Xiang and Gretzel 2010). The development of information technology has dramatically
changed contemporary society in many different realms including work, communica-
tion, leisure, and education (Boellstorff 2015). Educational institutions in a variety of
countries are experimenting with new technological innovations to conduct educational
activities and communicate with learners (Bower, Lee, & Dalgarno, 2017; Vrellis et al.
2016). According to Pellas and Kazanidis (2015), Second Life, a three-dimensional
(3D) multi-user virtual world (VW) environment, is the most prevalent of these
platforms in higher education. Ward et al. (2016) note that 3D virtual worlds provide an
interactive environment with real world simulations, simultaneous interactions, social
connections and international collaborations, revealing countless potential applications
in training and education. Gallego et al. (2016) suggest that real world educational
institutions have incorporated the 3D virtual world of Second Life as an alternative way
of collaborating and communicating to support classroom teaching and course admin-
istration as well as to stimulate interaction between faculty and students. These
institutions include Harvard University, Indiana University, Hong Kong Polytechnic
University, and North Carolina State University (Jarmon et al. 2009; MacKenzie et al.
2013; Wang and Burton 2013).
Researchers have explored the applications of 3D virtual worlds in educational
contexts within a variety of fields and disciplines such as medicine and health
(Boulos et al. 2007; Chow et al. 2012; Menzel et al. 2014), management (Kemp
and Livingstone 2006; Wankel 2009), information systems (Dreher et al. 2009), and
language learning (Berns et al. 2013; Hsiao et al. 2017; Wehner et al.
2011Education scholars have suggested that positive effects can be derived from
multi-user 3D virtual world environments such as providing an immersive environ-
ment for simulation and role-playing activities to engage students’ learning experi-
ence (Warburton 2009); offering a platform to increase informal interactions between
instructors and students (Baker et al. 2009); providing unique pedagogical environ-
ments with an active and engaging learning experience (Cheng 2014); fostering
critical thinking and problem solving skills in professional training (Lee and Berge
2011); supporting global synchronous interaction and collaboration (Zydney and Seo
2012); empowering learners with tools for constructionist learning experiences
(Girvan et al. 2013); offering a cost-effective means of implementing creative and
innovative training (Thornhill-Miller and Dupont 2016); and enhancing social inter-
action between students and faculty members and among students (De Lucia et al.
2009).
However, despite the great potential of 3D virtual world environments as an
educational platform, researchers have argued that educators need to be aware of a
number of negative effects as well as capacity issues including the following: requiring
a greater learning curve for teachers and students to engage with the 3D virtual world
environment (Baker et al. 2009); encountering the possibilities of technical problems
associated with computer-generated environments and disruption that occurs with
outsiders on an open campus course (Petrakou 2010); involving a high level of
technical capability to perform 3D simulation learning activities (Andreas et al.
2010); and understanding students’ behavior management in performing learning tasks
(Kennedy-Clark 2011).
Regardless of such debates, it seems evident that 3D virtual world environments
have the potential as an educational platform for real world simulations, professional
training, synchronous interaction, and global collaboration to provide interactive and
immersive learning experiences and to enhance learner engagement. However, despite
proliferating educational applications of 3D virtual worlds in contemporary society,
applying a theory-based motivational model to examine the properties of virtual world
environments in the context of education remains relatively unexplored territory. It is
important to validate a theory-based framework for examining motivational dynamics
and experiences of learners within the context of multi-user virtual world learning
environments.
Past studies suggest that Self-Determination Theory (SDT, Deci and Ryan 1985;
Ryan and Deci 2000) is a useful theoretical framework for examining user motivation
in multi-user virtual environments contexts (Proulx et al. 2017; Neys et al. 2010; Ryan
et al. 2006;), suggesting that psychological needs satisfaction contributes to enhancing
engagement and intrinsic motivation in virtual environments. Moreover, echoing
Ajzen’s (1991) theoretical work, researchers have indicated that psychological needs
satisfaction facilitates motivated behavior in various fields, including marketing
(Dholakia 2006; Lin et al. 2009), health (Conner and Norman 2005), education
(Sørebø et al. 2009; Roca and Gagné 2008), and physical activities (Hagger and
Chatzisarantis 2008). These preliminary applications of the SDT theoretical framework
imply that the quality of psychological needs satisfaction is useful for understanding
learners’ motivation and their experiences in entertainment-oriented virtual worlds.
Further extending the theoretical framework of SDT, studies have incorporated
hedonic theory (Hirschman and Holbrook 1982; Holbrook and Hirschman 1982) to
explain human and computer interaction in web-based environments in different
contexts such as consumer behavior (Mäntymäki and Salo 2011; Nambisan and
Nambisan 2008; Shin 2009), psychology (Przybylski et al. 2009b), entertainment
(Tamborini et al. 2010), and education (Tokel and İsler 2015). Although researchers
have suggested implications for SDT and hedonic theory in examining user experience
in, for example, web marketing channels, little empirical research has been carried out
to examine the theories in the context of 3D virtual world literature, particularly as
related to teaching and learning. Other fields such as augmented reality and gaming
have made more research progress, but virtual world research is in a critical
developmental phase according to Boellstorff (2015) and as such needs theoretical
research. Thus, the present study intends to apply the research frameworks of Self-
Determination Theory (SDT) and hedonic theory to an understanding of how 3D
virtual world environments satisfy or obstruct psychological needs and thus foster or
undermine sustained engagement, affecting users’ experience and motivational behav-
ior. The findings of the present study thus advance current state of the art research on
3D virtual environments to increase the field’s understanding of multi-user virtual
world learning experiences and students’ motivations.
2 Literature review
2.1 Self determination theory
Self-Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan 1985) has been applied as a theoretical
framework for examining human motivational behavior (Gagné and Deci 2005; Reeve
and Sickenius 1994; Sheldon and Kasser 1998; White and Thompson 2009). SDT is
concerned with the three basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence and
relatedness, affecting the human motivation to pursue an activity and directing how
an individual’s behavior serves to predict performance and subjective well-being (Deci
& Ryan, 2008; Jeno, Grytnes & Vandvik, 2017). Applying Self Determination Theory
in computer mediated environments, scholars suggest that SDT is a useful theoretical
framework for explaining motivational appeal and sustained engagement in virtual

environments (Martens et al. 2004; Neys et al. 2010; Roca and Gagné 2008; Tamborini
et al. 2010). Ryan et al. (2006) empirically tested SDT in relation to motivation in the
context of massively multiplayer virtual environments, indicating that online users seek
to satisfy their psychological needs in the context of online gameplay. In their study,
they point out that game features of virtual environments offer opportunities for online
users to experience the psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness,
suggesting that the intrinsic motivation of play is associated with basic psychological
needs of perceived autonomy, competence and relatedness that subsequently predict
intentions that the users would return to play. Further, Przybylski et al. (2009a, 2009b)
investigate the relationship between people’s motivation and enjoyment in multiuser
virtual environments and find that the satisfaction of autonomy, competence and
relatedness is positively related to intrinsic motivation within a virtual world.
Tamborini et al. (2010) study defining intrinsic motivation in entertainment research
finds a positive relationship between the psychological needs of competence, autonomy
and relatedness and intrinsic motivation. Thus, according to the literature, this study
expects that intrinsic motivation positively relates to the psychological needs of
autonomy, competence, and relatedness while experiencing a 3D virtual environment.
H1: perceived autonomy will be significantly associated with intrinsic motivation.

