Module 10 17

AGRIC 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology
LESSON 5
WEEK 10-13
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF SEED PRODUCTION
I. Learning objectives
a. Explain the reproductive processes in plants
b. Enumerate factors for flower induction and Floral Initiation.
c. Illustrate the seed formation and development
d. Discuss seed chemistry, viability and germination of seeds
e. Identify the organic components of seeds and other chemical compound
f. List the stages and kinds of seed germination
g. Explain the requirements for germination
h. Illustrate the physiology of germination
i. Discuss the seed and seedling vigor
II. Readings
Plants
Plants have evolved different reproductive strategies for the continuation of their species.
Some plants reproduce sexually while others reproduce asexually, in contrast to animal
species, which rely almost exclusively on sexual reproduction. Plant sexual reproduction
usually depends on pollinating agents, while asexual reproduction is independent of these
agents. Flowers are often the showiest or most strongly-scented part of plants. With their
bright colors, fragrances, and interesting shapes and sizes, flowers attract insects, birds,
and animals to serve their pollination needs. Other plants pollinate via wind or water; still
others self-pollinate.
Sexual Reproduction and The Flower
The flower is the reproductive organ of plants classified as angiosperms. All plants have the
means and corresponding structures for reproducing sexually. The basic function of a flower
is to produce seeds through sexual reproduction. Seeds are the next generation, serving as
the primary method in most plants by which individuals of the species are dispersed across
the landscape. Actual dispersal is, in most species, a function of the fruit (a structural part
that typically surrounds the seed).
Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

MARCEL B. TOMAS& NORBERT L. RALUSTIAN
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Sexual Reproduction in Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms produce both male and female gametophytes on separate cones and rely on
wind for pollination.
 megasporophyll: bears megasporangium, which produces megaspores that divide

into the female gametophyte
 microsporophyll: a leaflike organ that bears microsporangium, which produces
microspores that divide into the male gametophyte (pollen)
Flower Structure
A typical flower has four main parts, or whorls: the calyx, corolla, androecium, and
gynoecium. The outermost whorl of the flower has green, leafy structures known as sepals,
which are collectively called the calyx, and help to protect the unopened bud. The second
whorl is comprised of petals, usually brightly colored, collectively called the corolla. The
number of sepals and petals varies depending on whether the plant is a monocot or dicot.
Together, the calyx and corolla are known as the perianth. The third whorl contains the male
reproductive structures and is known as the androecium. The androecium has stamens with
anthers that contain the microsporangia. The innermost group of structures in the flower is
the gynoecium, or the female reproductive component(s). The carpel is the individual unit of
the gynoecium and has a stigma, style, and ovary. A flower may have one or multiple
carpels.

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Structures of the flower: The four main parts of the flower are the calyx, corolla,
androecium, and gynoecium. The androecium is the sum of all the male reproductive
organs, and the gynoecium is the sum of the female reproductive organs.
If all four whorls are present, the flower is described as complete. If any of the four parts is
missing, the flower is known as incomplete. Flowers that contain both an androecium and a
gynoecium are called perfect, androgynous, or hermaphrodites. There are two types of
incomplete flowers: staminate flowers contain only an androecium; and carpellate flowers
have only a gynoecium.

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If both male and female flowers are borne on the same plant (e.g., corn or peas), the
species is called monoecious (meaning “one home”). Species with male and female flowers
borne on separate plants (e.g., C. papaya or Cannabis)are termed dioecious, or “two
homes.” The ovary, which may contain one or multiple ovules, may be placed above other
flower parts (referred to as superior); or it may be placed below the other flower parts
(referred to as inferior).
Male Gametophyte
The male gametophyte develops and reaches maturity in an immature anther. In a plant’s
male reproductive organs, development of pollen takes place in a structure known as the
microsporangium. The microsporangia, usually bi-lobed, are pollen sacs in which the
microspores develop into pollen grains.

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Microsporangium: Shown is (a) a cross section of an anther at two developmental stages.

The immature anther (top) contains four microsporangia, or pollen sacs. Each
microsporangium contains hundreds of microspore mother cells that will each give rise to
four pollen grains. The tapetum supports the development and maturation of the pollen
grains. Upon maturation of the pollen (bottom), the pollen sac walls split open and the pollen
grains (male gametophytes) are released. (b) In these scanning electron micrographs,
pollen sacs are ready to burst, releasing their grains.
Within the microsporangium, the microspore mother cell divides by meiosis to give rise to
four microspores, each of which will ultimately form a pollen grain. An inner layer of cells,
known as the tapetum, provides nutrition to the developing microspores, contributing key
components to the pollen wall. Mature pollen grains contain two cells: a generative cell and
a pollen tube cell. The generative cell is contained within the larger pollen tube cell. Upon
germination, the tube cell forms the pollen tube through which the generative cell migrates
to enter the ovary. During its transit inside the pollen tube, the generative cell divides to form
two male gametes. Upon maturity, the microsporangia burst, releasing the pollen grains
from the anther.
Female Gametophyte (Embryo Sac)
The overall development of the female gametophyte has two distinct phases. First, in the
process of megasporogenesis, a single cell in the diploid megasporangium undergoes
meiosis to produce four megaspores, only one of which survives. During the second phase,
megagametogenesis, the surviving haploid megaspore undergoes mitosis to produce an
eight-nucleate, seven-cell female gametophyte, also known as the megagametophyte, or
embryo sac. The polar nuclei move to the equator and fuse, forming a single, diploid central
cell. This central cell later fuses with a sperm to form the triploid endosperm. Three nuclei

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position themselves on the end of the embryo sac opposite the micropyle and develop into
the antipodal cells, which later degenerate. The nucleus closest to the micropyle becomes
the female gamete, or egg cell, and the two adjacent nuclei develop into synergid cells. The
synergids help guide the pollen tube for successful fertilization, after which they disintegrate.
Once fertilization is complete, the resulting diploid zygote develops into the embryo; the
fertilized ovule forms the other tissues of the seed.
Embryo sac: As shown in this diagram of the embryo sac in angiosperms, the ovule is
covered by integuments and has an opening called a micropyle. Inside the embryo sac are
three antipodal cells, two synergids, a central cell, and the egg cell.
Ovule
After fertilization, the ovules develop into the seeds. The ovule consists of a number of
components:
 The funicl e (funiculus, funiculi) or

seed stalk which attaches the ovule to
the placenta and hence ovary or fruit wall, at
the pericarp.
 The nucellus, the remnant of the megasporangium and main region of the ovule where
the megagametophyte develops.

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 The micropyle, a small pore or opening in the apex of the integument of the ovule
where the pollen tube usually enters during the process of fertilization.
 The chalaza, the base of the ovule opposite the micropyle, where integument and
nucellus are joined together.
Definition of terms
 Micropyle- A small opening in the surface of a plant ovule through which the pollen
tube passes prior to fertilization. It results from the incomplete covering of the
nucellus by the integuments.
 Synergids- Synergid cells are two specialized cells that lie adjacent to the egg cell in
the female gametophyte of angiosperms and play an essential role in pollen tube
guidance and function. The term synergid comes from the Greek “synergos,” which
means “working together”
 Megasporangium- is the structure of a plant body which contains female
reproductive organ . It can be called ovule . It consists of nucellus and integument .
The ovule can be formed in different size and shape
 Tapetum is the innermost cell layer in the anther, which surrounds the developing
pollen mother cells (PMCs) and/or microspores supplying nutrition and enzymes
required for microsporogenesis and pollen maturation.
 Antipodal cells The three haploid cells in the mature embryo sac of flowering
plants that are situated at the opposite end to the micropyle.
Shape of ovules
1. Anatropous- the most common shape with a curved shape. Examples are
Gamopetalae members.

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2. Orthotropous ovules are straight with all the parts of the ovule lined up in a long row
producing an uncurved seed.
3. Campylotropous
4. ovules have a curved megagametophyte often giving the seed a tight "C" shape.
Examples are Leguminosae members.
5. Amphitropous, where the ovule is partly inverted and turned back 90 degrees on its
stalk (the funicle or funiculus). Examples are Lemna, Poppy, Alisma, etc.

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Types of Ovary
1. Superior ovary
A superior ovary is an ovary attached to the receptacle above the attachment of other
floral parts. A superior ovary is found in types of fleshy fruits such as true berries, drupes,
etc. A flower with this arrangement is described as hypogynous. Examples of this ovary
type include the legumes (beans and peas and their relatives).
2. Half-inferior ovary
A half-inferior ovary (also known as “half-superior”, “subinferior,” or “partially inferior,”) is
embedded or surrounded by the receptacle.[19] This occurs in flowers of the
family Lythraceae, which includes the crape myrtles. Such flowers are
termed perigynous or half-epigynous. In some classifications, half-inferior ovaries are not
recognized and are instead grouped with either the superior or inferior ovaries.
3. Inferior ovary
In inferior ovary lies below the attachment of other floral parts. A pome is a type of
fleshy fruit that is often cited as an example, but close inspection of some pomes (such
as Pyracantha) will show that it is really a half-inferior ovary. Flowers with inferior ovaries
are termed epigynous. Some examples of flowers with an inferior ovary are orchids (inferior
capsule), Fuchsia (inferior berry), banana (inferior berry), Asteraceae (inferior achene-like
fruit, called a cypsela) and the pepo of the squash, melon and gourd family, Cucurbitaceae.
Ovary insertion: I superior II half-inferior III

inferior. a androecium g gynoecium p petals s sepals r receptacle. The insertion point
is where a, p, and s converge.

