CHAPTER FOUR

Stoichiometry of Chemical Reaction

Stoichiometry

From the Greek words

“stoicheion” meaning “element”
and “metron” meaning “measure”

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Stoichiometry
• Involves the mass relationships between reactants and products in a
chemical reaction.

• All reaction stoichiometry relationships start with a balanced

chemical equation.

• Equation gives the relative numbers of moles of reactants and

products.

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Chemical Equations
Concise representations of chemical reactions
“Chemical Sentences”

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Anatomy of a Chemical Equation

CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)

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Anatomy of a Chemical Equation

CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)

Reactants appear on the left

side of the equation.
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Anatomy of a Chemical Equation

CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)

Products appear on the right

side of the equation.
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Anatomy of a Chemical Equation

CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)

The states of the reactants and products are

written in parentheses to the right of each
compound. 7
Anatomy of a Chemical Equation

CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)

Coefficients are inserted to

balance the equation.
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Subscripts and Coefficients Give Different Information

• Subscripts tell the number of atoms of each

element in a molecule

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Subscripts and Coefficients Give Different Information

• Subscripts tell the number of atoms of each

element in a molecule
• Coefficients tell the number of molecules
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SUMMARY

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Balancing Chemical Equations

Why Balance a Chemical

Equation?
Because of the principle of the Conservation
of Matter,
an equation must be
balanced.
* It must have the same
number of atoms of the
kind on both sides.
Lavoisier, 1788

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Law of Conservation of Mass
You need to remember this law!

• The Law of Conservation of Mass states: that mass is neither created

nor destroyed in any chemical reaction.
* Therefore balancing of equations requires the same number of atoms
on both sides of a chemical reaction.
• The number of atoms in the Reactants must equal the Number of
atoms in the Products

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 Steps in Balancing Chemical Equations:
• Identify the reactants and products.
• Draw a line to separate R & P.
• List all the elements.
• Write the number of atoms and molecules.
• Check every element in R if balanced with P
• Balance the Chemical Equation

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Steps to Balancing Equations
1) Determine the number of atoms for each element.
2) Pick an element that is not equal on both sides of the equation.
3) Add a coefficient in front of the formula with that element and
adjust your counts.
4) Continue adding coefficients to get the same number of atoms of
each element on both sides

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 Try to balance these equations using the same
method:

1. CH4 + O2  CO2 + H2O

2. Li + HNO3  LiNO3 + H2

3. Al + O2  Al2O3

4. N2 + O2  N2O5 5. KClO3  KCl + O2

Reflection:
In 2-3 sentences explain why balancing equation is important?
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Classification of chemical reactions
 Acid-base reactions

 An acid-base reaction is one in which a hydrogen ion, H+, is transferred from one
chemical species to another.
 This reactions are important to the
• Industrial-scale production of fertilizers
• Pharmaceuticals
• Other substances essential to society

 An acid is a substance that will dissolve in water to yield

 hydronium ions, H3O+.

 An acid can be strong acid or Weak

acid depending on complete and partially
dissociate in water.
 A base is a substance that will dissolve in water to yield
hydroxide ions, OH-
 neutralization reaction:
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 Solubility Rules and Precipitation Reactions
 A precipitation reaction is one in which dissolved substances react to
form one (or more) solid products.

 The extent to which a substance may be dissolved in water, or any

solvent, is quantitatively expressed as its solubility.

 Solubility defined as the maximum concentration of a substance that

can be achieved under specified conditions.

 Substances with relatively large solubility are said to be soluble.

 A substance will precipitate when solution conditions are such that its
concentration exceeds its solubility.
 Substances with relatively low solubility are said to be insoluble, and
these are the substances that readily precipitate from solution.
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Not all ionic compounds dissolve!

Instead of doing experiments all the

time to see which ones will dissolve,
we use The solubility rules.

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Solubility Rules
-
1. All nitrates (NO3 ) are soluble.
2. All ammonium (NH4+) or alkali (Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+,
Fr+) compounds are soluble.

3. All carbonates (CO32-), phosphates (PO4 3 -) and

hydroxides (OH-) are insoluble except with the
cations in Rule #2.

4. All chlorides (Cl-), bromides (Br-), and iodides (I-), are

soluble except with Ag+, Pb2+, or Hg+.
5. All sulphates (SO42-) are soluble except with Ca2+,
Sr2+, Ba2+, Ra2+, Pb2+,
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Solubility Rules Con’t
• 6. All acetates (CH3COO) are soluble except Fe3+
• 7. Except for rule 1 and 2, carbonates, oxalates,
sulfites, chromates, oxides, silicates, and
phosphates are insoluble.
• 8. Except for rule 1 and 2, Sulfides are insoluble
except for calcium, barium, strontium,
magnesium.