H2: perceived competence will be significantly associated with intrinsic
motivation.
H3: perceived relatedness will be significantly associated with intrinsic motivation.
Past research has identified the relationship between the satisfaction of psycho-
logical needs and behavioral intentions in computer mediated environments.
Roca and Gagné (2008), applying SDT to examine the effects of motivational
factors affecting usage of information technology in virtual environments, find
that users’ perceptions of autonomy, competence and relatedness are significant
in determining their acceptance and intentions when using information technol-
ogy. Research by Jung (2011), examining user experience in social virtual
worlds, has demonstrated that the psychological need of perceived autonomy is
related to the user’s satisfaction and subsequently predicts intentions that the
users would continue to return to the virtual social worlds. Hoffman and Novak
(2012) suggest that virtual worlds provide individuals with an opportunity to
satisfy the basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness
that in turn affect customers’ motivated behavior. In line with information
technology literature, several scholars (Hsiao et al. 2013; Kaplanidou and Vogt
2006; Lange and Elliot 2012; Wang and Fesenmaier 2004) suggest that virtual
environments are motivating to the extent that they provide opportunities to
satisfy psychological needs affecting user behavioral intentions. Thus, the present
study predicts that the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relat-
edness will positively associate with users’ behavioral intentions.
H4: the perception of autonomy is positively associated with behavioral intentions.

H5: the perception of competence is positively related to behavioral intentions.
H6: the perception of relatedness is positively linked to behavioral intentions.
2.2 Hedonic experience
In addition to understanding dynamic motivation and learning experience through Self-

Determination Theory, this study relies on the notion of hedonic experience especially as
it explains how individuals interface with emerging technologies such as 3D virtual
worlds. In the past few decades, researchers have begun to understand and describe
hedonic aspects of experience (Mannell and Iso-Ahola 1987; Arnould and Price 1993;
Bruwer and Alant 2009). Previous studies in human and computer interaction indicate
that the hedonic theory can be applied to further understand user experiences of
entertainment-oriented information technology. Hua and Haughton (2009) point out that
a hedonic framework reflects the entertainment-oriented virtual world by capturing user
responses toward the virtual worlds. Kohler et al. (2011) indicate that the concept of
hedonic experience is useful in understanding why emerging 3D virtual worlds can offer a
satisfying level of participation and engagement. Several hedonic constructs have begun
to receive consideration and attention in the literature on human and computer interaction,
including emotional involvement (Saeed et al. 2009), positive emotions (Perlusz 2004)
and flow experience (Faiola and Smyslova 2009; Richard and Chandra 2005).
2.2.1 Positive emotions
In understanding experience in computer-mediated environments, the construct of positive

emotions has been applied to examine interactions between human behavior and
technology. Further, investigating the relationship between psychological needs and
positive affect in a human and computer interaction context, Hassenzahl et al. (2010) find
that the satisfaction of competence, autonomy, and relatedness is associated with user
experience of positive eions. A study by Jones et al. (2014), exploring flourishing mental
health in the context of multiplayer environments, finds a positive relationship between the
psychological needs of competence, autonomy, relatedness and positive emotions.
Hassenzahl et al. (2015), investigating technology-mediated positive experience, found that
the psychological needs of competence and relatedness had positive and significant rela-
tionships with positive emotions.
H7: the perception of autonomy positively affects the feeling of positive emotions.
H8: the perception of competence positively affects the feeling of positive
emotions.
H9: the perception of relatedness positively affects the feeling of positive
emotions.
2.2.2 Emotional involvement
Based on Hirschman and Holbrook’s (1982) hedonic consumption theory, Zhou et al.
(2011) examined the motivations of social virtual world users, suggesting that emo-
tional involvement is a main determinant of consumer adoption of massive multiuser
virtual worlds. Moreover, the relationship between psychological needs and emotional
involvement has received initial but not sustained attention. For example, Oulasvirta
and Blom (2007), investigating psychological underpinnings of user motivation in
emerging technologies’ personalization behavior, identify a positive link between

emotional involvement and the psychological needs of autonomy, competence and
relatedness. Studies by McBrien et al. (2009) and Karppinen (2005) on an individual’s
engagement in computed mediated environments indicate that the psychological needs
of autonomy and relatedness are positively related to emotional involvement. There-
fore, in line with previous studies, this study hypothesizes that the psychological needs
will be positively associated with emotional involvement.
H10: perceived autonomy has a positive relationship with emotional involvement.

H11: perceived competence has a positive relationship with emotional
involvement.
H12: perceived relatedness has a positive relationship with emotional involvement.
2.2.3 Flow
Fang et al. (2013) suggested that flow has been validated as an effective measurement in
understanding user experience in computer mediated environments. Furthermore, previous
empirical studies have demonstrated that autonomy, competence and relatedness are posi-
tively linked to the experience of flow. Vella et al. (2015), for example, exploring the user
experience in entertainment technology, found a positive and significant relationship
between the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, relatedness and flow.
Investigating the relationship between the psychological need of autonomy and flow,
Fullagar and Mills (2008) point out that there is a positive association between perceived
autonomy and flow. Moreover, in examining the relationship between psychological needs
and the experience of flow, a study of motivational determinants of flow by Kowal and
Fortier (1999) finds that the senses of autonomy, competence, and relatedness are positively
associated with flow. The experience of flow in the context of virtual environments is
influenced by perceived competence, autonomy, and relatedness.
H13: the perception of autonomy positively affects flow experience.

H14: the perception of competence positively affects flow experience.
H15: the perception of relatedness positively affects flow experience.
3 Methodology
3.1 The development of second life Maasai Mara
In this study, a virtual tourism destination was developed and constructed so as to have
a visual resemblance and overall feel of the Maasai Mara Basecamp in Kenya, within
the virtual world of Second Life. Participants partook in a virtual visit to the 3D tourist
attraction to learn about the spatial and cultural aspects of the destination. Two graduate
students who are Maasai helped with the design of authentic indigenous facilities,
dress, and artifacts in implementing contemporary Maasai cultural information to
develop virtual Massai Mara. The learning objectives of this virtual destination visit
were to explore the Maasai Mara tribe with multi-media information and learn to be
aware of the Maasai Mara culture with naturalistic elements and images of authentic
Maasai clothing and jewelry. The construction of the virtual site and its objects
incorporated images of genuine clothing and jewelry from local villagers. The virtual
Maasai jewelry represents the artwork produced by local women to enhance awareness
of Massai culture, and the meaning of the colors, shapes and patterns in Maasai
clothing are used to educate the traditions of the Maasai people.
3.2 Data collection
As suggested by Barr et al. (2007), Reinhard (2010) and Weibel et al. (2008), the data
collection of this study sampled both a student group and experienced virtual world
users. Per Mummalaneni (2005), the use of student subjects is deemed justifiable in
light of their status as early adopters of virtual worlds. Student participants were
recruited among college students at a university in the southeast region of the United
States in return for extra course credit. Data collection was conducted in a computer lab
setting in 2011. In addition, in accordance with Animesh et al. (2011) and Barnes’s
(2011) studies examining user behavioral intentions in virtual worlds, this study
recruited experienced users (who own and had maintained a valid account for at least
6 months) by contacting user groups on the virtual world-related mailing lists as well as
by sending an email advertisement to virtual world communities. All participation was
voluntary. Raffle prizes were offered as an incentive to encourage participation in this
research study among experienced users.
3.3 Research procedures
Student participants met for three one-hour class sessions to take part in this study of
virtual tourism in Second Life. Student participants signed up to partake in one of three
weekdays for one hour for three consecutive weeks. Two sessions focused on orienta-
tion and training experiences and one session involved taking part in the treasure hunt
activity in SL Maasai Mara. For experienced users, eighteen two-hour sessions were
conducted during weekdays (Monday to Friday) and weekend days (Saturday and
Sunday), and during different time slots (morning, afternoon, evening) to accommodate
participants in different time zones. Second Life users participated in the treasure hunt
activity to explore different areas on the Second Life Island prepared for the study. The
treasure hunt activity was used to engage participants by accomplishing the following
tasks: visiting the jewelry shop to look at the Maasai jewelry displayed, riding an
animal to the river, listening to Maasai music in the guest tents, and watching a video of
two Maasai warriors telling a lion killing story in front of a bonfire. A graduate student
and a faculty member were present on the virtual tourism site to monitor and facilitate
this virtual experience for the participants. A self-administered web questionnaire with
closed-end questions was constructed to elicit information from respondents about their
learning experience in this virtual destination.
3.4 Measurements
The Player Experience Need Satisfaction (PENS) modified from Ryan et al. (2006) has
demonstrated good validity and reliability in past studies (Przybylski et al. 2009a;
Tamborini et al. 2010). The perception of competence is comprised of four items