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Factors for Flower induction and Flower Initiation
Flower induction is the physiological process in the plant by which the shoot apical
meristem becomes competent to develop flowers. Biochemical changes at the apex,
particularly those caused by cytokinins, accompany this process. Usually flower induction is
followed by flower differentiation, with some notable exceptions such as in kiwifruit, where
the two processes are separated. Flower induction can be reversed, but flower
differentiation is irreversible, because anatomical changes are in place.
Floral initiation- First step in processes of flowering and fruit development
- Evolutionary mechanism through which plant distributes seed
Initiation of flowering
- Transformation of vegetative apex to reproductive apex
- Can occur on same tree at widely varying times – Not triggered by specific temp or
daylength
- Bud will always form flowers unless prevented
Factors affecting Flowering
- Fruit load – Heavy cropping will inhibit FBI
- Creates biennial/alternate bearing
- Managing alternate bearing (FBI)
Reduce risks to balanced cropping
- Promote tree health and moderate vigor
- Avoid stress (nutritional, water, heat)
- Choose site with low frost risk
- Adjust crop load early!
- Induce flowering with PGRs
•Ethephon 100-200 ppm
Effect of leaves
- Defoliation treatments show that leaves promote FBI
- No flowers on spurs defoliated 6-10 weeks after full bloom (Ryugo, 1986)
- Strong correlation between spur leaf area & FBI
- Effect attributed to CH2O supply and cytokinins
Light level
- Inner portions of apple & pear trees have few flower clusters
- Shading response is greater early in season (up to 7 weeks AFB

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Shoot vigor & orientation

- Inverse relationship between vigor and fruitfullness
- Training/bending shoots horizontal slows growth and increases FBI
Pruning
- High vigor = lower FBI
- Summer pruning can improve FBI (ca. 12 lvs)
Genotype
- Both cultivar and rootstock have great effect
Growth regulators
- GAs inhibit FBI (GA3 and GA7) –
- Cytokinins promote FBI
Photoperiodic induction
- Photoperiod is sensed in the leaves, with long-day (LD) and short-day (SD) plants
flowering in response to the change in the dark period, requiring short and long dark
periods, respectively.
Fruits
A fruit is the mature, ripened ovary of a flower
following double fertilization in an angiosperm.
Because gymnosperms do not have an ovary but
reproduce through double fertilization of
unprotected ovules, they produce naked seeds that do
not have a surrounding fruit. Fruits are responsible for
the dispersal and protection of seeds in angiosperms
and cannot be easily characterized due to the
differences in defining culinary and botanical fruits.
Development
- After double fertilization and ripening, the ovary becomes the fruit, the ovules inside
the ovary become the seeds of that fruit, and the egg within the ovule becomes
the zygote.
- Double fertilization of the central cell in the ovule produces the
nutritious endosperm tissue that surrounds the developing zygote within the seed.
- Angiosperm ovaries do not always produce a fruit after the ovary has been fertilized.
- Problems that can arise during the developmental process of the fruit include genetic
issues, harsh environmental conditions, and insufficient energy which may be caused

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by competition for resources between ovaries; any of these situations may prevent
maturation of the ovary.
Complications and types of fruits

Three categories
1. Simple Fruits- Simple fruits like oranges are formed from a single ovary which may
or may not consist of multiple parts
2. Aggregate fruits- Aggregate fruits like raspberries are the ripened ovaries of one
flower that form a single fruit,
3. Multiple fruits- multiple fruits like pineapples are formed from the ovaries of separate
flowers that are close together
SEED FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Seed
A seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with
some stored food.
It is the product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs
after fertilization and some growth with in the motherplant.
The formation of the seed completes the process of reproduction in plants (started with the
development of flowers and pollination), with the embryo developed from the zygote and the
seed coat from the integuments of the ovule.
The term "seed" also has a general meaning that antedates the above – anything that can
be sown, e.g. "seed" potatoes, "seeds" of corn or sunflower "seeds". In the case
of sunflower and corn "seeds", what is sown is the seed enclosed in a shell or husk,
whereas the potato is a tuber
Seed production
Seeds are produced in several related groups of plants, and their manner of production
distinguishes the angiosperms ("enclosed seeds") from the gymnosperms ("naked seeds").
Angiosperm seeds are produced in a hard or fleshy structure called a fruit that encloses the
seeds for protection in order to secure healthy growth. Some fruits have layers of both hard
and fleshy material. In gymnosperms, no special structure develops to enclose the seeds,
which begin their development "naked" on the bracts of cones. However, the seeds do
become covered by the cone scales as they develop in some species of conifer.

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Development
Angiosperm (flowering plants) seeds consist of three genetically distinct constituents: (1) the
embryo formed from the zygote, (2) the endosperm, which is normally triploid, (3) the seed
coat from tissue derived from the maternal tissue of the ovule. In angiosperms, the process
of seed development begins with double fertilization, which involves the fusion of two male
gametes with the egg cell and the central cell to form the primary endosperm and the
zygote. Right after fertilization, the zygote is mostly inactive, but the primary endosperm
divides rapidly to form the endosperm tissue. This tissue becomes the food the young plant
will consume until the roots have developed after germination.
Embryo
The main components of the embryo are:
 The cotyledons, the seed leaves, attached to the embryonic axis. There may be one
(Monocotyledons), or two (Dicotyledons). The cotyledons are also the source of
nutrients in the non-endospermic dicotyledons, in which case they replace the
endosperm, and are thick and leathery. In endospermic seeds, the cotyledons are
thin and papery. Dicotyledons have the point of attachment opposite one another on
the axis.
 The epicotyl, the embryonic axis above the point of attachment of the cotyledon(s).
 The plumule, the tip of the epicotyl, and has a feathery appearance due to the
presence of young leaf primordia at the apex, and will become the shoot upon
germination.
 The hypocotyl, the embryonic axis below the point of attachment of the cotyledon(s),
connecting the epicotyl and the radicle, being the stem-root transition zone.
o (hypocotyl means “below the cotyledons”).
 The radicle, the basal tip of the hypocotyl, grows into the primary root, (the
embryonic root),
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The diagram above compares and contrasts a generalized dicot seed (1) to a
generalized monocot seed (2).There are five major parts of a dicot seed. A. Seed coat: the
seed coat protects the embryo. B. Cotyledon: the cotyledon stores food; there are two
cotyledons in dicot seeds. C. Hilum: the hilum is the point of attachment to its seed vessel.
D. Plumule: the plumule is the shoot of the seed where the leaves will first appear. E.
Radicle: the radicle is the root of the seed. In the monocot seed there are also five major
parts. A. Seed coat: the seed coat protects the seed. B. Cotyledon: the cotyledon is the leaf
of the seed; there is only one cotyledon in monocot seeds. D. Plumule: the plumule of the
monocot seed is the shoot of the seed. E. Radicle: the radicle of the seed is the root of the
seed. F. Endosperm: the endosperm is the food supply for the seed; the dicot seeds contain
endosperms in some of the mature seeds.
Seed coat
The seed coat develops from the maternal tissue, the integuments, originally surrounding
the ovule. The seed coat in the mature seed can be a paper-thin layer (e.g. peanut) or
something more substantial (e.g. thick and hard in honey locust and coconut), or fleshy as in
the sarcotesta of pomegranate. The seed coat helps protect the embryo from mechanical
injury, predators, and drying out.

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Size and seed set

Seeds are very diverse in size.
1. dust-like orchid seeds- are the smallest, with about one million seeds per
gram; they are often embryonic seeds with immature embryos and no
significant energy reserves.
2. Lodoicea, commonly known as the sea
coconut, coco de mer, or double coconut, is
a monotypic genus in the palm family. The sole
species, Lodoicea maldivica, is endemic to the
islands of Praslin and Curieuse in
the Seychelles. It has the biggest seed in a
plant.
Dispersal
1. By wind (anemochory)
2. By water (hydrochory)
3. By animals (zoochory)
4. Myrmecochory- is the dispersal of seeds by ants.

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The Seed Chemistry

Knowledge of the chemical composition of seeds is essential for several reasons:
1. Seeds are a basic source of food for both man and animals,
2. They are an important source of medicine and drugs,
3. They contain various anti-metabolites that adversely affect human and animal
nutrition, and
4. They contain reserve food supplies and growth substances that influence seed
germination and seedling vigor, seed storage and longevity, as well as industrial and
agricultural uses of seeds.
Most of our knowledge of the chemical composition of seeds concerns cultivated

species, since these comprise a large share of the food supply and also provide many
industrial raw materials. Information about the seeds of wild species is relatively scarce;
however, the search for new sources of food and raw materials is gradually yielding more
information about seeds of wild plants. Moreover, since seeds are a challenging subject for
scientific study, much information about both domestic and wild species is being
accumulated simply because of our thirst for knowledge.
Aside from the normal chemical constituents found in all plant tissue, seeds contain
extra amounts of chemical substances stored as food reserves to accommodate
germination. These reserve foods are stored primarily as carbohydrates, fats (or oils), and
proteins. In addition, seeds contain other chemical substances, some of which play minor
storage roles, but most of which serve as growth substances and metabolism controls.
Compared to other plant parts, the mineral content of most seeds is remarkably low and
tends to be centered in the hulls and structural tissue. Seeds with a relatively high mineral
composition include bean, cotton, sunflower, soybean, and cereal grains with the hulls
intact.
The Process of Seed Germination
Seed germination is carried out in the following steps:
i. During the beginning stage of germination, the seeds take up water rapidly and
this results in swelling and softening of the seed coat at an optimum temperature.
This stage is referred to as Imbibition. It starts the growth process by activation of
enzymes. The seed activates its internal physiology and starts to respire and produce
proteins and metabolizes the stored food. This is a lag phase of seed germination.

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ii. By rupturing of the seed coat, radicle emerges to form a primary root. The seed
starts absorbing underground water. After the emerging of the radicle and the
plumule, shoot starts growing upwards.
iii. In the final stage of seed germination, the cell of the seeds become metabolically
active, elongates and divides to give rise to the seedling.
Conditions Necessary for Seed Germination
Here are some important requirements which are essential for a seed to germinate
into a seedling and to a plant.
Water- It is extremely necessary for the germination of seeds. Some seeds are extremely
dry and need to take a considerable amount of water, relative to the dry weight of the seed.
Water plays an important role in seed germination. It helps by providing necessary hydration
for the vital activities of protoplasm, provides dissolved oxygen for the growing embryo,
softens the seed coats and increases the seed permeability. It also helps in the rupturing of
seed and also converts the insoluble food into soluble form for its translocation to the
embryo.
Oxygen- It is an important and essential source of energy required for seed growth. It is
required by the germinating seed for metabolism and is used as a part of aerobic
respiration until it manages to grow green leaves of its own. Oxygen can be found in the
pores of soil particles, but if the seed is buried too deep it will be deprived of this oxygen.
Temperature- For a seed to germinate, it requires a moderate temperature of around 25-

30°C. Quite obviously different seeds require different optimum temperatures. There are
some seeds which require special requirements either lower or higher temperature between
5 to 40°C.

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Light or darkness- This can act as an environmental trigger. Many seeds do not germinate
until sunlight falls on them.
The process of seed germination triggers under the above mentioned favorable
conditions. The seeds undergo rapid expansion and growth of the embryo and subsequently
rupturing the covering layers and emergence of the radicle. This radicle emergence is
considered the completion of germination.
Factors Affecting Seed Germination
There are some major factors that affect seed germination. These include:
External Factors
1. Water: The poor or additional supply of water affects seed germination.