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Which of the following are soluble in water?
a. SrSO4 Not soluble

b. NaNO3 soluble

c. PbCl2 Not soluble

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 Precipitation Reactions
When a solid doesn’t dissolve it is called insoluble. A
solid that forms when two solutions are mixed is
called a precipitate.

Remember!!!
State of matter is shown as a subscript in
parentheses after the element or compound
Solid (s)
Aqueous/dissolved (aq)
Gas (g)

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Predict the products of the following reaction: (if no solid precipitate is
formed, there is no reaction)

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + KI (aq) 

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI (aq)  PbI2(s) + 2KNO3 (aq)

We know it is a solid
precipitate because it is
insoluble according to
the solubility rules.

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A picture of the reaction:

NO3-
Pb2+ NO3
-
K+ I- K+
NO3-
PbI2(s)
Because and K+ NO3- remain dissolved, they are
called spectator ions and are not included in the
net ionic equation.
Net Ionic Equation
Pb2+ (aq) + 2I-(aq)  PbI2(s)
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 Net Ionic Equation
Write the balanced chemical and net ionic equation
for:
Na2CO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq) 
Step 1: Write the balanced chemical equation

Na2CO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq)  CaCO3(s) + 2NaCl (aq)

Insoluble precipitate
Step 2: Remove the spectator ions (those that are
soluble).
Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq)  CaCO3(s)

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 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (Reading Assignment)

 The oxidation number (or oxidation state) of an element in a compound is the

charge its atoms would possess if the compound was ionic.
 The following guidelines are used to assign oxidation numbers to each element in a molecule or ion.

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Reaction stoichiometry
Limiting vs. Excess
• Limiting Reactant-
The reactant in a chemical reaction that
limits the amount of product that can be
formed. The reaction will stop when all of
the limiting reactant is consumed.

 Excess Reactant-
The reactant in a chemical reaction that
remains when the reaction stops. The
excess reactant remains because there is
nothing left with which it can react.

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Finding the Limiting Reactant
• Find the number of moles of one product for each reactant.
• The reactant that produces the smallest amount of product is the limiting
reactant.
• involves doing a one or two step stoichiometry problem.

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Example Problem #1
• A 2.00 mol sample of ammonia is mixed with 4.00
mol of oxygen. Which is the limiting reactant and
which is in excess?

4 NH3+ 5 O2  4 NO + 6 H2O

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 • 4 NH3+ 5 O2  4 NO + 6 H2O

NH3 is Limiting Reactant

2.00 mol NH3 4 mol NO
= 2.00 mol NO
4 mol NH3

O2 is Excess Reactant
4.00 mol O2 4 mol NO
= 3.20 mol NO
5 mol O2

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Theoretical, Actual, and Percent Yield
Theoretical yield
• The maximum amount of product calculated using the
balanced equation.
Actual yield
• The amount of product obtained when the reaction
takes place.
Percent yield
• The ratio of actual yield to theoretical yield.
percent yield = actual yield (g) x 100
theoretical yield (g)

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Calculating Percent Yield
To calculate the percent yield, the actual yield and
theoretical yield are needed.
You prepared cookie dough to make 5 dozen cookies.
The phone rings and you answer. While talking, a sheet
of 12 cookies burn and you have to throw them out. The
rest of the cookies are okay. What is the percent yield of
edible cookies?
Theoretical yield 60 cookies possible
Actual yield 48 cookies to eat
Percent yield 48 cookies x 100 = 80% yield
60 cookies

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Practice
2C(g) + O2(g) 2CO(g)

What is the percent yield of CO when 30.0 g O2 are used?

The actual yield is 40.0 g CO.

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Solution
3) 76.2 % yield
theoretical yield of CO
30.0 g O2 x 1 mol O2 x 2 mol CO x 28.01 g CO
32.00 g O2 1 mol O2 1 mol CO
= 52.5 g CO (theoretical)

percent yield
40.0 g CO (actual) x 100 = 76.2 % yield
52.5 g CO (theoretical)

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Learning Check
When N2 and 5.00 g H2 are mixed, the reaction
produces 16.0 g NH3. What is the percent yield
for the reaction?
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

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Solution
2) 56.5 %
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

5.00 g H2 x 1 mol H2 x 2 mol NH3 x 17.03 g NH3

2.016 g H2 3 mol H2 1 mol NH3
= 28.2 g NH3 (theoretical)

Percent yield = 16.0 g NH3 x 100 = 56.7 %

28.2 g NH3

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Quantitative Chemical Analysis
 Acid-base Titration
Titration
• a method of analysis that
will allow you to
determine the precise
endpoint of a reaction
and therefore the precise
quantity of reactant in the
titration flask.
• A buret is used to deliver
the second reactant to the
flask.
• An indicator or pH Meter
is used to detect the
endpoint of the reaction.
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Doing a Titration • Begin by preparing your buret
by
1. washing with soap and water
2. rinsing with tap and then
distilled water
3. and rinsing with the titrant
solution
• You should check for air
bubbles and leaks, before
proceeding with the titration.
• Be sure the tip of the buret is
filled.
• Never dispense so that liquid
is below the last calibration
that you can read.