focused on the experiences of competence and mastery, asking whether the virtual
world provides a challenging but not overwhelmingly difficult experience that en-
hances efficacy. The perception of autonomy was assessed with a four-item subscale
measuring the degree to which participants experienced choice, freedom and perceived
opportunities to participate in the activities that interested them. The perception of
relatedness consisted of four items assessing how participants felt connected with
others in the virtual learning environment. Moreover, intrinsic motivation was modified
from the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI), consisting of four items measuring
participants’ subjective experiences of intrinsic motivation.
In addition, the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) scale was adapted to
measure participant’s positive emotions using a seven-item scale. The positive emotion
assessments consisted of amusement, interest, contentment, pride, joy, cheerfulness, and
delight in order to measure participants’ emotional state of feeling enthusiastic and
active. The assessment of emotional involvement was modified from the previous
studies of Saeed et al. (2009) and Holsapple and Wu (2007) measuring the human
factor of imaginary and emotional responses to interactions with virtual learning
environment. The construct of flow in this study was adapted from Trevino and
Webster’s (1992) study, which was operationalized as a four-item scale. The four items
used in this study were: 1) user perceives control when interacting with the virtual
environment; 2) the individual’s attention is focused on the interaction; 3) the individ-
ual’s sensory curiosity is aroused; and 4) the interaction with virtual the environment is
intrinsically interesting. As noted in previous studies (e.g. Kaplan and Haenlein 2009; Li
et al., 2002) the interaction between humans and virtual worlds has the potential to
generate impacts on user behavioral intentions consisting of the items of wanting to find
out more information about the destination, willing to recommend the tourism attraction
and gaining an interest in visiting in the future, an approach validated by prior studies
including Animesh et al. 2011; Gabisch and Gwebu (2011). All items were assessed on a
seven-point Likert-type scale but positive emotion was rated on a five-point Likert scale.
4 Results
4.1 Demographic characteristics of the sample
The demographic characteristics of the respondents (N = 198) are reported as follows.

62.4% of respondents were female, and 85.3% were white. 57.1% of participants were
between 18 and 24 years old and 22.4% were between 34 and 54 years old. In terms of
education, 73% of respondents had a high school or college degree. With respect to
geographic locations, 87% of the respondents were residents of United States or
Canada. In terms of marital status, 70.7% of the respondents were single. Overall,
69.5% of respondents had prior experience with video games.
4.2 Confirmatory factor analysis
The developed measurement items in this study were viewed by a panel of experts to
establish the face validity of the scales and were pilot tested with college students. A
pilot test of the questionnaire was employed to gather information for improving survey
quality and efficiency. The results of the pilot study helped to assess the sentence
structure, logic and wording of the questionnaire. Further, a confirmatory factor
analysis (CFA) was conducted to assess the reliability and validity of measurements
with maximum likelihood estimation procedure and covariance matrix.
Before beginning analysis, according to Tabachnick and Fidell (2007), Student Deleted
Residual and Mahalanobis distance was used to screen the data set for outliers at both
univariate and multivariate levels. Per Byrne’s (2006) suggestion, the missing data that is
unrelated to any other variable and the loss pattern is not systematic and can be imputed.
Examining the patterns of “missingness” (Schafer and Graham 2002), observations with
missing data on variables that could not be imputed were dropped. As suggested by Kline
(2010), missing data was imputed using maximum likelihood estimation with the expec-
tation maximization algorithm procedure, thereby relying on complete data computation
per Meng and Rubin (1993) and maintaining unbiased standard errors through adjust-
ments to convergence stability. Past studies indicated that with respect to both bias and
efficiency, the expectation maximization procedure is superior to other missing data
imputation procedures (Enders 2003; Vriens and Melton 2002).
The robust estimates were used to accommodate non-normality. A scaling factor was
used based on the data’s non-normality (Bentler and Wu 1995; Byrne 2006). The
Satorra-Bentler Scaled Chi-Square, Bentler-Bonett Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Non-
Normed Fit Index (NNFI), and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA)
were included in the current investigation to evaluate the overall fit of the model.
Examining the goodness of fit index for the model, the CFA yielded acceptable fit with
a Satorra-Bentler χ 2 = 873.76, the ratio of the chi-square to the degrees of freedom (χ
2/df) = 1.75, CFI = 0.92, NNFI = 0.91, RMSEA =0.06, indicating a reasonably good fit
of the model to the data and a close absolute measure fit (Byrne 2006; Hooper et al.
2008). Based on a review of empirical research (Byrne 2006; Hu and Bentler 1999;
Jöreskog and Sörbom 1996), criteria were established for goodness of fit indices
(CFI > 0.9, NNFI>0.9, RMSEA<0.08) in this study.
Convergent validity and discriminant validity were examined to determine construct
validities. Convergent validity was assessed by examining the predictive power of the
items associated with each loading on corresponding factors (Bollen 1989). As seen in
Table 1, the output of CFA revealed the each t value of the proposed items associated
with each factor was significant at p < 0.001, and exceeding the critical value of 3.29
(Yuan et al. 2016). Per Brown (2014), the CFA applied research standardized factor
loadings are most commonly reported to indicate the correlation between the indicator
and the factor. As shown in Table 1, the standardized factor loadings ranged from 0.58
to 0.95. In addition, according to Bagozzi & Yi (1998) and Hair et al. (2012), the
standardized factor loading was greater than 0.5, indicating that measurement items in
this study possessed convergent validity. According to Fornell and Larcker (1981),
average variance extracted (AVE) based on the average of the squared loadings and the
eigenvalue based on the sum of the squared loadings, when reporting CFA results, AVE
is preferred over the eigenvalue. As shown in Table 1, the average variance extracted
for each factor exceeded 0.5 (Hair et al. 2012).
As suggested by Fornell and Larcker (1981), discriminant validity was assessed by
examining the inter-correlations of factors with the square root of the AVE for each
factor. The factor’s discriminant validity can be established by examining the inter-
correlations among the factors and the square root of the AVE. All factor correlations
were less than the square root of the factors’ AVE, as observed in Table 2. In addition,
as suggested by Kline (2005), if estimated the correlations between variables do not
surpass 0.85, then the discriminant validity for each factor is supported. As Kline
(2005) claims, reliability concerns the degree to which the observed variance is free
from random measurement error. Regarding the measurement reliability, as shown in
Table 1, the Cronbach’s Alpha values for the constructs ranged from 0.86 to 0.96 and
the maximal weighted alpha values ranged from 0.91 to 0.97, demonstrating acceptable
levels of internal consistency. All of the indicators are reliably measuring their respec-
tive constructs (Bagozzi & Yi, 1998).
4.3 Structural model
Following Anderson and Gerbing’s (1988) two-step modeling approach, the proposed
hypotheses were examined where the measurement and structural models are separately
estimated. The results of structural equation modeling demonstrated an acceptable fit
with Satorra-Bentler χ2 = 925.26, P < 0.01, CFI = 0.91, NNFI = 0.90, RMSEA =0.07.
The first three hypotheses involve how each of three psychological needs, competence,
autonomy and relatedness, relate to intrinsic motivation. Hypothesis 1 focuses on how
the sense of autonomy is related to perceived intrinsic motivation. This hypothesis is
supported (β = 0.84, p < 0.05), indicating that feeling effective would significantly
predict intrinsic motivation while navigating the virtual environment. Hypothesis 2 is
concerned with the relationship between the perceptions of competence and intrinsic
motivation. This hypothesis is not supported as the test was not significant (β = −0.04,
p > 0.05). Hypothesis 3 states that a greater perception of relatedness is related to
greater intrinsic motivation. This hypothesis is supported, revealing that relatedness
has a positive impact on the intrinsic motivation (β =0.14, p < 0.05). The squared
multiple correlation (R2SMC = 0.80) indicates that the three factors account for 80% of
the variance in the experience of intrinsic motivation.
Additional hypotheses were tested involving the paths of each of three psychological
needs to the behavioral intentions in the context of the 3D environment. Hypothesis 4 states
that the perception of autonomy in the 3D environment would significantly predict people’s
behavioral intentions. This hypothesis is supported as the sense of autonomy did signifi-
cantly predict people’s intentions (β = 0.80, p < 0.05). Hypothesis 5 focuses on the relation-
ship between perceived competence and behavioral intentions. The test of the hypothesis 5
was not significant (β = −0.17, p > 0.05); this hypothesis is not supported. Hypothesis 6
states that the perception of relatedness has positive association with behavioral intentions
while navigating a 3D tourism environment. This hypothesis is supported as the sense of
relatedness did significantly predict behavioral intentions (β = 0.28, p < 0.05). The squared
multiple correlation (R2SMC = 0.74) indicates that three factors account for 74% of the
variance in behavioral intentions (Fig. 1).
The hypotheses involving paths from each of three psychological needs, compe-
tence, autonomy, and relatedness, to positive emotions were also tested. Hypothesis 7
states that greater perception of autonomy leads to greater positive emotions. This
hypothesis is supported (β = 0.91, p < 0.05), revealing that autonomy would signifi-
cantly predict positive emotions. Hypothesis 8 focuses on the relationship between the
perception of competence and the experience of positive emotions. This relationship is
Table 1 Measurement items and confirmatory factor analysis results
Measures Standardized factor S.E. Reliabilities AVE