2. Temperature: This affects the growth rate as well as the metabolism of the seed.
3. Oxygen: Germinating seeds respire vigorously and release the energy required for
their growth. Therefore, deficiency of oxygen affects seed germination.
***In certain cases, a temperature below the moderate level slows down seed germination
and promotes fungal growth. In some cases, germination stops at the temperature above
the moderate level.
Internal Factors
Seed Dormancy- This is a condition in which the seeds are prevented from
germinating even under favorable conditions.
During seed dormancy:
1. The seed coat, which is resistant to water and gases, restricts water-uptake and
oxygen exchange.
2. The seeds with undeveloped or immature embryo do not germinate.
3. Certain seeds contain plant growth regulators, which inhibit seed germination.
4. Some seeds require more time for their germination.

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Seeds and Seedling Vigor

Seedling vigor
- Seedling vigor (seedling size, health, and growth rate) is the product of several
factors related to genetics and environmental influences, and can also be
manipulated through management. Naturally, seed size and performance in warm
and cool germination tests can be indicators of how vigorous seedlings might be. Soil
temperatures at planting and soon thereafter can also greatly influence seedling
vigor.
- AOSA: those seed properties which determine the potential for rapid, uniform
emergence, and development of normal seedlings under a wide range of field
conditions.
- ISTA: Seed vigor is the sum of those properties which determine the potential level of
activity and performance of the seed or seed lot during germination and seedling
emergence.
The biological basis of the seed vigor concept
- It has been established that the conditions of seed development, maturation, storage
and aging influence seed vigor. Seeds developed under moisture stress, nutrient
deficiency, extreme temperatures, etc. often result in light, shriveled seed or
collectively called poor-vigor seed.
- Pre-harvest environment of high humidity and warm temperatures can also cause
loss in seed viability and vigor. Seed mechanical damage, whether induced by
harvesting or conditioning equipment, as well as improper storage conditions are
among the factors that adversely affect seed vigor.
- In addition, genetic factors such as hard-seededness, resistance to diseases, and
seed chemical composition influence the expression of seed vigor.
Importance of Seed Vigor Testing
Vigor testing does not only measure the percentage of viable seed in a sample, it
also reflects the ability of those seeds to produce normal seedlings under less than optimum
or adverse growing conditions similar to those which may occur in the field. Seeds may be
classified as viable in a germination test which provides optimum temperature, moisture and
light conditions to the growing seedlings; however, they may not be capable of continuing
growth and completing their life cycle under a wide range of field conditions. Generally,
seeds start to lose vigor before they lose their ability to germinate; therefore vigor testing is
an important practice in seed production programs.
Seed vigor testing

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The basic objective of seed vigor testing is to provide a precise identification of

important differences in physiological potential among seed lots of commercial value, mostly
those of similar germination percentage, aiming to identify lots of higher probability to
perform well after sowing and/or during storage.
Methods of measuring seed vigor

The general strategy of determining seed vigor is to measure some aspects of seed
deterioration or weaknesses, which is inversely proportional to seed vigor.
Cold test, accelerated aging test, electric conductivity test, seedling vigor classification, and
seedling growth rate are among the tests that are used to measure seed vigor. In addition,
the tetrazolium (TZ test) can be used as a vigor test by classifying the pattern of stained
seeds into high, medium and low quality.
Seed vigor tests
Vigor tests exploit the fact that as seed ages a range of
detectable seed quality components are impaired.
Figure: Factors for Loss of Germinability
A. COLD TEST (CT)

The cold test simulates early spring field conditions by
germinating the seeds in wet soils (»70% water holding
capacity) and incubating them at 5-10°C/41-51°F for a
specified period. At the end of the cold period, the test is

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transferred to a favorable temperature for germination (e.g., 25°C/77°F in case of sweet

corn). The percentage of normal seedlings is considered as an indication of seed vigor.
Vigorous seeds germinate better under cold environments.
When can the cold test be used?
1. Select cultivars with the best ability to perform under cold wet soils for early spring
planting.
2. Provide basis for adjusting planting rates for individual seed lots.
3. Evaluate the effects of adverse storage conditions, mechanical damage, drying
injuries or other causes on seed germination in cold wet soils.
a. Tray Cold Test – ISU Procedure

 Place one sheet of CCP on each tray and
add 1100 mL of water.
 Place trays in cart overnight at 10oC cold
room.
 Plant 4 samples per tray (2 reps per
student). Press down seeds.
 Add 4:1 sand/soil mixture.
 Move cart to 10oC cold room (without
light) for 1 week.
 Move cart to 25oC with exposure to vertical lights to rear of cart.
 Evaluate samples on day 5-7* according to AOSA Rules.
b. Saturated Cold Test
 Saturated soil. Use sifted soil. Depth of soil: enough to
cover towel.
 Primarily used for corn. Also for sugar beet, tomato, and
rice.
 Paper towel (30.5 cm X 61.0 cm) is wrapped “sideways”
on eggcrate with ends hanging below. Egg crate is
elevated by rubber stoppers.
 Egg crate is placed in a tray and two towels are placed on
top. One liter of water is added to towel (excess goes
below egg crate).

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 Finely sifted soil is added, tray returned to cart in 10oC overnight.

 Seeds are placed on soil. Corn – seeds flipped embryo-side down (flat) on soil.
 Cart is placed in 10oC for seven days without light.
 Samples are then placed in 25oC for 3-4 days.
 Evaluate according to AOSA Rules with allowances for early growth stage of seedlings.
Cold Test Considerations
Saturated cold test inflicts more stress than tray method.
Tray method has been used for 31 years. Saturated colds were first used years
ago, but came back into widespread use in the late 1980’s.
Some labs have moved away from using soil in tray cold tests.
Need to determine water holding capacity of substrate (except sat. cold) to meet
70% level.
Leave substrate in cold room, remove to plant? Use refrigerated plate?
Tray cold - Chill covering material?
B. ACCELERATED AGING TEST (AAT)
The principle of this test is to stress seeds with high temperatures of (40-45°C/130-139°F)
and near 100% relative humidity (RH) for varying lengths of time, depending on the kind of
seeds, after which a germination test is made. High vigor seeds are expected to tolerate
high temperatures and humidity and retain their capability to produce normal seedlings in
the germination test.
Accelerated Aging – Soybean Procedure
 Add 40 mL water to acrylic boxes.
 Place screen into box(es).

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 Add appropriate amount of seed (42g for soybeans).
 Use two boxes containing 40g for large-seeded samples.
 For some species a single layer can be used (corn, soybeans)
 Cover box(es) and put trays in AA chamber for 72 hours at 41oC (105.8 oF).
 Add water to pan at bottom of chamber.
 Exactly after specified number of hours, remove boxes from chamber and “crack”
lids.
Plant seed within 30 minutes. Cover seeds with moist sand*.
Gently press seeds down Place in 25oC with light.
*Option: Rolled towels
Accelerated Aging – Considerations
• A saturated salt AA (SSAA) test is used for small-seeded species and sweet corn as it
slows moisture uptake typically reducing fungal problems.

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• AA chamber temperature should not vary more than 0.3 oC
• Rule of Thumb: A good AA result is within 15% of an acceptable germ test (ISU).
C. ELECTRIC CONDUCTIVITY TEST

This test measures the integrity of cell membranes, which is
correlated with seed vigor. It is well established that this test is
useful for garden beans and peas. It has been also reported that
the conductivity test results are significantly correlated with field
emergence for corn, and soybean. As seeds lose vigor, nutrients
exude from their membranes, and so low quality seeds leak
electrolytes such as amino acids, organic acids while high
quality seeds contains their nutrients within well-structured
membranes. Therefore, seeds with higher conductivity
measurement are indication of low quality seeds as vice versa.
SEEDLING VIGOR CLASSIFICATION TEST (SVCT)
This vigor test is an expansion of the standard germination test (SGT). The normal
seedlings obtained from the SGT results are further classified into ‘strong’ and ‘weak’
categories. This test has been used for corn, garden beans, soybean, cotton, peanuts and
other crops.
The principle of the test
Seedlings have four significant morphological sites for evaluating vigor:
1. Root system.
2. Hypocotyl (the embryonic axis between cotyledons and root).
3. Cotyledons (storage tissue of reserve food for seedling development).
4. Epicotyl (the embryonic axis above the cotyledons).
In this test, seedlings are classified as ‘strong’ if the above four areas are well developed
and free from defects, which is indication of satisfactory performance over a wide range of
field conditions. On the other hand, normal seedlings with some deficiencies such as
missing part of the root, one cotyledon missing, hypocotyl with breaks, lesions, necrosis,
twisting, or curling are classified as ‘weak’.

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Biological processes affected

Potential longevity, speed of germination, tetrazolium staining, proportion of abnormal
seedlings, conductivity, morphological abnormalities, and chromosomal aberrations are all
affected.
Characteristics of a vigor test

 Inexpensive: should be reasonably priced.
 Rapid: should minimize seed analyst time and germinator space.
 Uncomplicated: to be performed in most seed laboratories.
 Objective: should be easily standardized.
 Reproducible: results should be repeatable.
 Correlated with field emergence: its ability to predict field emergence.
Who for What?

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 Farmers planting as early as possible

 Growers planting into unfavorable conditions (into soils that are too wet, dry,
compacted, etc.) Predicting storability
 Growers (farmers, seed companies, green house, etc.) desiring rapid, consistent
emergence and “field” stand Checking effects/benefits of seed-applied chemicals
 Testing labs – 51% in 1976 to 85% in 1990.

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Commonly used seed vigor tests

o Seedling vigor classification: an expansion of the germination test, normal
seedlings is classified into “strong” and “weak”.
o Seedling growth rate: expressed in mg dry weight/germinatable seedlings.
o Speed of germination: index based on number of seedlings/day.
Bulk Conductivity Procedure

 Count out fifty seeds, weigh to at least
one decimal place.
 Add 70 mL deionized water. Seal flask
 Place in 25 OC overnight
Single-Seed Conductivity Procedure

 Place seed in each well.
 Add recommended amount of deionized water.
 Cover and allow to “incubate” for recommended number
of hours.
 Depending on the unit, either place conductivity head into
tray or insert tray into unit.
 Available data may include conductivity reading per cell,
histogram of results, and estimated germination.
 Single seed units may be hard to find.
Brick grit Test or Hiltner Test

 Used to determine seed vigor in cereals
 Seeds planted in sand and covered with 3 cm of moist brick grit
 Determines seed weakness such as pathogen infection, frost damage, mechanical
injury and storage deterioration.

