Professional Documents
Culture Documents
5
2
Don’t
Waste
a
Single
Atom!
• Processes
that
convert
dinitrogen
gas
into
bioavailable,
reac3ve
compounds
are
called
fixa$on
processes.
• Using
the
Haber-‐Bosch
process,
ammonia
gas
(NH3),
is
generated
on
an
industrial
scale.
• From
fer3lizer
to
human
consump3on,
nitrogen
is
lost.
3
Don’t
Waste
a
Single
Atom!
• Scien3sts
are
working
to
improve
the
atom
efficiency
of
processes
in
the
chemical
industry.
EXAMPLE:
• The
two-‐step
synthesis
of
methanol:
CH4(g) + H2O(ℓ) → CO(g) + 3 H2(g)
Copper/zinc
CO(g) + 2 H2(g) catalyst
CH3OH(ℓ)
4
Don’t
Waste
a
Single
Atom!
The
guiding
principles
of
Green
Chemistry.
• Preven$on:
It
is
beKer
to
prevent
waste
than
to
clean
it
up
aLer
it
has
been
created.
• Atom
Economy:
Synthe3c
methods
should
maximize
the
incorpora3on
of
all
materials
used
into
the
final
product
• Less
Hazardous
Chemical
Syntheses:
Synthe3c
methods
should
be
designed
to
use
and
produce
less-‐toxic
or
non-‐toxic
reagents
and
solvents.
• Design
for
Energy
Efficiency:
Energy
requirements
of
chemical
processes
must
be
considered.
5
Chemical
Reac+on,
Chemical
Change
• A
chemical
reac0on
is
a
process
in
which
substances
are
formed
as
a
result
of
redistribu$on
of
atoms.
EXAMPLE:
P4(s) + 6 Cl2(g) → 4 PCl3(ℓ)
6
Chemical
Reac+on,
Chemical
Change
A
more
refined
defini3on
of
a
chemical
reac3on
must
include
the:
•Redistribu3on
of
ions
(acid-‐base
reac$ons)
7
Chemical
Reac+on,
Chemical
Change
8
Chemical
Equa+ons,
Chemical
Accoun+ng
Balanced
chemical
equa+ons
• The
total
electrical
charge
on
the
reactants
is
equal
to
the
total
electrical
charge
on
the
products.
EXAMPLE:
9
Chemical
Equa+ons,
Chemical
Accoun+ng
Balanced
chemical
equa+ons
• The
number
of
atoms
of
each
element
in
the
reactants
is
equal
to
the
number
of
atoms
of
each
element
in
the
products.
10
Chemical
Equa+ons,
Chemical
Accoun+ng
Balanced
chemical
equa+ons
• The
number
of
atoms
of
each
element
in
the
reactants
is
equal
to
the
number
of
atoms
of
each
element
in
the
products.
11
Chemical
Equa+ons,
Chemical
Accoun+ng
What
can
balanced
chemical
equa3ons
tell
us?
•A
chemical
equa3on
tells
us
what
are
the
reactants
and
products
and
indicate
their
physical
state.
•A
chemical
equa3on
gives
us
the
rela$ve
amounts
(in
mol)
of
reactants
and
products
which
par3cipate
in
a
reac3on.
This
informa3on
is
given
be
means
of
stoichiometric
coefficients.
12
Chemical
Equa+ons,
Chemical
Accoun+ng
What
can
balanced
chemical
equa3ons
not
tell
us?
•Stoichiometric
coefficients
provide
informa3on
about
rela3ve
amounts
of
the
species
that
react.
The
exact
amounts
are
not
shown
in
a
chemical
equa3on.
•A
chemical
equa3on
does
not
tell
us
about
the
amounts
of
species
ini3ally
in
a
reac3on
mixture.
•A
chemical
equa3on
does
not
tell
us
about
the
direc3on
of
the
reac3on
to
reach
chemical
equilibrium.
13
Chemical
Equa+ons,
Chemical
Accoun+ng
What
can
balanced
chemical
equa3ons
not
tell
us?