loading (t values a)
Cronbach’s Maximal
Alpha weight
Competence (CM) 0.86 0.92 0.78

I felt very capable and effective 0.90 (n/a) n/a
The experiences kept me on my 0.90 (16.64) 0.06
toes but did not overwhelm me
* 0.62 (8.94) 0.07
* 0.68 (7.55) 0.08
Autonomy (AU) 0.88 0.90 0.82
I did things because they interested me 0.75 (n/a) n/a
I did not feel controlled and pressured 0.83 (10.60) 0.11
to be a certain way
* 0.90 (10.64) 0.12
* 0.75 (7.92) 0.12
Relatedness (RE) 0.94 0.96 0.89
I find the relationships I form in Second Life 0.83 (n/a)
fulfilling.
It is likely that the people I met within Second 0.94 (18.07) 0.06
Life can become friends, if we interacted a lot
* 0.86 (16.34) 0.06
* 0.93 (16.60) 0.07
Intrinsic motivation (IM) 0.96 0.97 0.93
I enjoyed experiencing the virtual world very 0.95 (n/a) n/a
much.
I thought experiencing in 3D virtual world 0.96 (30.99) 0.03
was quite enjoyable
I would describe the experience as very 0.92 (23.66) 0.05
interesting.
The experience in Second Life was fun. 0.89 (19.78) 0.05
Positive Emotions (PE) 0.92 0.96 0.80
Amusement 0.72 (n/a) n/a
Interest 0.74 (9.58) 0.11
Contentment 0.71 (10.46) 0.09
Joy 0.86 (13.41) 0.10
Pride 0.78 (10.56) 0.12
Cheerfulness 0.86 (12.71) 0.10
Delight 0.90 (12.75) 0.11
Emotional Involvement (EI) 0.91 0.91 0.88
I feel carried off by the 3D virtual 0.85 (n/a) n/a
environment.
I feel as if I am part of the 3D virtual 0.91 (18.45) 0.06
environment.
I feel deeply about the 3D virtual 0.88 (20.23) 0.05
environment.
Table 1 (continued)
Measures Standardized factor S.E. Reliabilities AVE

loading (t values a)
Cronbach’s Maximal
Alpha weight
Flow (FL) 0.87 0.93 0.79

My attention is totally focused. 0.73 (n/a) n/a
Excites my curiosity. 0.93 (11.97) 0.10
Intrinsically interesting. 0.92 (11.73) 0.10
Feel in control. 0.58 (6.91) 0.10
Behavioral Intentions (BI) 0.89 0.92 0.82
Willing to recommend. 0.89 (n/a) n/a
Wanted to find out more information about the 0.91 (22.39) 0.05
destination
Gained an interest in visiting 0.78 (16.57) 0.06
Wanted try to visit in the future. 0.71 (11.32) 0.07
a All tests were significant at p < 0.001