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Osmotic Stress Test

 Simulates drought stress
 Seeds germinated in solutions with a specific osmotic potential
 Vigorous seeds can grow in these low water potentials
Respiration
 Respiration rate measured in the first 18 hours of germination
 Positive correlation between rate of oxygen uptake and seedling growth
Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase activity
 Seed proteins are hydrolyzed into amino acids during germination
 Amino acid decarloxylases catalyze the removal of CO2
 Glutamic acid comprises a high percentage of the total amino acids in seeds
 GADA is important during seed germination – Measure production of CO2
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
 ATP is the energy for biochemical reactions in living cells
 ATP production is measured using a photometer or a liquid scintillation counter
 Requires specialized equipment and personnel

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Reference
Plant Reproductive and development https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-

biology/chapter/plant-reproductive-development-and-structure/
Regulating Flowering Time https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/pbi.12340
Regulation of floral initiation in horticultural trees
https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/59/12/3215/627955, https://s3-us-west-
2.amazonaws.com/treefruit.wsu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/03-Whiting_Floral-Init.pdf
Definition of seeds, Seed formation and development
https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/seed.htm, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed
Different ovules of plants https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/characteristic-of-
amphitropous-ovule-a-class-12-biology-cbse-5fbdcecd0736f778911922e4
Read more at: https://cotton.ces.ncsu.edu/2016/04/seedling-vigor-why-is-it-important-collins-
edmisten-stewart-york-reisig/
AOSA. 2009. Seed Vigor Testing Handbook. Contribution No. 32 to the Handbook on Seed
Testing.
Elias, S. G., and L. O. Copeland. 1997. Evaluation of seed vigor tests for canola. Seed
Technol. 19(1) 78-87.
Kim, S. H., Z. R. Choe, J. H. Kang, L. O. Copeland, and S. G. Elias. 1994. Multiple seed
vigor indices to predict field emergence and performance of barley. Seed Sci. &Technol.,
22:59-68.
AOSA Seed Vigor Testing Handbook.
Copeland L.O. and McDonald M.B. 2001. Seed science and technology. 4th Ed. Kluwer
Academic Press.

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LESSON 6
WEEK 14-16
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF SEED PROCESSING AND STORAGE
I. Learning Objectives
a. Discuss the seed and seedling vigor
b. Enumerate the Factors affecting the lifespan of seeds and seed moisture
c. list the methods in maintaining seeds
d. Analyze the symptoms and possible causes of seed deterioration
e. Explain seeds production techniques for Agronomic and horticultural crops
f. Differentiate the principles of seed drying, processing and handling
II. Readings
Seed longevity, Deterioration and Pathology
SEED STORAGE
Maintenance of seed vigor and viability in terms of germination from
harvest until planting is of the utmost importance in any seed production programme. Care
should be taken at every stage of processing and distribution to maintain the viability and
vigor. The harvested seeds of most of the orthodox crop seeds are usually dried and stored
for at least one season until the commencement of the next growing season, except those of
the recalcitrant seeds which require high moisture content for safe storage (once dried the
viability will be lost. E.g. – Citrus, Coffee, Cocoa, Polyalthea, etc.,). In such recalcitrant
seeds senescence starts in the mother plant itself. The dry weather alters moisture content
of the seed, thereby reducing the viability. Some seeds require an after ripening process as
in Pinus and Fraxinus. In most of the Agricultural crops ageing starts at physiological
maturity, which is irreversible. Hence seeds become practically worthless if they fail to give
adequate plant stands in addition to healthy and vigorous plants. Good storage is therefore
a basic requirement in seed production.
Purpose of seed storage
Seeds have to be stored, of course, because there is usually a period of time
between harvest and planting. During this period, the seed have to be kept somewhere.
While the time interval between harvest and planting is the basic reason for storing seed,
there are other considerations, especially in the case of extended storage of seed.

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The purpose of seed storage is to maintain the seed in good physical and
physiological condition from the time they are harvested until the time they are planted . It is
important to get adequate plant stands in addition to healthy and vigorous plants.
Seed suppliers are not always able to market all the seed they produce during the
following planting season. In many cases, the unsold seed are “carried over” in storage for
marketing during the second planting season after harvest. Problems arise in connection
with carryover storage of seed because some kinds, varieties and lots of seed do not
carryover very well.
Seeds are also deliberately stored for extended periods so as to eliminate the need to
produce the seed every season. Foundation seed units and others have found this to be an
economical, efficient procedure for seeds of varieties for which there is limited demand.
Some kinds of seeds are
stored for extended periods to improve the percentage and rapidity of germination by
providing enough time for a “natural” release from dormancy.
Regardless of the specific reasons for storage of seed, the purpose remains the
same maintenance of a satisfactory capacity for germination and emergence. The facilities
and procedures used in storage, therefore, have to be directed towards the accomplishment
of this purpose.
STAGES/SEGMENTS OF SEED STORAGE
In the broadest sense the storage period for seed begins with attainment of
physiological maturity and ends with resumption of active growth of the embryonic axis, i.e.,
germination.
The entire storage periods can be divided into:
Period from physiological maturity to
Post maturation/ Pre harvest
1 harvest
segment
(seed in field).
Period from harvest to packaging (bulk
2 Bulk seed segment seed
in aeration drying bins, surge bins, etc.).
Period from packaging to distribution (seed
3 Packaged seed segment
in Packages in warehouse).
Period during distributing and marketing
Distribution /Marketing
4 (packaged seed in transit and / or retailer’s
Segment
storehouse).
Period from purchase to planting of seed
5 On-farm segment
(seed in on-farm storage).
Seeds are considered to be physiologically and morphologically mature when they

reach maximum dry weight. At this stage dry-down or dehydration of the seed is well

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underway. Dry-down continues after physiological maturity until moisture content of the seed
and fruit decreases
to a level which permits effective and efficient harvest and threshing. This stage can be
termed as harvest maturity. There is usually an interval of time between physiological
maturity and harvestable maturity, and this interval represents the first segment of the
storage period. Any delay in harvesting
the seed after they reach harvest maturity prolongs the first segment of the storage period –
often to the detriment of seed quality.
The second segment of the storage period extends from harvest to the beginning of
conditioning. Seed in the combine, grain wagon, and bulk storage or drying bins are in
storage and their quality is affected by the same factors that affect the quality of seed during
the packaged seed segment of the storage period. The third segment of the storage period
begins with the onset of conditioning and ends with packaging. The fourth segment of the
storage period is the packaged seed phase which has already been mentioned. The
packaged seed segment is followed by storage during
distribution and marketing, and finally by storage on the farm before and during planting.
The seed quality can be considerably be affected at any of the stages or segments
mentioned above unless sound principles involved in seed storage are practiced and the
seeds are properly handled.
Types of storage
The types of storage needed can be related to the time of storage
expected. Broadly this can be classified into 4 types.
a) Storage of commercial truthfully labeled and certified seed.
b) Storage of carry over seeds.
c) Storage of foundation seed stocks and enforcement seed samples.
d) Storage of germplasm seeds.
a) Storage of commercial seeds
This storage of commercial seed requires the largest storage need from harvest until
planting. The storage period ranges from 8-9 months. Seed must be dried to 14 per cent
moisture content for starchy seed and 11 percent for oilseeds.
b) Carryover seeds
About 20-25 per cent of stored seed may have to be carried over through one season
to the second planting time. The storage period may range 1-1½ year. Storage of seeds in
metal bins with tight fitting lids or in a moisture proof bag will solve the problems of moisture
penetration, provided
the seeds are already dry enough for sealed storage.

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c) Foundation stock and enforcement seed sample

It is desirable to store foundation and enforcement seeds for several years since
genetic drift are minimized by reproducing foundation or stock seeds. Since the quantity of
seeds involved is not large, the storage room is only a small part of the total storage area
and in fact, is often a small room
within a large warehouse. Relative humidity and temperature combination has to be
provided for maintaining the viability. A combination of 25 per cent RH at 30oC temperature
or less or a RH of about 45 per cent at 20oC or less will be ideal. The required RH can be
achieved by making the room
moisture proof and by using a dehumidifier.
d) Germplasm seed storage
Germplasm seeds are required to be kept for many years, perhaps very long periods.
Basic requirements for such long term storage are the coldest temperature economically
possible and seed moisture is in equilibrium with 20-25 per cent RH. Germplasm storage
built up so far have
0 0
rooms which can be maintained at 5 C to 10 C and 30 per cent RH. In addition, the stored
samples are dried to perfect moisture level.
PRINCIPLES OF STORAGE
a. Seed storage conditions should be dry and cool
b. Effective storage pest control
c. Proper sanitation in seed stores
d. Before placing seeds into storage they should be dried to safe moisture
limits.
e. Storing of high quality seed only i.e., well cleaned treated as well as high germination and
vigor.
FACTORS AFFECTING SEED LONGEVITY IN STORAGE

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1. Kind (or) variety of seed

2. Initial seed quality
3. Moisture content
4. Relative humidity and temperature during storage
5. Provenance
6. The activity of organisms associated with seeds in storage.
1. Kind or variety of seed

Seed storability is considerably influenced by the kind or variety of seeds. Some
seeds are short lived. E.g.: Onion, Soybean and Groundnut. As a general rule starchy seeds
can be stored considerably for a longer period compared to proteinaceous or oily seeds
because of their hygroscopic nature.
2. Initial seed quality
Seed lots having plumpy, vigorous undamaged seeds store longer than that of
deteriorated. Even seed lots having good germination at the beginning of storage period,
may deteriorate at a faster rate depending upon the severity of weathering damage,
mechanical injury or otherwise in the
field. The low quality seeds should invariably be rejected. Even at best storage conditions,
the initial quality of the seed cannot be improved (except for the dormant seed) but can only
be maintained.
3. Moisture content
The most important factor influencing seed viability during storage is the moisture
content and the rate of deterioration increases, as the seed moisture content increases. The
drier the seed the higher will be the storage life.
Seed moisture content Storage life
(%)
11-13 ½ year
10-12 1 year
9-11 2 years
8-10 4 years
It is well known that higher moisture content enhances the biological activity in the
seeds and causes excessive heating, besides promoting mould and insect activities. The
relationship of moisture content of seeds during post harvest stages furnished below would
clearly indicate the role of moisture in the life of seeds in storage.