•A
chemical
equa3on
does
not
tell
us
about
the
energy
released
during
reac3on
or
energy
needed
in
order
for
the
reac3on
to
occur.
•A
chemical
equa3on
does
not
tell
us
how
fast
a
reac3on
proceeds
(chemical
kine$cs).
•A
chemical
equa3on
does
not
tell
us
about
the
reac3on
mechanism
(how
the
reac3on
happens
on
the
molecular
level).
14
Spontaneous
Direc+on
of
Reac+on
• A
chemical
reac3on
has
a
“natural
tendency”
to
occur
in
one
direc3on
EXAMPLE:
2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 NaCl(s)
2 NaCl(s) → 2 Na(s) + Cl2(g)
The
reac3on
between
solid
sodium
and
a
stream
of
chlorine
gas
has
a
natural
tendency
to
favour
the
produc3on
of
solid
sodium
chloride.
The
reac3on
in
the
opposite
direc3on
will
not
occur.
15
Spontaneous
Direc+on
of
Reac+on
A
chemical
reac3on
has
a
“natural
tendency”
to
occur
in
one
direc3on
•The
direc3on
of
“natural
tendency”
is
the
spontaneous
reac$on
direc3on.
•Reactants
in
the
spontaneous
reac3on
have
higher
chemical
poten$al
than
products.
•The
spontaneous
reac3on
leads
to
forma3on
of
more
stable
species.
16
Spontaneous
Direc+on
of
Reac+on
17
The
Condi+on
of
Dynamic
Chemical
Equilibrium
In
many
chemical
reac3ons
there
is
a
point
when
the
reac3on
apparently
stops—i.e.,
the
rela3ve
concentra3ons
of
reactants
and
products
do
not
change
anymore.
At
this
point,
the
rate
of
reac3on
in
one
direc3on
is
matched
by
the
rate
of
reac3on
in
the
opposite
direc3on.
This
is
called
dynamic
chemical
equilibrium.
18
The
Condi+on
of
Dynamic
Chemical
Equilibrium
The
calcula3on
of
amounts
and
masses
of
reactants
and
products
in
chemical
reac3ons
is
called
stoichiometry
EXAMPLE:
Symbol
used
for
dynamic
chemical
equilibrium
19
The
Condi+on
of
Dynamic
Chemical
Equilibrium
How
far
a
reac3on
will
proceed
is
different
from
reac3on
to
reac3on.
EXAMPLE:
Cu(s) + 2 Ag+(aq) ⇌ Cu2+(aq) + 2 Ag(s)
If
a
piece
of
copper
is
placed
in
a
1
mol
L-1
aqueous
solu3on
of
Ag+,
the
reac3on
will
occur
un3l
about
1
×
10-10
mol
L-1
Ag+
ions
remain.
At
this
point,
the
dynamic
chemical
equilibrium
is
reached.
20
Masses
of
Reactants
and
Products:
Stoichiometry
The
calcula3on
of
amounts
and
masses
of
reactants
and
products
in
chemical
reac3ons
is
called
stoichiometry.
How
can
we
visualize
the
reac3on
between
1.00
mol
of
phosphorus
and
6.00
mol
chlorine
gas
to
make
4.00
mol
phosphorus
trichloride?
21
Masses
of
Reactants
and
Products:
Stoichiometry
EXAMPLE:
P4(s) + 6 Cl2(g) → 4 PCl3(ℓ)
22
Masses
of
Reactants
and
Products:
Stoichiometry
EXAMPLE:
P4(s) + 6 Cl2(g) → 4 PCl3(ℓ)
23
Reac+ons
Limited
by
the
Amount
of
One
Reactant
The
sparkler
(a
wire
coated
with
magnesium)
burns
in
air,
consuming
oxygen
un3l
all
of
the
magnesium
has
reacted.