AU, autonomy; CM, competence; RE, relatedness; IM, intrinsic motivation; EI, emotional involvement; FL,
flow; BIVW, behavioral intentions to virtual tourism site; BIRW, behavioral intentions to tourism destination
not significant (β = −0.17, p > 0.05) and this hypothesis is therefore not supported.
Hypothesis 9 states that the sense of relatedness has a positive influence on the
experience of positive emotions. The regression coefficient for this test is not signifi-
cant (β = −0.05, p > 0.05) and this hypothesis is not supported. The squared multiple
correlation (R2SMC = 0.58) indicates that the three factors of autonomy, competence and
relatedness account for 58% of the variance in positive emotion.
Table 2 Constructs inter-correlation and average variance extracted (AVE)
Constructs CM AU RE IM PE EI FL BI
Competence 0.88a
Autonomy 0.70b 0.89
Relatedness 0.40 0.52 0.94
Intrinsic motivation 0.64 0.84 0.57 0.97
Positive Emotions 0.49 0.69 0.37 0.69 089
Emotional Involvement 0.57 0.70 0.77 0.69 0.48 0.94
Flow 0.58 0.77 0.66 0.82 0.69 0.77 0.89
Behavioral Intentions 0.52 0.74 0.60 0.77 0.63 0.72 0.83 0.92
CM, competence; AU, autonomy; RE, Relatedness; IM, intrinsic motivation; PE, positive emotions; EI,
emotional involvement; FL, flow; BI, behavioral intentions
a. The diagonal elements are the square root of the average variance extracted (the shared variance between the
factors and their measures)
b. The off-diagonal elements are the correlations between factors
Fig. 1 Structural Model of Testing Proposed Hypotheses. ** t-tests were significant at p < 0.05. ——Dash
line indicates insignificant path. Presented are standardized regression coefficents. Note: Satorra-Bentler χ2 =
925.26, P < 0.01, Non-Normed Fit Index =0.904, Comparative Fit Index = 0.913, and Root Mean Square
Error of Approximation = 0.066. AU: autonomy, CM: competence, RE: relatedness, IM: intrinsic motivation,
BI = behavioral intentions, EI: emotional involvement, FL: flow. Covariance between variables is omitted for
clarity
Further, the hypotheses related to the relationship between psychological needs and
emotional involvement was also tested. Hypothesis 10 states that the perception of
autonomy has positive influences on emotional involvement. The regression coefficient
for the proposed hypothesis is significant (β = 0.40, p < 0.05). Hypothesis 11 also
focuses on the association between perceived competence and emotional involvement.
This path is not significant and this hypothesis is not supported (β =0.06, p > 0.05).
Hypothesis 12 states that the greater perception of relatedness links to greater emotional
involvement. The regression coefficient for this path is significant (β = 0.540, p < 0.05),
indicating that the sense of relatedness has significant impact on emotional involve-
ment. The squared multiple correlation (R2SMC = 0.75) indicates that the three factors
account for 75% of the variance in emotional involvement.
The hypotheses involving paths from each of three psychological needs, autonomy,
competence and relatedness, to flow experience were examined. Hypothesis 13 states
that the perception of autonomy positively impacts flow experience. This hypothesis is
supported, thus suggesting the sense of autonomy does significantly (β = 0.82,
p < 0.05) predict the achievement of flow in experiencing the virtual environment.
Hypothesis 14 focuses on the relationship between competence and flow experience.
The regression coefficient of this path is not significant (β = −0.15, p > 0.05) and this
hypothesis is not supported. Hypothesis 15 states that the perception of relatedness has
a positive impact on flow. This path is significant (β = 0.29, p < 0.05), thus supporting
Hypothesis 15. The squared multiple correlation (R2SMC = 0.58) indicates that the three
factors account for 58% of the variance in the experience of flow.
MacKinnon et al. 2002 suggestions, to assess the indirect effects of hedonic constructs on
the relationship between psychological needs and behavioral intentions, structural model for
mediating effect was conducted. The result has adequate fit (Satorra-Bentler χ2 = 869.3,
P < 0.01, CFI = 0.92, NNFI = 0.91, RMSEA =0.063). As suggested by Kline (2005),
Sobel‘s product of coefficients approach is employed to test the significance of mediating
effect. According to Sobel‘s approach, the two path coefficients (simple coefficient for
exogenous variables predicting mediator variables as well as partial coefficient for mediator
variable predicting outcome variable) are used to calculate indirect effects (MacKinnon et al.
1995). There is evidence of statistically significant mediation of flow experience for the
effect of autonomy (B product-of-coefficients =0.42, Sobel Z = 3.11) and relatedness (B
product-of-coefficients = 0.26, Sobel Z = 3.22) on behavioral intentions.
5 Discussion
The intent of this study is to develop a research framework identifying factors that
motivate individuals engaging within a 3D environment by examining the applicability
of the Self-Determination Theory and hedonic constructs. The findings demonstrate that
the experience of autonomy and relatedness had a positive relationship with intrinsic
motivation, indicating that higher levels of the perception of autonomy and feeling
connected with others in virtual worlds link to increased intrinsic motivation, thus
providing support for prior studies by Dahl and Moreau (2007) and Thomson (2006) in
marketing contexts as well as Peng et al. (2012), Przybylski et al. (2009a, 2009b), Sheldon
and Filak (2008), Sørebø et al., (2009) in virtual contexts. Additionally, because the 3D
virtual environment tends to be interactive and provides users an opportunity to experi-
ence choice in one’s actions, the psychological need for autonomy emerges as an
important satisfaction that promotes positive emotions, which is consistent with past
studies by Hassenzahl et al. (2010), Ryan et al. (2006) and O’Regan (2003).
Moreover, the results reveal that autonomy and relatedness are the key variables that
contribute to participants’ experience of flow, suggesting that greater user perception of
feeling connected with others, yet experiencing self-directed behavior at the same time,
parallels with a greater opportunity to experience flow. This is consistent with the
results of Kowal and Fortier (1999) and Fullagar and Mills (2008). However, no
significant effect of perceived competence on hedonic experiences emerged. As Kohler
et al. (2011) suggest, 3D virtual sites should incorporate the nature of playfulness to
provide users with optimal challenges but not overwhelming obstacles in creating an
individual’s competence satisfaction that can underscore the hedonic experience di-
mension (Nambisan and Nambisan 2008).
The results reveal that satisfaction of autonomy and relatedness are significantly
associated with behavioral intentions, indicating that individuals who experience auton-
omy satisfaction and feel connected to others or local community in their navigation
have a positive relationship with behavioral intentions. The findings also suggest that the
perception of competence in experiencing a virtual site adds little or no unique predictive
variance to the behavioral intention. The fact that perceived competence did not predict
behavioral intentions while experiencing 3D virtual site contradicts Neys et al.’s (2010)
findings, which implies that competence is indeed a major need fulfillment in predicting
behavioral intentions. Yet, as Jung (2011) and McKnight et al. (2002) suggest, merely
having ease of control is not enough to motivate users’ behavioral intentions, indicating
the idea that a virtual learning environment needs to provide optimally challenging tasks
in stimulating behavioral intentions. Moreover, the current research supplements the
existing body of work concerning whether the fulfillment of psychological needs
associates with behavioral intentions and is mediated through hedonic experience.
6 Conclusion
The use of virtual reality technologies for creating learning environments offers
the possibility to provide interactive experiences and simulation activities that
supplement traditional classroom lecture and create innovative potential for
online learning in education curricula as well as professional training
(Antoniou et al. 2014; Cheong 2010; Rogers 2011; Mørch et al. 2015).
Scholars in various fields (Green et al. 2014; Muir et al. 2013; Pellas 2014;
Potkonjak et al. 2016; Schoonheim et al. 2014) have explored the educational
potentials and pedagogical benefits of 3D multi-user virtual worlds in providing
meaningful learning experiences. As the applications of virtual worlds in edu-
cation continue to rapidly emerge, there remains a need for theory-based
research toward deeper understandings of motivational dynamics and user
experiences in the context of education. This study integrates the research
frameworks of SDT and the hedonic constructs in identifying factors affecting
user experience. From a theoretical point of view, this study extends the
existing literature in the field by showing that psychological needs and hedonic
experiences are an important component of virtual world and human interaction
that should be considered in attempts to understand motivational dynamics of
learning experience.
From the perspective of educational professionals, the results of the findings
are important in explaining the value of 3D virtual reality technology as an
educational application that contributes to the overall enhancement of the
learner’s motivation and learning experience in designing a productive and
interactive learning environment (Guttentag 2010; Ryan et al. 2006; López
and Ruiz 2011; Mäntymäkia and Salo 2013). The results underline the impor-
tance of offering interactive activities relating to potential user interests
(Tamborini et al. 2011) and increasing the prospect for visitors to connect with
others (Hoffman and Novak 2012), echoing the findings of other researchers
including Dholakia (2006), Neys et al. (2010), and Roca and Gagné (2008).
The findings also provide compelling evidence that educators and professional
training organizations need to incorporate emotional, multi-sensatory and fanta-
sy elements as well as integrating authentic cultural elements in creating
interactive and immersive learning experiences (Govers et al. 2007; Thomson
2006). In addition, it is important to pay attention to the hedonic aspect of
virtual experience in designing and developing 3D learning environments
(Nambisan and Baron 2007); for instance, educators can fully utilize the
features of interactive communication and social interactions to enhance users’
experience of total engagement and intrinsic motivation (Guo and Barnes 2011;
Klein 1998; Richard and Chandra 2005).
7 Limitations and future studies
This study provides a framework to understand the notion of how the satisfaction of
psychological needs influences virtual experiences and behavioral intentions within a
3D virtual environment. It is important to note a number of limitations subject to the
present study. First, the majority of our participants are between 18 and 24 years old
and from the United States, and generalizability may become an issue. The present
study suggests directions for further research endeavors to collect a diverse population
from around the globe for validating the theoretical framework. The inclusion of
diverse populations in different cultures may be timely. Further, it is suggested that
future study should incorporate experimental design to examine the impact of virtual
experience on learning performance using different pedagogical platforms as experi-
mental manipulation. Moreover, it is important to acknowledge that this study focuses
on only the three psychological factors and does not consider other potential motiva-
tional factors. In generating more comprehensive pedagogical insights, future studies
might be devoted to including other psychological factors related to implementable
design factors of virtual environments.
Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.
References
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,
50(2), 179–211.
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice - a review and
recommended 2-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411–423.
Andreas, K., Tsiatsos, T., Terzidou, T., & Pomportsis, A. (2010). Fostering collaborative learning in second
life: Metaphors and affordances. Computers & Education, 55(2), 603–615.