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Role and importance of moisture content in the life of seeds
Moisture content of developing seed, seeds notmature enough

35-80% for harvest
Seeds physiologically mature; respiratory rate high; seed

susceptible to field deterioration; heating occurs if seed bulked
18-40% without adequate ventilation; molds and insects very active;
seed susceptible to mechanical damage in harvesting and
handling.
Seeds store reasonably well for 6 to 18 months in open storage

13-18% in temperate climates; insects can still be a problem in
susceptible seeds; seed susceptible to mechanical damage.
Respiratory rate still high; can get heating at highest levels;

10-13% molds and insects can be damaging; seed resistant to
mechanical damage.
Seed sufficiently dry, can be stored for 1 to 3 years open

8-10% storage in temperate climates; very little insect activity; seed
very susceptible to mechanical damage.
4-8% Safe moisture content for sealed storage.
0-4% Seeds germinate when they imbibe water to these levels.
Extreme desiccation can be damaging to seed; hard seededness

33-60%
develops in some kinds of seed.
The importance of seed moisture content in extending the shelf life of seeds under
ideal storage conditions can be well known and understood from the Harrington’s thumb
rule, that one per cent decrease in seed moisture content nearly doubles the storage
potential of the seed. Again this rule is applicable only at a moisture range of 5-14 per cent
because, moisture
content below 5 per cent the physio chemical reaction may take place and at above 14 per
cent fungi and insects become active. Another rule given by Harrington states that for every
5oC decrease in storage temperature, the seed life will be doubled. Again this can hold
good only in the temperature
range of 0-50oC. There are exceptions in this rule in a few crops like chilies, brinjal and
bhendi. The safe moisture content again depends upon the period of storage, storage

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structures, kind and variety of seed and the packaging materials used. For cereals under
open storage, seed drying up to
10 per cent moisture content appears quite satisfactory. The storage in sealed containers
during upto 4-8% moisture content depending upon the particular kind of seed may be
necessary.
Use of desiccants
Desiccant like silica gel can maintain the moisture content in equilibrium with the
Relative Humidity of 45%. It is kept @ 1kg/10 kg of seeds. When the silica gel turns to pink
color it should be dried at 1750 in oven and then again placed in the container.
4. Relative humidity and temperature during storage
Seeds are hygroscopic. They attain rather specific and characteristic moisture
content when subjected to given level of atmospheric humidity at a particular temperature
(equilibrium moisture content). The equilibrium moisture content for a particular kind of seed
at a given relative humidity
tends to increase as temperature decreases and the deterioration starts.
Equilibrium moisture content varies among seed kinds. In general, the equilibrium
moisture content of “oily” seed is lower than that of “starchy” seed at the same relative
humidity and temperature. This phenomenon can be accounted for by the fact that fats and
oils do not mix with water. Thus, in a seed with 50% oil content, the moisture has to be
concentrated in half the seed, while in a seed containing 10% oil, the moisture is distributed
throughout 90% of the seed.
Thus the maintenance of moisture content of seed during storage is a function of RH
and to a lesser extent of temperature. At equilibrium moisture content there is no net gain or
loss in seed moisture content when seed is placed in a new environment with RH higher or
lower than that of the seed, the seed will gain or lose moisture till it reaches a new
equilibrium moisture content at this particular new environment.
Dry, cool conditions during storage
The general prescription for seed storage is a dry and cool environment. At this point,
the question naturally arises: How dry and how cool? It is difficult to answer this question
unless three factors are known:
1. Kind(s) of seed to be stored;

2. Desired period of storage and
3. Physiological quality of the seed.
Seed of most grain crops, e.g., corn, sorghum, rice, will maintain germination for the
8-9 months period from harvest to planting at moisture content of 12-13% and normal
warehouse temperature except possibly in Southern coastal areas. For maintenance of

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vigor as well as germination, moisture content should not exceed 12% (relative humidity
below 60%) and temperature in the warehouse should not exceed 650 F. In the case of
carry-over seed, which means a storage period of 20-21 months, the moisture content of
seed of grain crops should be less than 11% and temperature should not exceed 650 F.
Since the period of carry-over storage encompasses at least one summer period,
temperatures and humidity control during the period is most important.
Cotton seed stores about as well as seed of grain crops, and the conditions
mentioned above are applicable.
Soybeans and peanut seed are poor storers. For one year’s storage (actually 8-9
months), moisture content should be 11 to 12% and the warehouse temperature should not
exceed 650F. Shelled peanuts may have to be stored in a cold room. Carry-over storage
should not be attempted
unless conditioned storage facilities are available: 650F and 50% relative humidity or better.
Seed of most forage grass and legume crops will store well for one year at moisture
content of 10-11% at normal warehouse temperatures. When “carried-over”, moisture
content should be about 10% and temperature should not exceed 65%.
Vegetable seed vary considerably among kinds in their storage requirements.
Generally, however, most kinds will store well for one year at a moisture content of 9-11%
and a temperature that does not exceed 650F.
When a storage period longer than 19-21 months is required, conditioned storage is
essential for all kinds of seed. Most kinds of seed will maintain quality for 2-3 years when
stored at 600F and 50-55% relative humidity or better. For storage longer than 3 years,
conditions should be 500 F and 50% relative humidity or better.
5. Provenance
The seeds harvested in different climates (or) at different times show differences in
viability. Because they would have been subjected to different pre harvest conditions which
will have caused different amounts of deterioration by the time, the seeds are harvested.
6. The activity of organisms associated with seeds in storage
The bacteria, fungi, mites, insects, rodents and birds may do harm to seeds in
storage. The general limits of temperature and relative humidity for the multiplication of the
various biological agencies infesting stored seeds are,

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It is also interesting to note that the favorable limits of temperature and RH for
germination are 16-42oC and 95-100 per cent respectively.
Sanitation in storage
There are several other recognized procedures for good seed storage that most
seeds men already know. Seeds should be stored in a seed warehouse, not a fertilizer,
chemicals, herbicide, or feed warehouse. Good sanitation should be a continuous practice.
It will minimize storage insect
infestations. If storage insects are a problem, the judicious use of insecticides and
fumigants, combined with sanitation, will alleviate the problem. The best procedure is not to
place insect infested lots in storage with other lots unless all the insects have been killed by
fumigation or insecticide treatment.
In warehouse with concrete floors, seed bags should be stacked on wooden pallets to
keep them from contact with the floor as considerable moisture can be transmitted through
concrete floors. Seed warehouses should also be adequately ventilated (unless they are
conditioned) and protected
against rodents.
Storage Conditions
Since seed moisture content and ambient relative humidity are in equilibrium during
storage, maintenance of a “safe” moisture content requires an average level of relative
humidity in the storage environment no higher than that in equilibrium with the “safe” or
desired moisture content.
This favorable situation can be achieved in only three ways:
1. Location of the storage facility in a region where relative humidity does not rise
– on the average – above the critical level;
2. Maintenance of the relative humidity at the desired level by packaging seed in
moisture vapor proof containers; or
3. Dehumidification of the storage room atmosphere to the desired level. The
desired level of relative humidity for successful storage of seed depends, of

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course on the kind of seed, the duration of the storage period, and the
temperature.
SEED PACKAGING IN RELATION TO SEED STORAGE

In reality the seed package is a small storage container. The kind of
container needed is affected by several factors including:
a. The quantity of seed desired in each package
b. The protection desired
c. The protection desired
d. The value of the seed
e. The storage conditions into which the container is to be placed and
f. The facilities for drying the seeds
Depending upon the cost availability and the period of storage, the packaging
materials are to be selected. Normally cereal seeds are being packed in cotton, jute and
paper bags. Moisture vapor penetrates in these containers and they offer no protection
against high relative humidity. In
high humidity locations with inadequate seed storage facilities, consideration should be
given to methods of packaging which can protect the seed from moisture vapor. Such
moisture vapor proof containers include paper aluminum foil pouches, polyethylene bags of
over 700 gauge thickness,
sealed tins and gasketted rigid plastic containers. The costs of these are high, for the
package of cereal seeds. Polyethylene bags have been regarded as the most attractive,
because of their relatively low cost, compared to other kinds of sealed containers. Rigid
plastic containers and sealed tins
offer some possibility for hybrid seeds of cotton and vegetables, if the quantity needed is not
great.
Classification of packing materials or containers
1. Moisture and vapor pervious containers
These containers allow entry of water in the form of vapor and liquid. These are
suited for short term storage. The seeds in these containers will attain seed equilibrium
moisture with the surrounding atmosphere. e.g. cloth bags, gunny bags, paper bags etc.

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2. Moisture impervious but vapor pervious containers

These allow entry of water in the form of vapor and not in liquid. The seeds in the
containers can’t be carried over for long period in hot humid conditions (.g.) polythene bags
of <300 gauge thickness and urea bags.
3. Moisture and vapor proof containers

These containers will not allow entry of moisture in the form of liquid or vapor. These
are used for long term storage even in hot humid conditions if the seeds are sealed at
optimum m.c. eg. Polyethylene bags of >700 gauge thickness, aluminum foil pouches, rigid
plastics etc.

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Certified seeds of cereals, pulses and oil seeds are normally packed either in gunny
bags or cloth bags. However, paper bag, aluminum foil pouches and polyethylene bags are
used for packing flower and vegetable seeds.
Seed storage in relation to seed deterioration
The Purpose of seed storage has been previously stated, viz., to preserve or
maintain the physiological quality of seed for the period desired through minimization of the
rate of deterioration. Since seed storage is basically concerned with “control” of deteriorative
processes, some
knowledge of these processes is essential for successful seed storage operations.
Deteriorative changes in seed and their consequences
In our consideration of some of the characteristics of deterioration in seed, another
might have been added that deterioration is characterized by change. Indeed, in our context,
deterioration and change – detrimental change – are almost synonymous. For deterioration
is identifiable only in terms of observable or measurable changes in the response reactions
of the
seed. Conversely, detrimental changes, e.g., loss of germination or vigor, are said to be the
result of deterioration.
In the sequence of deteriorative changes postulated in figure 1, it can be readily seen
that during deterioration, the “performance potential” of seed becomes progressively
impaired (reduced) until they lose their capacity to germinate, at which time “performance
potential” is zero. Since loss of the capacity to germinate is the last practically significant
consequence of deterioration, the design and evaluation of storage conditions only in terms
of “maintenance of germination” is not sufficient. The “lesser consequences” of deterioration
must also be considered because collectively they determine the “vigor” level of the seed.
And, the vigor of seed determines how well they germinate, emerge, grow, and develop in
the farmer’s field.
Longevity of seed is a characteristic of the species or variety

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Some kinds of seed are inherently long-lived, others are short-lived, while others
have an “intermediate” life span. Differences in storability extend even down to the variety
level. It has been known, for example, the certain inbred lines of corn are “poor storers” and
that this characteristic is
inherited.
Inherent differences in seed longevity are facts; the seeds man must accept and
contend with as best he can. Among the vegetables, onion seed are notoriously short-lived,
radish seed are intermediate in longevity, and watermelon seed are relatively long-lived.
Soybean and peanut seed do not store well as compared to seed of wheat, corn, cotton,
sorghum and rice. In some cases, seed kinds which have very similar chemical and physical
properties differ substantially in longevity. Tall fescue and annual ryegrass seed are similar
in structure, chemical composition, and yet, ryegrass seed store better than tall fescue seed.
Possible Sequence of changes in seed during deterioration
Seed selection for extended