24
Reac+ons
Limited
by
the
Amount
of
One
Reactant
EXAMPLE:
4 NH3(g) + 5 O2(g) → 4 NO(g) + 6 H2O(ℓ)
Equal
masses
(750
g
each)
of
NH3(g)
and
O2(g)
are
mixed
to
produce
nitric
oxide.
How
much
NO(g)
can
be
produced?
25
Reac+ons
Limited
by
the
Amount
of
One
Reactant
EXAMPLE:
4 NH3(g) + 5 O2(g) → 4 NO(g) + 6 H2O(ℓ)
Equal
masses
(750
g
each)
of
NH3(g)
and
O2(g)
are
mixed
to
produce
nitric
oxide.
How
much
NO(g)
can
be
produced?
26
Theore+cal
Yield
and
Percent
Yield
The
ini3al
mass
of
reactants
and
the
stoichiometry
indicate
the
maximum
amount
of
products
that
can
be
obtained
(theore0cal
yield).
The
mass
of
the
products
in
a
chemical
reac3on
is
typically
less
than
the
theore3cal
yield.
This
is
called
actual
yield.
Actual
yield
Percent
yield
=
Theore3cal
y
ield
×
100%
27
Theore+cal
Yield
and
Percent
Yield
EXAMPLE:
If
we
begin
with
20
popcorn
kernels,
the
theore3cal
yield
is
20
popped
corns.
Given
the
following
images,
what
is
the
actual
yield?
What
is
the
percent
yield?
28
Stoichiometry
and
Chemical
Analysis
• Quan$ta$ve
chemical
analysis
depends
on
knowing
the
stoichiometry
of
a
given
reac3on.
• The
amount
of
one
component
in
a
sample
can
be
es3mated
from
either:
– The
amount
of
another
substance
it
reacts
with
– The
amount
of
substances
formed
from
it
29
Stoichiometry
and
Chemical
Analysis
Example:
Analysis
of
sulfate
content
by
gravimetric
analysis
SO42‒(aq) + Ba2+(aq) → BaSO4(s)
30
Atom
Economy,
Atom
Efficiency
Don’t
waste
a
single
atom!
revisited
31
What
is
the
coefficient
of
Cl2
in
the
following
reac+on?
S8(g)
+
Cl2(g)
S2Cl2(g)
1. 1
2. 2
3. 3
4. 4
5. 6
Determine
the
coefficients
for
the
following
reac+on:
Na2O(s)
+
H3PO4(aq)
→
Na3PO4(aq)
+
H2O(ℓ)
1. 1,
1,
1,
1
2. 3,
2,
2,
3
3. 2,
3,
3,
2
4. 1,
2,
2,
1
5. 2,
1,
1,
2
What
can
we
conclude
based
on
the
following
reac+on?
2
Na(s)
+
Cl2(g)
→
2
NaCl(s)
1. 3/2
2. 2
3. 2/3
4. 1
5. 4/3
What
is
the
limi+ng
reagent
in
the
following
reac+on
if
1
gram
of
each
reactant
is
present?
1. H2
2. Na
3. H2O
4. NaOH
5. Both
reactants
have
equal
moles
How
many
grams
of
CO2(g)
can
be
produced
from
6
g
of
carbon
and
32
g
of
oxygen?
1. 44
g
2. 22
g
3. 88
g
4. 11
g
5. 5.5
g
What
is
the
%
yield
if
2
g
of
H2(g)
and
19
g
of
F2(g)
react
to
give
10
g
of
HF(g)?
1. 75%
2. 25%
3. 100%
4. 50%
5. 80%
The
following
reac+on
gives
34
g
of
PH3(g)
at
50%
yield.
How
many
grams
of
P4(s)
and
H2(g)
were
there
at
the
start
of
reac+on
(assume
no
limi+ng
reagent)?
1. 0.35
M
2. 1.2
M
3. 0.93
M
4. 0.22
M
5. 0.055
M
What
is
the
overall
atom
efficiency
for
the
produc+on
of
hydrogen
from
zinc
and
hydrogen
chloride?
1. 100%
2. 1.5%
3. 51%
4. 12%
5. 84%