Animesh, A., Pinsonneault, A., Yang, S. B., & Oh, W. (2011). An odyssey into virtual worlds: Exploring the
impacts of technological and spatial environments on intention to purchase virtual products. MIS
Quarterly, 35(3), 789–810.
Antoniou, P. E., Athanasopoulou, C. A., Dafli, E., & Bamidis, P. D. (2014). Exploring design requirements for
repurposing dental virtual patients from the web to second life: A focus group study. Journal of Medical
Internet Research, 16(6), e151.
Arnould, E., & Price, L. (1993). River magic: Extraordinary experience and the extended service encounter.
Journal of Consumer Research, 20, 24–45.
Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (1998). On the evaluation of structural equation models. Journal of the Academy of
Marketing Science, 16(1), 74–94.
Baker, S. C., Wentz, R. K., & Woods, M. M. (2009). Using virtual worlds in education: Second life as an
educational tool. Teaching of Psychology, 36(1), 59–64.
Barnes, S. J. (2011). Understanding use continuance in virtual worlds: Empirical test of a research model.
Information Management, 48(8), 313–319.
Barr, P., Noble, J., & Biddle, R. (2007). Video game values: Human–computer interaction and games.
Interacting with Computers, 19(2), 180–195.
Bentler, P. M., & Wu, E. J. C. (1995). EQS for windows: User's guide. Encino, CA: Multivariate Software.
Berns, A., Gonzalez-Pardo, A., & Camacho, D. (2013). Game-like language learning in 3-D virtual environ-
ments. Computers & Education, 60(1), 210–220.
Boellstorff, T. (2015). Coming of age in second life: An anthropologist explores the virtually human. Princeton
University Press.
Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York: Wiley.
Boulos, M. N. K., Hetherington, L., & Wheeler, S. (2007). Second life: An overview of the potential of 3-D
virtual worlds in medical and health education. Health Information & Libraries Journal, 24(4), 233–245.
Bower, M., Lee, M. J., & Dalgarno, B. (2017). Collaborative learning across physical and virtual worlds:
Factors supporting and constraining learners in a blended reality environment. British Journal of
Educational Technology, 48(2), 407–430.
Brown, T. A. (2014). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. Guilford Publications.
Bruwer, J., & Alant, K. (2009). The hedonic nature of wine tourism consumption: An experiential view.
International Journal of Wine Business Research, 21(3), 235–257.
Byrne, B. M. (2006). Structural equation modeling with EQS: Basic concepts, applications, and program-
ming. Mahwah, N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum associates.
Cheng, G. (2014). Exploring students' learning styles in relation to their acceptance and attitudes towards
using second life in education: A case study in Hong Kong. Computers & Education, 70, 105–115.
Cheong, D. (2010). The effects of practice teaching sessions in second life on the change in pre-service
teachers’ teaching efficacy. Computers & Education, 55(2), 868–880.
Chow, M., Herold, D. K., Choo, T. M., & Chan, K. (2012). Extending the technology acceptance model to explore
the intention to use second life for enhancing healthcare education. Computers & Education, 59(4), 1136–1144.
Conner, M., & Norman, P. (2005). Predicting health behaviour. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Dahl, D. W., & Moreau, C. P. (2007). Thinking inside the box: Why consumers enjoy constrained creative
experiences. Journal of Marketing Research, 44(3), 357–369.
De Lucia, A., Francese, R., Passero, I., & Tortora, G. (2009). Development and evaluation of a virtual campus
on second life: The case of SecondDMI. Computers & Education, 52(1), 220–233.
Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behaviour. New York: Plenum.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation,
development, and health. Canadian psychology/Psychologie canadienne, 49(3), 182.
Dholakia, U. M. (2006). How customer self-determination influences relational marketing outcomes:
Evidence from longitudinal field studies. Journal of Marketing Research, 43(1), 109–120.
Dreher, C., Reiners, T., Dreher, N., & Dreher, H. (2009). Virtual worlds as a context suited for information
systems education: Discussion of pedagogical experience and curriculum design with reference to second
life. Journal of Information Systems Education, 20(2), 211.
Enders, C. K. (2003). Using the expectation maximization algorithm to estimate coefficient alpha for scales
with item-level missing data. Psychological Methods, 8(3), 322–337.
Faiola, A., & Smyslova, O. (2009). Flow experience in second life: The impact of telepresence on human-
computer interaction. Online communities and social computing. Proceedings Third International
Conference, OCSC 2009. Held as Part of HCI International 2009.
Fang, X., Zhang, J., & Chan, S. S. (2013). Development of an instrument for studying flow in computer game
play. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 29(7), 456–470.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement
error - algebra and statistics. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(3), 382–388.
Fullagar, C. J., & Mills, M. J. (2008). Motivation and flow: Toward an understanding of the dynamics of the
relation in architecture students. Journal of Psychology, 142(5), 533–556.
Gabisch, J. A., & Gwebu, K. L. (2011). Impact of virtual brand experience on purchase intentions: The role of
multichannel congruence. Journal of Electronic Commerce Research, 12(4), 302–319.
Gagné, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Self-determination theory and work motivation. Journal of Organization
Behavior, 26, 331–362.
Gallego, M. D., Bueno, S., & Noyes, J. (2016). Second life adoption in education: A motivational model based
on uses and gratifications theory. Computers & Education, 100, 81–93.
Girvan, C., Tangney, B., & Savage, T. (2013). SLurtles: Supporting constructionist learning in second life.
Computers & Education, 61, 115–132.
Govers, R., Go, F. M., & Kumar, K. (2007). Virtual destination image: A new measurement approach. Annals
of Tourism Research, 34(4), 977–997.
Green, J., Wyllie, A., & Jackson, D. (2014). Virtual worlds: A new frontier for nurse education? Collegian,
21(2), 135–141.
Guo, Y., & Barnes, S. (2011). Purchase behavior in virtual worlds: An empirical investigation in second life.
Information Management, 48(7), 303–312.
Guttentag, D. A. (2010). Virtual reality: Applications and implications for tourism. Tourism Management,
31(5), 637–651.
Hagger, M., & Chatzisarantis, N. (2008). Self-determination theory and the psychology of exercise.
International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1(1), 79–103.
Hair, J. F., Sarstedt, M., Ringle, C. M., & Mena, J. A. (2012). An assessment of the use of partial least squares structural
equation modeling in marketing research. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 40(3), 414–433.
Hassenzahl, M., Diefenbach, S., & Göritz, A. (2010). Needs, affect, and interactive products – Facets of user
experience. Interacting with Computers, 22, 353–362.
Hassenzahl, M., Wiklund-Engblom, A., Bengs, A., Hägglund, S., & Diefenbach, S. (2015). Experience-
oriented and product-oriented evaluation: Psychological need fulfillment, positive affect, and product
perception. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 31(8), 530–544.
Hirschman, M. B., & Holbrook, E. C. (1982). The experiential aspects of consumption: Consumer fantasies,
feelings, and fun. The Journal of Consumer Research, 9(2), 132–140.
Hoffman, D. L., & Novak, T. P. (2012). Toward a deeper understanding of social media. Journal of Interactive
Marketing, 26(2), 69–70.
Holbrook, M. B., & Hirschman, E. C. (1982). The experiential aspects of consumption: Consumer fantasies,
feelings, and fun. Journal of Consumer Research, 9(2), 132–140.
Holsapple, C. W., & Wu, J. (2007). User acceptance of virtual worlds: The hedonic framework. ACM SIGMIS
Database, 38(4), 86–89.
Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M. (2008). Structural equation modelling: Guidelines for determining
model fit. Articles, 2.
Hsiao, K. L., Lu, H. P., & Lan, W. C. (2013). The influence of the components of storytelling blogs on readers’
travel intentions. Internet Research, 23(2), 160–182.
Hsiao, I. Y., Lan, Y. J., Kao, C. L., & Li, P. (2017). Visualization analytics for second language vocabulary
learning in virtual worlds. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 20(2), 161–175.
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional
criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling-a Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55.
Hua, G., & Haughton, D. (2009). Virtual worlds adoption: A research framework and empirical study. Online
Information Review, 33(5), 889–900.
Jarmon, L., Traphagan, T., Mayrath, M., & Trivedi, A. (2009). Virtual world teaching, experiential learning,
and assessment: An interdisciplinary communication course in second life. Computers & Education,
53(1), 169–182.
Jeno, L. M., Grytnes, J. A., & Vandvik, V. (2017). The effect of a mobile-application tool on biology students'
motivation and achievement in species identification: A Self-Determination Theory perspective.
Computers & Education, 107, 1–12.
Johnson, C. M., Vorderstrasse, A., & Shaw, R. (2009). Virtual worlds in health case higher education. Journal
of Virtual Worlds Research, 2(2).
Jones, C. M., Scholes, L., Johnson, D., Katsikitis, M., & Carras, M. C. (2014). Gaming well: Links between
videogames and flourishing mental health. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 260.
Jöreskog, K. G., & Sörbom, D. (1996). LISREL 8 User's reference guide. Chicago, IL: Scientific Software
International.
Jung, Y. (2011). Understanding the role of sense of presence and perceived autonomy in users' continued use
of social virtual worlds. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 16(4), 492–510.
Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M. (2009). The fairyland of second life: Virtual social worlds and how to use
them. Business Horizons, 52(6), 563–572.
Kaplanidou, K., & Vogt, C. (2006). A structural analysis of destination travel intentions as a function of web
site features. Journal of Travel Research, 45(2), 204–216.
Karppinen, P. (2005). Meaningful learning with digital and online videos: Theoretical perspectives. AACE
Journal, 13(3), 233–250.
Kemp, J., & Livingstone, D. (2006, August). Putting a second life “metaverse” skin on learning management
systems. In Proceedings of the Second Life education workshop at the Second Life community convention
(Vol. 20). CA, San Francisco: The University of Paisley.
Kennedy-Clark, S. (2011). Pre-service teachers’ perspectives on using scenario-based virtual worlds in science
education. Computers & Education, 57(4), 2224–2235.
Klein, L. R. (1998). Evaluating the potential of interactive media through a new lens: Search versus experience
goods. Journal of Business Research, 41(3), 195–203.
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York: NY, Guilford Press.
Kline, R. B. (2010). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). Inc: Guilford
Publications.
Kohler, T., Fueller, J., Matzler, K., & Stieger, D. (2011). Co-creation in virtual worlds: The design of the user
experience. MIS Quarterly, 35(3), 773–788.
Kowal, J., & Fortier, M. (1999). Motivational determinants of flow: Contributions from self-determination
theory. The Journal of Social Psychology, 139(3), 355–368.
Lange, F. W., & Elliot, S. (2012). Understanding the role of social media in destination marketing. Tourismos:
An international multidisciplinary journal of tourism, 7(1), 193–211.
Lee, A., & Berge, Z. L. (2011). Second life in healthcare education: Virtual environment's potential to improve
patient safety. Knowledge Management & E-Learning: An International Journal (KM&EL), 3(1), 17–23.
Li, H., Daugherty, T., & Biocca, F. (2002). Impact of 3-D advertising on product knowledge, brand attitude,
and purchase intention: The mediating role of presence. Journal of advertising, 31(3), 43–57.
Lin, C. P., Tsai, Y. H., & Chiu, C. K. (2009). Modeling customer loyalty from an integrative perspective of self-
determination theory and expectation-confirmation theory. Journal of Business and Psychology, 24(3), 315–326.
López, I., & Ruiz, S. (2011). Explaining website effectiveness: The hedonic–utilitarian dual mediation
hypothesis. Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, 10(1), 49–58.
MacKenzie, K., Buckby, S., & Irvine, H. (2013). Business research in virtual worlds: Possibilities and