 Store well mature seeds.
 Store normal colored seeds
 Seeds should be free from mechanical injury
 Seeds should not have met with adverse conditions during maturation
 Seeds should be dried to optimum moisture content.
 Seeds should be treated with fungicides before storage.
 Suitable packaging materials should be used for packing.
High quality seed store better than low quality seed

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The storage potential of seed is greatly affected by their quality at the time they enter
storage, or their pre-storage history. The pre storage history of a seed lot encompasses all
the “events” in the “life” of the seeds from the time functional maturity is reached until they
are placed in storage.
Seeds are highest in quality at the time functional maturity is attained. Since most
kinds of seed reach maturity at moisture contents too high for mechanical harvest, the seeds
are subjected to the field environment from maturation to harvest. The post-maturation pre-
harvest period normally ranges from 1 to 4 weeks for the different kinds of seed. Adverse
climatic conditions can result in rapid and severe deterioration of the seed, and so on. The
degree of deterioration that occurs in seed prior to harvest determines their quality at
harvest and conditions their performance in storage.
In like manner, mechanical, abuse to seed associated with harvesting, handling and
processing operations, and damage caused by inadequate or improper aeration or drying
can have both immediate and residual effects, i.e., performance of the seed might be
affected at the time of injury or not until some later time during storage.
In characterizing seed deterioration, we pointed out that the rate of deterioration of
seed in storage varies among seed lots of the same kind and among individual seeds within
a lot. These variations in storability are, of course, related to the pre-storage history of seed
lots. Seed lots with a “good” pre-storage history (minimal field deterioration, mechanical
damage, etc.) store well, while those with a “bad” pre-storage history store poorly.
STORAGE WAREHOUSE AND THEIR MAINTENANCE
Seeds undergo deterioration due to aging in storage. This is accelerated by climatic
factors and external biotic factors like insects and pathogen. In addition to seed borne
pathogen and storage insects, seeds are damaged by birds and rats for their feed. Clean
and hygienic go downs protect the seed from external insects and preserve the seed. Hence
care should be taken in construction of go down. The points to be noted are as follows.

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 Seed warehouse should be in a place where transport facilities are easily

available.
 Seed warehouse should not be constructed in areas near seashore. Since
the high RH of atmospheric air accelerate the deterioration of seed.
 Seed warehouse should not be constructed in low lying water stagnating
areas.
 Seed warehouse should be constructed in places where atmospheric RH is
low, free circulation of air is possible; sunlight is adequate and
elevated in nature.
 The ventilators should be at bottom for free air circulation.
 Ground moisture should not reach the floor.
 Should be rat proof with wire mesh
 Should not be near industries as smoke is injurious
In maintenance of seed in warehouse following points are to be considered.

1. Warehouse should be clean and dry
2. Seed bags should not be stacked directly on floor. Should be stacked
on wooden ballets.
3. The height of the stack should not be more than 6-8 bags.
4. Different seed lot should be kept separately.
5. Warehouse should be sprayed periodically once in a week or fortnightly with
Malathion 50 EC (1 : 300 Chemical : Water) @ 5 lit. sq. m-1 or 0.25% Nuvan @ 1 lit.
100 m3-1.
6. Altering the chemicals at weekly intervals will give better control.
7. Seed lots can be fumigated with Aluminum phophide @ 3 gm/cu.m in air tight
condition for 7 days. This can be done as propylatic measure and on minimum
infestation by insects.
8. Seed lots should be periodically (once in month) tested for seed quality.
9. Based on seed testing result, seeds can be dried under sun for the removal of
moisture. It reduces insect and pathogen infestation.

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10. New seed lots should be kept away from old seed lots to avoid secondary infestation
of insects.
11. Seeds should be treated with combination of fungicide and insecticide
(eg.) Thiram @ 2 g kg-1 + carbaryl @ 200 mg kg-1.
12. Frequent supervision of each and every lot is must.
13. Seed bag should be restacked once in 3 months for free aeration.
14. Instead of gunny bags low cost interwoven polythene bags should be used to prolong
the life of seed.
15. Pesticides, fungicides, fertilizers, rejects should not be stored with seed.
16. Each lot should be labeled accurately and registers for stocks should
be maintained.
17. Per acre or per hectare packing (small) is preferable for easy handling and effective
supervision.
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STORAGE INSECT MANAGEMENT

Maintenance of store house hygiene
1. Cracks and crevices around corners have to be brushed to eliminate hiding pests. All
debris should be removed. Provision of wire meshes to windows, ventilators, gutters,
drains to prevent entry of rats, squirrels, birds, etc.
2. Reduce the moisture content of seed to prevent insect build up (usually below 10%).
Previously used bags, bins, etc. should be dried in the sun repeatedly.
3. Elimination of conditions which favor storage pests. Uniformly graded seeds should
be used, broken seeds should be removed before bagging since they favor pest build
up. Stitching of all torn bags, filling bags up to the brim, no loose packing.
4. Surface treatment of storehouse before storage with malathion dust 4% @ 25 g/sq m
or malathion 50% EC spray @ 10 ml/lit of water and 3 lit of solution per sq. meter.
5. Good dunnage by arranging wooden planks or bamboo poles or spreading thick
polythene sheets on the floor. Treatment of dunnage materials with malathion as
specified, arrange the bags in criscross pattern with a maximum of 15 bags and
provide adequate space between the roof and the seed bags.
Prophylatic treatment of seeds

Application of malathion 4 per cent dust 25 g/sq meter or malathion 50 per cent EC
10 ml per liter of water and 3 liters of spray solution for 100 sq.m. The chemicals have to be
sprayed on the walls and floors and the treatment has to be repeated based on the extent of
flying and crawling
insects.
Chemicals
Two chemicals are widely used : Phosphine and Methyl Bromide. Others are
dichlorvos, Carbondioxide, Ethylene oxide and HCN.
Phosphine : Available in a solid form (0.6 g pellets, 3 g tablets). The active ingredient is
Aluminium phosphide mixed with Ammonium carbonate and Paraffin. After exposure to the
atmosphere, the pellets decompose and release the active substance, hydrogen phosphide
(PH3), which has the same
specific weight as air, and is thus evenly distributed in the fumigated material or chamber.
Phosphine is also able to penetrate bags, carton boxes and other containers.
It must be borne in mind that fumigation particularly repeated fumigation, may
seriously reduce the vigour and viability. This is particularly true for seeds with a higher
moisture content of 14 per cent. Seeds with moisture content above 14 per cent should be
dried, before fumigation.

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Samples of seeds have to be drawn at fortnight intervals and the infestation can be
classified as follows based on insects found per kg of sample.
 When there is no
Free
pest
 Upto 2 insects Mild
 More than 2 insects Severe
The fumigant has to be chosen and the requirement worked out on the following
guidelines :
Aluminium phosphide: Three tablets of 3 g each per ton of seed for cover fumigation (only
selected blocks of bags)
Twenty one tablets of 3g each for 28 cubic meters, for shed fumigation (entire
warehouse). Period of fumigation - 5 days. The major advantages of Phostoxin are that it
lacks residues and does not affect flavor or germination and is easy to handle.
Methyl bromide: Above 5.6oC, methyl bromide is in the gas phase and is available in
cylinders similar to those used for cooking gas. Since, it is odorless, other gases such as
chloropicrin are sometimes added to facilitate detection of leaks. Because methyl bromide is
3.5 times heavier than air, care has to be taken that it is properly distributed within the goods
to be fumigated (fan can be used). The recommended dosage is 20 g/m3 for 24- 48 hrs.
Special safety measures are required, since methyl bromide is absorbed through the
skin. It tends to accumulate in commodities which are important whenever repeated
fumigation is necessary.
Equipment
Gas-proof plastic sheets with at least 50 cm overlap firmly pressed to the ground with
sand, iron bars, or other weights are frequently used. Gas escape results in reduced
insecticidal effect and is a hazard to users. A cement floor is necessary to prevent gas
escape through soil. Care must be
taken that the fumigation area is properly aerated and fans sometimes help.
If a store’s door and windows can be hermetically sealed, fumigation of the entire
store is possible. Most stores, however, allow gas to escape through other openings. Silos
are usually good fumigation facilities. When large quantities must be fumigated within a
short time, a vaccum fumigation chamber is appropriate. These chambers are available in
sizes between 1
and 50 m3, and sometimes as a plant of upto 6 x 50 m3, equipped with common fans,
pumps and other equipment. The insecticides used are methyl bromide or ethylene oxide.
Safety

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Face masks with a proper canister should be used, especially during the aeration
process. When handling Phostoxin, cotton gloves should be worn. Gas concentration can be
checked with a Halide gas detector for methyl bromide and with a tube detector (Draeger)
for Phostoxin. A warning sign should be clearly visible to prevent people from inadvertently
removing plastic sheets or entering a building under fumigation.
Rodent Management in Store Houses
Provide of wire mesh to windows, ventilators, drains and leave no gaps to doors. Use
rodent baits with multi dose or anticoagulant rodenticides. The bait may be prepared as
follows:
 Cereal flour 450 g
 Any edible oil 10 g
 Powdered jiggery 15 g
 Anticoagulant or rodenticide such as coumarin 25 g
Replace the consumed bait daily. If needed the single dose or acute poison bait may
be prepared as follows :
 Food Material 97 g
 Edible oil 1g
 Zinc Phosphate 2g
Before providing the poisoned zinc phosphide bait, the plain or nonpoisoned bait are
to be provided for two or three days to make the rats accept the bait.