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• Take an initial volume reading
and record it.
• Before beginning a titration, you
should always calculate the
expected endpoint volume.

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• Prepare the
solution to be
analyzed by
placing it in a
clean Erlenmeyer
flask or beaker.
• If your sample is a
solid, make sure it
is completely
dissolved.
• Add indicator.

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• Use the buret to deliver
a stream of titrant to
within a couple of mL of
your expected endpoint.
• You will see the indicator
change color when the
titrant hits the solution
in the flask, but the color
change disappears upon
stirring.

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• Approach the endpoint more slowly
and watch the color of your flask
carefully.
• Use a wash bottle to rinse the sides
of the flask and the tip of the buret,
to be sure all titrant is mixed in the
flask.
• Make sure you know what the
endpoint should look like.
• For phenolphthalein, the endpoint is
the first permanent pale pink.
• The pale pink fades in 10 to 20
minutes.

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 • If you think you might
have reached the
endpoint, you can record
the volume reading and
• add another partial drop.
• Sometimes it is easier to
tell when you have gone
past the endpoint.
• If the flask looks like this,
you have gone too far!

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Acid-Base Indicators
• An acid-base indicator is a weak acid or a weak base.
• The undissociated form of the indicator is a different
color than the original form of the indicator.
• An Indicator does not change color from pure acid to
pure alkaline at specific hydrogen ion concentration,
but rather, color change occurs over a range of
hydrogen ion concentrations.
• This range is termed the color change interval. It is
expressed as a pH range.

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Litmus
• Litmus is a weak acid. It has a seriously complicated
molecule which we will simplify to HLit. The "H" is
the proton which can be given away to something
else. The "Lit" is the rest of the weak acid molecule.
• There will be an equilibrium established when this
acid dissolves in water. Taking the simplified version
of this equilibrium:

• The un-ionized litmus is red, whereas the ion is blue.

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End Point of an Indicator
• should not be confused with the equivalence point of a titration
• indicator changes color at its endpoint
• equivalence point is the stoichiometric point where neutralization
takes place
• ideally, the end point of the indicator and the stoichiometric
equivalence point should coincide

48
Some common indicators

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Gravimetric Analysis
Introduction

1.) Gravimetric Analysis:

(i) A technique in which the amount of an analyte in a sample is
determined by converting the analyte to some product
 Mass of product can be easily measured

(ii) Analyte: the compound or species to be analyzed in a sample

(iii) Overall, gravimetry sounds simple.

 Advantages - when done correctly is highly accurate (most
accurate of all time); requires minimal equipment

 Disadvantage - requires skilled operator, slow.

Convert analyte into a solid, filter, weigh, calculate via a mole map

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 Gravimetric Analysis
Introduction

1.) Gravimetric Analysis:

(iii) Example:

 Determination of lead (Pb+2) in water

Pb+ + 2Cl-  PbCl2(s)

Analyte Reagent Solid Product

 By adding excess Cl- to the sample, essentially all of the Pb+2 will
precipitate as PbCl2.

 Mass of PbCl2 is then determined.

- used to calculate the amount of Pb+2 in original solution

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 Gravimetric Analysis
Introduction 1.) Gravimetric Analysis:
(v) Example: 0.4852 g sample of iron ore is dissolved in acid and iron is oxidised to
the +3 state and then precipitated as hydrous oxide, Fe2O3. xH2O . The ppt. is
filtered, washed & ignited to Fe2O3 which is found to be 0.2481 g. Calculate
the % of iron in sample.
2Fe3+ ---------► Fe2O3.x H2O ---------► Fe2O3 (S)
Since 2 mol of Fe3+ produce 1 mol of Fe2O3
Gravimetric Factor: = 2 FW of Fe / FW of Fe2O3 = 2 x 55.85/159.69 = 0.6994.
% of Fe = wt. of analyte x G.F. x100/ wt. of sample
= 0.2481 x 0.6994 x 100 / 0.4852 = 35.76%
 Seperation processes should be sufficiently complete so that quantity of
analyte left unprecipitated is 0.1 mg or even less.
 Substance weighed should have definite composition and should be pure.
 Precipitate formed should be filterable.

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 Gravimetric Analysis
Introduction

1.) Gravimetric Analysis:

(v) Example:
 What is the %KCl in a solid if 5.1367 g of solid gives rise to 0.8246 g
AgCl?

Cl- + Ag+  AgCl(s)

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