practicalities. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, 26(3), 352–373.
MacKinnon, D. P., Warsi, G., & Dwyer, J. H. (1995). A simulation study of mediated effect measures.
Multivariate Behavioral Research, 30(1), 41–62.
MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., Hoffman, J. M., West, S. G., & Sheets, V. (2002). A comparison of
methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. Psychological Methods, 7(1), 83–104.
Mannell, R. C., & Iso-Ahola, S. E. (1987). Psychological nature of leisure and tourism experience. Annals of
Tourism Research, 14(3), 314–331.
Mäntymäki, M., & Salo, J. (2011). Teenagers in social virtual worlds: Continuous use and purchasing behavior
in Habbo hotel. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(6), 2088–2097.
Mäntymäkia, M. Y., & Salo, J. (2013). Purchasing behavior in social virtual worlds: An examination of Habbo
hotel. International Journal of Information Management, 33(2), 282–290.
Martens, R., Gulikers, J., & Bastiaens, T. (2004). The impact of intrinsic motivation on e-learning in authentic
computer tasks. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 20, 368–376.
McBrien, J. L., Jones, P., & Cheng, R. (2009). Virtual spaces: Employing a synchronous online classroom to
facilitate student engagement in online learning. International Review of Research in Open and Distance
Learning, 10(3), 1–17.
McKnight, D. H., Choudhury, V., & Kacmar, C. (2002). Developing and validating trust measures for e-
commerce: An integrative typology. Information Systems Research, 13(3), 334–359.
Meng, X. L., & Rubin, D. B. (1993). Maximum likelihood estimation via the ECM algorithm: A general
framework. Biometrika, 80(2), 267–278.
Menzel, N., Willson, L. H., & Doolen, J. (2014). Effectiveness of a poverty simulation in second life®:
Changing nursing student attitudes toward poor people. International Journal of Nursing Education
Scholarship, 11(1), 39–45.
Mørch, A. I., Hartley, M. D., & Caruso, V. (2015, July). Teaching interpersonal problem solving skills using
roleplay in a 3D virtual world for special education: A case study in second life. In Advanced Learning
Technologies (ICALT), 2015 IEEE 15th International Conference on (pp. 464-468). IEEE.
Muir, T., Allen, J., Rayner, C., & Cleland, B. (2013). Preparing pre-service teachers for classroom practice in a
virtual world: A pilot study using second life. Journal of Interactive Media in Education, 2013(1), p.Art.
3. https://doi.org/10.5334/2013-03.
Mummalaneni, V. (2005). An empirical investigation of web site characteristics, consumer emotional states
and on-line shopping behaviors. Journal of Business Research, 58(4), 526–532.
Nambisan, S., & Baron, R. A. (2007). Interactions in virtual customer environments: Implications for product
support and customer relationship management. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 21(2), 42–62.
Nambisan, S., & Nambisan, P. (2008). How to profit from a better “virtual customer environment”. MIT Sloan
Management Review, 49(3), 53–61.
Neys, J. L. D., Jansz, J., & Tan, E. S. H. (2010). To persevere is to save the world: Exploring expertise in
gaming. Proceedings of the 3rd international conference on fun and games (fun and games ‘10). ACM,
New York, NY, USA.
O’Regan, K. (2003). Emotion and e-learning. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 7(3), 78–92.
Oulasvirta, A., & Blom, J. (2007). Motivations in personalization behavior. Interacting with Computers, 20,
1–16.
Pellas, N. (2014). The influence of computer self-efficacy, metacognitive self-regulation and self-esteem on
student engagement in online learning programs: Evidence from the virtual world of second life.
Computers in Human Behavior, 35, 157–170.
Pellas, N., & Kazanidis, I. (2015). On the value of second life for students’ engagement in blended and online
courses: A comparative study from the higher education in Greece. Education and Information
Technologies, 20(3), 445–466.
Peng, W., Lin, J.-H., Pfeiffer, K. A., & Winn, B. (2012). Need satisfaction supportive game features as
motivational determinants: An experimental study of a self- determination theory guided exergame.
Media Psychology, 15(2), 175–196.
Perlusz, S. (2004). Emotions and Technology Acceptance: Development and Validation of a Technology Affect
Scale. 2004 IEEE international engineering management conference.
Petrakou, A. (2010). Interacting through avatars: Virtual worlds as a context for online education. Computers
& Education, 54(4), 1020–1027.
Potkonjak, V., Gardner, M., Callaghan, V., Mattila, P., Guetl, C., Petrović, V. M., & Jovanović, K. (2016).
Virtual laboratories for education in science, technology, and engineering: A review. Computers &
Education, 95, 309–327.
Proulx, J. N., Romero, M., & Arnab, S. (2017). Learning mechanics and game mechanics under the
perspective of self-determination theory to foster motivation in digital game based learning. Simulation
& Gaming, 48(1), 81–97.
Przybylski, A. K., Weinstein, N., Ryan, R. M., & Rigby, C. S. (2009a). Having to versus wanting to play:
Background and consequences of harmonious versus obsessive engagement in video games.
Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 12, 485–492.
Przybylski, A., Ryan, R., & Rigby, C. (2009b). The motivating role of violence in video games. Personality
and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35(2), 243–259.
Reeve, J., & Sickenius, B. (1994). Development and validation of a brief measure of the three psychological needs
underlying intrinsic motivation: The AFS scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 54, 506–515.
Reinhard, C. D. (2010). Interviews within experimental frameworks: How to make sense of sense-making in
virtual worlds. Journal of Virtual Worlds Research, 3 (1). Retrieved from <https://journals.tdl.
org/jvwr/article/view/812/885>
Richard, M. O., & Chandra, R. (2005). A model of consumer web navigational behavior: Conceptual
development and application. Journal of Business Research, 58(8), 1019–1029.
Roca, J. C., & Gagné, M. (2008). Understanding e-learning continuance intention in the workplace: A self-
determination theory perspective. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(4), 1585–1604.
Rogers, L. (2011). Developing simulations in multi-user virtual environments to enhance healthcare education.
British Journal of Educational Technology, 42(4), 608–615.
Ryan, R., & Deci, E. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social
development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78.
Ryan, R. M., Rigby, C. S., & Przybylski, A. (2006). The motivational pull of video games: A self-
determination theory approach. Motivation and Emotion, 30, 344–360.
Saeed, N., Yang, Y., & Sinnappan, S. (2009). Emerging web technologies in higher education: A case of
incorporating blogs, podcasts and social bookmarks in a web programming course based on students’
learning styles and technology preferences. Educational Technology & Society, 12(4), 98–109.
Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods,
7, 147–177.
Schoonheim, M., Heyden, R., & Wiecha, J. M. (2014). Use of a virtual world computer environment for international
distance education: Lessons from a pilot project using second life. BMC Medical Education, 14(1), 36.
Sheldon, K. M., & Filak, V. (2008). Manipulating autonomy, competence, and relatedness support in a game-
learning context: New evidence that all three needs matter. British Journal of Social Psychology, 47, 267–283.
Sheldon, K. M., & Kasser, T. (1998). Pursuing personal goals: Skills enable progress but not all progress is
beneficial. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 1319–1331.
Shin, D. H. (2009). The evaluation of user experience of the virtual world in relation to extrinsic and intrinsic
motivation. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 25(6), 530–553.
Sørebø, Ø., Halvari, H., Gulli, V. F., & Kristiansen, R. (2009). The role of self-determination theory in explaining
teachers’ motivation to continue to use e-learning technology. Computers & Education, 53, 1177–1187.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). New York: Allyn and Bacon.
Tamborini, R., Bowman, N. D., Eden, A., Grizzard, M., & Organ, A. (2010). Defining media enjoyment as the
satisfaction of intrinsic needs. Journal of Communication, 60(4), 758–777.
Tamborini, R., Grizzard, M., Bowman, N. D., Reinecke, L., Lewis, R. J., & Eden, A. (2011). Media enjoyment
as need satisfaction: The contribution of hedonic and nonhedonic needs. Journal of Communication,
61(6), 1025–1042.
Thomson, M. (2006). Human brands: Investigating antecedents to consumers' strong attachments to celebri-
ties. Journal of Marketing, 70(3), 104–119.
Thornhill-Miller, B., & Dupont, J. M. (2016). Virtual reality and the enhancement of creativity and innovation:
Under recognized potential among converging technologies? Journal of Cognitive Education and
Psychology, 15(1), 102–121.
Tokel, S. T., & İsler, V. (2015). Acceptance of virtual worlds as learning space. Innovations in Education and
Teaching International, 52(3), 254–264.
Trevino, L. K., & Webster, J. (1992). Flow in computer-mediated communication – Electronic mail and voice
mail evaluation and impacts. Communication Research, 19(5), 539–573.
Vella, K., Johnson, D., & Hides, L. (2015). Playing alone, playing with others: Differences in player
experience and indicators of wellbeing. Proceedings of the 2015 annual symposium on computer-
human interaction in play (pp. 3-12). ACM.
Vrellis, I., Avouris, N., & Mikropoulos, T. A. (2016). Learning outcome, presence and satisfaction from a
science activity in second life. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 32(1).
Vriens, M., & Melton, E. (2002). Managing missing data. Marketing Research, 14, 12–17.
Wang, F., & Burton, J. K. (2013). Second life in education: A review of publications from its launch to 2011.
Wang, Y., & Fesenmaier, D. R. (2004). Towards understanding members’ general participation in and active
contribution to an online travel community. Tourism Management, 25, 709–722.
Wankel, C. (2009). Management education using social media. Organization Management Journal, 6(4),
251–262.
Warburton, S. (2009). Second life in higher education: Assessing the potential for and the barriers to deploying
virtual worlds in learning and teaching. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(3), 414–426.
Ward, T., Falconer, L., Frutos-Perez, M., Williams, B., Johns, J., & Harold, S. (2016). Using virtual online
simulations in second life® to engage undergraduate psychology students with employability issues.
Wehner, A. K., Gump, A. W., & Downey, S. (2011). The effects of second life on the motivation of undergraduate
students learning a foreign language. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 24(3), 277–289.
Weibel, D., Wissmath, B., Habegger, S., Steiner, Y., & Groner, R. (2008). Playing online games against
computer- vs. human-controlled opponents: Effects on presence, flow, and enjoyment. Computers in
Human Behavior, 24(5), 2274–2291.
White, C. J., & Thompson, M. (2009). Self determination theory and the wine club attribute formation process.
Annals of Tourism Research, 36(4), 561–586.
Xiang, Z., & Gretzel, U. (2010). Role of social media in online travel information search. Tourism
Management., 31(2), 179–188.
Yuan, K. H., Chan, W., Marcoulides, G. A., & Bentler, P. M. (2016). Assessing structural equation models by
equivalence testing with adjusted fit indexes. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal,
23(3), 319–330.
Zhou, Z., Jin, X. L., Vogel, D. R., Fang, Y., & Chen, X. (2011). Individual motivations and demographic
differences in social virtual world uses: An exploratory investigation in second life. International Journal
of Information Management, 31(3), 261–271.
Zydney, J. M., & Seo, K. J. (2012). Creating a community of inquiry in online environments: An exploratory
study on the effect of a protocol on interactions within asynchronous discussions. Computers &
Education, 58(1), 77–87.
Affiliations
1
Yu-Chih Huang 1 & Sheila I Backman2 & Kenneth
Sheila J.J. Backman
2
I
Backman2 & Francis A.
KennethF.F.Backman
2
I
McGuire 2 2
DeWayne Moore
Francis A. &McGuire I 3
DeWayne Moore
3
* Yu-Chih Huang
yhuang@g.clemson.edu
1
Department of Tourism Leisure and Hospitality Management, National Chi Nan University, 1, Daxue
Rd., Puli Township, Nantou County 545, Taiwan
2
Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
3
Department of Psychology, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA