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SEED PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES

Introduction
More plants are propagated for food, fiber, and ornamentals from seeds than any
other method of propagation. Seed propagation is the cornerstone for producing agronomic,
vegetable, forestry, and many ornamental plants. The production of high quality seeds is of
prime importance to propagators. In the production of any crop, the cost of the seed is
usually minor compared with other production costs, yet, no single factor is as important in
determining the success of the operation.
Most crop plant seeds are produced by companies that specialize in both plant
breeding and seed production. Growers expect these companies to introduce improved
cultivars, as well as to produce high-quality seeds that have good germination
characteristics and are true-to-type.
To produce high-quality seeds, companies must not only pay close attention to the
environment where seeds are produced, but must also have the means to test the quality of
those seeds.
This chapter discusses various aspects of seed production techniques commonly
used by seed producers from different agencies (government or private companies).
Learning Objectives:
1. Determine the different seed production techniques commonly used,
2. Describe the importance of each technique/procedure used.
This chapter throws light upon the top nine seed production techniques. The
techniques are:
1. Selection of Soil
2. Raising of Seedlings
3. Direct Sowing of Seeds
4. Preparation of Land and Transplanting of Seedlings
5. Isolation Requirement
6. Management of Annuals
7. Rouging
8. Insects, Pests and Diseases
9. Harvesting and Storage of Seeds.
1. Selection of Soil:

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For successful seed production, soil should be preferably loam. Other soils like sandy
loam to clay are also good. The soil should be well fertile and free from water stagnation and
have 6.5 to 7.5. Since most the crops have tendency to shatter the seeds in the field and
hence, the same crop may not be selected to grow year after year to avoid contamination.
Regardless of the country where seeds are produced, there are several important
considerations must be satisfied when selecting specific sites for seed production:
1. Appropriate soil type and fertility for good seed yields.
2. A detailed cropping history to avoid disease or herbicide carryover.
3. Adequate soil moisture or availability of supplemental irrigation
4. A dry environment during seed harvest.
2. Raising of Seedlings:
Generally seeds of annuals are sown in controlled space for better handling owing to
small size of seeds. In general, 10-15 cm raised nursery seeds of 1 m width and 2-3 m long
are prepared. The soil should be well prepared by mixing 10-15 kg/m 2 well rotten farm yard
manure. To check the soil borne diseases in nursery, soil should be drenched with 0.2%
brassicol or captan or soil can be sterilized by drench with 2% formaline and covering with
polythene.
After sowing seeds are covered with well sieved mixture of farm yard manure and
soil. Watering should be done twice or thrice a day or use sprinkler system. The seeds are
covered with newspapers or bed sheet to create darkness which helps in better germination.
The seeds start germinating within 2-3 days and covering is removed.
It takes about one month to grow the seedling sufficiently and is ready for
transplanting when seedlings have 3-4 true leaves.
3. Direct Sowing of Seeds:
Many vegetable seeds are sown directly. For this 15-20 cm wide ridges are prepared
by manual or tractors. Three to 4 seeds are sown directly by hand at 15-20 cm apart. After
complete sowing light watering is done. Seeds start germinating after 4-5 days.
4. Preparation of Land and Transplanting of Seedlings:
Seedbed preparation- Seedbed preparation is an important step that can optimize seed
germination and survival rate. Final seedbeds can be prepared by disk, harrow, or chisel
plowing. The means of preparation will vary with the species selected and the availability of
equipment. Unlike standard agricultural settings, reconstructed soils produce greater yields
when disked or chisel plowed (Powell, 1988). These treatments are presumed to improve
water infiltration rates and reduce the bulk density of the rooting media following soil
reconstruction. Similarly, single disking was demonstrated to produce greater yields than
multiple diskings (Powell, 1988).

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Proper seedbed preparation is vital to successful establishment. The soil and the planting
technique must assure that good soil-seed contact is achieved.
5. Isolation Requirement:
To produce genetically pure seeds, crop should be isolated with other varieties of
same crop.
Isolation distance: Isolation distance is the minimum separation required between two or
more varieties of the same species for the purpose of keeping seed pure.
Types of Isolation
1. Spatial Isolation
2. Temporal Isolation
3.Physical Barrier
Spatial Isolation:
The spatial separation required between a seed field and other sources of genetic
and mechanical contamination, especially between varieties of cross pollination.
• more the extent of out crossing wider the distance.
• higher the class of seed wider the distance. (bs v/s fs).
• in hybrid seed production wider the distance than that of variety(inbred/pureline).
Temporal Isolation:
Crop of seed production should be sown early or late by a margin of 15-20 days than
neighboring fields of same or other variety to prevent entry of foreign pollens in the field of
seed production.
Physical barrier:
Surrounding of crop of seed production particularly on bunds crop of well plant height
and densely planted should be grown to prevent entry of foreign pollens in the field of seed
production.
6. Management of Annuals:
Annuals are quite tender and require proper attention through-out their life. Regular
water supply is essential for successful raising which should be done according to the
requirement of the crop. Sufficient moisture is required till harvesting of seed is done.
Depending upon season and soil type frequency of irrigation is decided.
In rainy season generally irrigation is not required except during dry spell. During
winter season, irrigation is required at 10-12 days where during summer season it should be

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done at 4-5 days. Regular weeding and hoeing is essential for the development of seedling
in to healthy plants.
7. Rouging:
Significance of Rouging What is Rouging?
Rouging: - The selective removal of undesirable plants from a seed crop on the
basis of visual field inspection, in order to improve one or more quality (genetic purity,
disease free) attributes of the seed lot to be harvested" (Laverack and Turner 1995).
Rouging at all stages of the crop in the field is an essential requirement to maintain
the variety purity as it was at the time of release/notification.
Seed producer should have a detective eye to observe off type or improved type in
the field. He should keep constant vigil from the beginning of the crop to the maturity. It is
utmost important to remove and destroy the off types whereas if any plant exhibits superior
trait in terms of vigor earliness, color, or size of flower, etc., the seed of such plant should be
preserved for further testing and utilization.
8. Insects, Pests and Diseases:
Vegetable are commonly affected by pest and diseases like shoot and fruit borers,
yellow vein mosaic and vein clearing. Management measures for these pests and diseases
must be provided.
9. Harvesting and Storage of Seeds:
Once a seed crop is harvested and cleaned, it may be necessary to keep it for a
period before it can be marketed or used by the farmer. The period the seed can be safely
kept depends on the conditions during harvesting and cleaning, and the type of storage
facility used. Essential principles govern the storage of seeds, in particular practices relating
to the control of temperature and relative humidity (RH) in the storage facility itself. Seed
with lower moisture content (MC) kept at lower temperatures can be stored for longer before
the quality deteriorates. The presence and buildup of insects, mites, molds and fungi – all
influenced by temperature and moisture content of the seed – affects both the quality of the
seed and the duration of its storage. The incidence of other conditioning factors (e.g.
rodents and birds) depends on the structure used and its condition.
Seed Storage
Seed storage is the preservation of seeds under controlled environmental conditions

to maintain seed viability (germination and vigor) for long periods from harvest until the seed
is finally required for sowing by the farmer. The entire storage period comprises several
processes and sites. In the broadest sense, storage begins at physiological maturity and
ends with germination in the field. The storage period can be divided into five stages:
1. Harvest maturity
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2. Drying and threshing

3. Processing
4. Distribution and marketing
5. On-farm storage
A. The period from physiological maturity to harvestable maturity is the first segment of the
storage period. Seeds are physiologically mature when they reach maximum dry weight on
the plant. At physiological maturity, dehydration of the seed has begun, but is not yet
complete; it continues until the moisture content of the seed and fruit decreases to a level
that permits effective and efficient harvest and threshing, i.e. harvests maturity. Any delay in
harvesting after the seed reaches harvest maturity prolongs the first segment of the storage
period, and often results in deterioration of quality. The moisture content is the amount of
water in the seed and is usually expressed as a percentage on a “wet basis” (wb),
calculated as follows:
Weight of moisture
--------------------------------- X 100
Weight of wet sample
Occasionally, “dry basis” (db) moisture content is given and it is important to know
which has been used. For example, if 100 kg of moist grain is dried and loses 20 kg of
water, the moisture content is:
20 x 100 20 x 100
---------- = 20% (wb) or ------------- = 25% (db)
100 80
Grain is normally harvested at MC 18–25% (wb). However, a range of factors

– stage of crop maturity, season, weather pattern and drying facilities –
Influence the moisture content, which can therefore be substantially higher or lower.
Hand-held electric moisture meters are used at field level to obtain a rapid reading of
grain moisture content. They measure the grain’s electrical properties, which are closely
related to moisture content and give quite accurate results within the range of MC 13–16%.
Hand-held electric moisture meters are used at field level to obtain a rapid reading of grain
moisture content. They measure the grain’s electrical properties, which are closely related to
moisture content and give quite accurate results within the range of MC 13–16%.
B. The second segment of the storage period is from harvest to the beginning of seed
processing. When seed is in the combine, the grain wagon, in bulk storage or the drying
bins, it is in storage; its quality is affected by the same factors conditioning seed quality
during the later stages of storage (packaged seed or distribution and marketing).

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C. The third segment of the storage period is from the onset of seed processing through
to packaging.
D. Once the seed is in its packaged form, the storage period covers distribution and
marketing, including storage in warehouses and at retail points.
E. Finally, seed is stored on the user’s farm before and during planting.
The seed quality – mainly germination and vigor – can be significantly affected
during any of these five stages. It is therefore essential to follow sound principles of seed
storage and to handle seeds properly; best practices apply also to seed held at transit points
during transportation by cart, lorry, rail, air or any other means.
Understand the concept of Seed Production Techniques that should be followed in a certain
crops. For every crops there are several strategies that should be followed.
E.g.
LADY’S FINGER (Abelmoschus esculentus)
Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), or better known as Lady’s-Finger, is an edible plant

belonging to the Hibiscus family. Unripe fruits are harvested and used as a vegetable in
many Asian cuisines. When eaten, the Okra produces a mucilaginous texture which consists
of soluble fibre, results in a gooey or slimy mouthfeel
Method of seed production
Lady’s finger is a self pollinated crop with 0 – 5% of cross pollination through insects.
The crop should be raised in isolation from the fields of other varieties and the fields of the
same variety not conforming to the varietal purity requirements of certification. The isolation
distance maintained
between the varieties is 500 meters for foundation and 250 meters for certified seed
production.