0 An Investigation of Motivation and Experience in Virtual

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

0 An Investigation of Motivation and Experience in Virtual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Education and Information Technologies

An investigation of motivation and experience in virtual

Yu-Chih Huang 1 & Sheila J. Backman 2 & Kenneth F. Backman 2 &

Received: 4 March 2018 / Accepted: 31 July 2018/

Keywords Virtual reality technology . Self-determination theory . Hedonic theory .

Information technology has continued to evolve from web-based interfaces to the

2.1 Self determination theory

framework for explaining motivational appeal and sustained engagement in virtual

H1: perceived autonomy will be significantly associated with intrinsic motivation.

H4: the perception of autonomy is positively associated with behavioral intentions.

2.2 Hedonic experience

In addition to understanding dynamic motivation and learning experience through Self-

2.2.1 Positive emotions

In understanding experience in computer-mediated environments, the construct of positive

2.2.2 Emotional involvement

emerging technologies’ personalization behavior, identify a positive link between

H10: perceived autonomy has a positive relationship with emotional involvement.

H13: the perception of autonomy positively affects flow experience.

3.1 The development of second life Maasai Mara

3.2 Data collection

3.3 Research procedures

Tamborini et al. 2010). The perception of competence is comprised of four items

4.1 Demographic characteristics of the sample

The demographic characteristics of the respondents (N = 198) are reported as follows.

4.2 Confirmatory factor analysis

4.3 Structural model

Table 1 Measurement items and confirmatory factor analysis results

Measures Standardized factor S.E. Reliabilities AVE

Competence (CM) 0.86 0.92 0.78

Measures Standardized factor S.E. Reliabilities AVE

Flow (FL) 0.87 0.93 0.79

a All tests were significant at p < 0.001

Table 2 Constructs inter-correlation and average variance extracted (AVE)

7 Limitations and future studies

You might also like