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Seed production stages
Breeder seed ---- Foundation seed --Certified seed
Land selection
The land selected should not be cultivated with lady’s finger in the previous season.
The soil should be fertile, free from soil borne diseases and with good drainage facility.
Seed selection and sowing
Certified seeds should be obtained from an authorized source. Seeds should be

healthy, free from disease and pest infection. Remove the broken, colored seeds and use
uniformly graded seeds.
Selected seeds should be treated appropriately. In case of summer crop, the seeds
should be soaked in water for 12 hours before sowing. The seeds can also be treated with
sweet flag rhizome extract or cow’s urine solution (diluted with water in 1:5 ratio) for 30
minutes before sowing. This gives resistance against a number of bacterial and fungal
diseases.
Seeds can also be treated with cow dung solution for 4 - 6 hours after soaking in
water for 8 hours. The seeds can then be dried in shade and sown.
Treated seeds should be sown in ridges @ two seeds per hill by following a spacing
of 60 x 30 – 45 cm for wet and 45 x 30 cm for summer crop.
Intercultural operation
Thinning out closely germinated plants should be done at the stage of one true leaf or
12 days after sowing.
Nutrient management
A soil test is always the best method of determining the fertilization needs of the
crop. Follow the results of a soil test to maintain a soil pH between 5.8 and 6.5 and optimal
fertility levels. If a soil test has not been taken, apply 25 to 50 pounds of 10-10-10 before
planting or other fertilizer that would give between 2½ to 5 pounds of nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium per 1,000 square feet. The okra plant has a sensitive balance between
vegetation (leaf production) and reproduction (pod production).
The use of additional nitrogen should be avoided on vigorous plantings until fruiting
begins to manage plant growth and ensure pod production. Okra should be side dressed
with 3 to 6 pounds of calcium nitrate (15. 5-0-0) per 1,000 square feet or 1 to 2 pounds per

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100 feet of row. Side dressing should occur at 3 to 4 weeks after planting and again at 6 to 8
weeks after planting. More applications of calcium nitrate may be needed later, depending
on rainfall and how long okra is expected to produce. It is important to supply additional
nitrogen late in the season at the time blooms are concentrated at the top of the plant.
Weed management
Hoeing and weeding should be done at regular intervals based on the requirement.
First weeding is done 20 days after sowing. Regular weeding can be done at an interval of
25 days. A total of 3 - 4 weeding can be done at regular intervals from 20 days after sowing
till the crop canopy
covers the soil surface. Earthling up is done 30 days after sowing.
Irrigation
First irrigation is done immediately after sowing. Depending on the soil moisture
content irrigation should be done once a week or 10 days. Irrigation during flowering and
pod setting are very crucial.
Pest and disease management
Lady’s finger is commonly affected by pests and diseases like shoot and fruit borers,
yellow vein mosaic and vein clearing. Management measures
for these pests and diseases are provided below:
Crop Common Pest and Diseases Management Measures

Okra Shoot and fruit borer (Earias vittella, Summer ploughing, spray ginger,
E. insulana) - (Infestation starts garlic, chilli
at the early vegetative stage and
persists up to fruiting stage)
Yellow vein mosaic / Vein clearing Spray 5% neem seed kernel

extract or ginger, garlic and chilli
extract, destroy affected plants,
weeds and other wild hosts and
avoid summer cropping.
Fruit borers (Helicoverpa armigera, Summer ploughing, use bird

Spodoptera litura) - (affect during perches @ 6 – 8/acre (15 – 20/
the flowering stage) ha), use pheromone traps @ 3 –
4/acre (8/ha), spray 5% neem
seed kernel extract, ginger, garlic
and chilli extract
or Andrographis kashayam or five
leaf extract to kill early stages of
larvae or use Trichogramma @

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20250 eggs/acre (50,000 eggs/ha)

six times at weekly intervals.
Rouging
Rouging should be done from early vegetative phase up to three fruit stage. In lady’s
finger, the plants affected with yellow mosaic are periodically identified, removed and
destroyed. All the off-types and diseased plants should be rouged off before flowering based
on the plant height, leaf and stem types, pigmentation, shape, size and color of the flower
and shape of the fruits. Maximum percentage of off-types permitted at the final inspection is
0.10% for foundation seed production and 0.20% for certified seed production.
Field inspection
A minimum of three field inspections should be done from flowering to harvesting

stage by the Seed Certification Officer. The first inspection is done before flowering, second
during peak flowering and fruiting stage followed by the third one during mature fruit stage or
prior to harvest.
Field standards
Foundation Seed Certified Seed
Isolation Distance 500 m 250 m

Off-Types 0.10% 0.20%
Harvesting
Harvesting is done once the pods are physiologically mature. The physiological
maturity of pods is identified by a change in color from green to brown and by the drying of
the pods. Pods should be harvested at the right time, since dried pods tend to dehisce (split
open) with very little force.
Threshing and processing
Harvested pods should be dried under the sun. Later, seeds should be removed from
the peels of the pods by beating with stick. The separated seeds are then winnowed to
remove the debris.
Drying and storage

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The seeds should be dried well before storage up to 10% of the moisture content.
Under dry climatic conditions seeds can be stored for one year.
Seed standards
The percentage of minimum physical purity of foundation and certified seeds should
be 99% with a minimum of 65% of germination capacity and 10% of moisture content. The
presence of inert matter should not exceed 1.0% and the seeds of other crop varieties
should not be more than 10/kg of foundation seeds and 20/kg of certified seeds.

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SEED DRYING, PROCESSING AND HANDLING
Seed Drying
The process of elimination of moisture from the seed is called drying. Seed drying
should reduce the seed moisture content to safe moisture limits to maintain its viability and
vigour during storage, which may otherwise deteriorate quickly owing to mold growth,
heating and enhanced microbial activity. Seed drying also permits early harvesting, long
term storage of seeds, more efficient use of land and manpower, the use of plant stalks as
green fodder and production of high quality seed. Depending upon the climate and method
of harvesting adopted the threshed seed may or may not be dry enough for safe storage.
Under less favorable conditions, threshed seed needs further drying.
Depending upon the climate and method of harvesting adopted the threshed seed
may or may not be dry enough for safe storage. Under less favorable conditions, threshed
seed needs further drying. Stage of moisture elimination.
The moisture from the seed is eliminated in 2 stages

1. Surface moisture of the seed that initially removed by the drying air.
2. The removal of the moisture in the surface cause an imbalance in the moisture potential
in the surface of the seed and the inner portion of the seed which leads to the migration of
moisture from the inner organ to the surface
Elimination of moisture from the seed depends upon the relative humidity and
temperature of the environment surrounding the seed. When RH of the atmosphere is less
than the seed, moisture is eliminated from the seed. While drying, care should be taken to
minimize /prevent oxidation and decomposition and volatilization. In this process there will
be loss of dry weight of seed which is widened when the processes take place at high
temperature. Hence, high moisture seeds should be dried at low temperature.
Equilibrium moisture content

A seed is in equilibrium with the environment when the rate of moisture loss from the
seed to the surrounding atmosphere is equal to the rate of moisture gained by the seed from
the atmosphere.
Drying temperature Greater the seed moisture content lesser should be the drying
temperature and vice versa.
10% MC and below 110 o F (43.3o C)

10-18 % MC 100 o F (42.2 o C)
18-30 % MC 90 o F (32.2 o F)
The rate of drying depends on
 Initial seed moisture content
 Size of the bin and capacity
 Depth of spread of seed
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 The rate of air blow

 Atmosphere air temperature and relative humidity
 Static pressure
 Drying temperature
Methods of drying
I. Physical drying (or) natural drying (or) traditional sun drying
II. Mechanical (or) artificial drying
a) Drying with forced natural air
b) Drying with forced artificially heated air
c) Drying with desiccants
d) Drying with infrared rays
I. Physical drying / Natural drying / Traditional Sun drying

This is the common conventional method in which drying of the harvested crop is
carried out in the field or threshing floor by the radiant energy of the sun. This does not
involve any expenditure. To achieve uniform drying, the seed should be spread in thin layer.
High moisture content seed with a moisture content of more than 17% should be dried first
under shade / light to reduce the moisture content less than 17% and then dried under
heavy sun i.e. noon drying. Sun dried seeds should not be allowed to remain open in the
floor during night, since seed will absorb moisture from air. 2-4 days are needed to reduce
the moisture content to 10-12%. Direct sunlight also can adversely affect seed germinability
owing to high temperature and ultraviolet radiation, especially if the moisture content of the
seed is high.
Advantages
1. Easy and cheap
2. Does not require any expenditure or fuel.
Disadvantages
1. The rate of drying is slow
2. Loss due to attack by insects, birds and animals
3. Large floor area is required
4. Involves extra labour for collecting and exposing during the day
5. Sun drying cause sun checks or hot spots due to variation in temperature from time to
time. This checks or spots induce high amount of breakage while processing
6. mechanical admixtures are possible
7. Dust, dirt and other foreign materials get admixed
8. High weather risks and damage by heavy wind and rains
Mechanical drying or artificial drying
Forced air drying

In forced air drying, natural air or air supplemented with heat is blown through a layer
of seed until drying is completed.
Generally ordinary seed go downs are provided with two types of ventilators for free
movement of air circulation. In modern go downs, provisions are to be made for forcible
circulation of air with the help of an electronic blower. The outside air which is comparatively

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dry is circulated in the godown and thereby the seed get dried up in this process. This is
possible only in dry months
Two types of driers are used: batch and continuous flow driers.
a) Batch dryers
In batch drier, relatively dry air is blown through a layer of seed until the seed is dried
completely, after which it is removed and replaced by another batch of seed. The method is
simple and well suited to small quantities of seed, allows easy cleaning and is
recommended for farm drying.
In horizontal drier, the seed is contained in a box or chamber with a perforated floor
through which the air is blown. Air ducts can be installed in a barn floor and the seed to be
dried piled over them.
In a modified sack drier, seed contained in a woven sack is placed on a grid through which
air is blown. A cylindrical storage bin with raised perforated floor arranged to blow air
underneath the floor can also be used.
A vertical batch drier consists of two concentric perforated cylinders. The space between
the two cylinders is filled with seed and air is blown into the inner cylinder from where it
passes outward the seed. The size of the batch determines the drying rate.
In horizontal batch drier, the seed at the bottom dries first, with the dry zone extending
gradually upward. The drying of the uppermost seed may be delayed unduly if the seed
layer is too thick or the airflow is inadequate. The seed layer should not exceed a depth of
3m and for high moisture forage seed, it should be reduced to 1m or less. If the seed is
dried in a storage bin, a layer of undried seed can be added on top of the dried batch and
drying continued, but only if the seed is already fairly dry and air is not too hot. Seed loss
also can be avoided by drying in two stages. After the first batch has partially dried, the
emerging air is passed through a second batch held in another chamber, repeating the
process with second batch and so on.
2) Continuous flow dryers

In this type of drier, the seed moves horizontally or vertically through a stream of hot
air and then into a cooling chamber. These driers are however difficult to clean when there
is a change of cultivar. These driers can use air temperature higher than those of batch
dries, because the seed is heated for a much shorter time.
i) L.S.U. dryers (Louisiana State University dryers)

This is a continuous column heated air drier largely used for paddy. The paddy seeds
are fed from the top with the help of gravity force in zig zag manner and heated air is blown
from the bottom usually at right angles to the direction of seed motion. The falling seeds get
dried up by the heated air and this process is repeated till to get a reduction of moisture
content to the expected level.
ii) Non mixing column dryer

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These dryers consist of a tall vertical column through which paddy flows by gravity.
No provision is made for agitating the paddy as it flows and hence there is no attempt to
drive the paddy from a straight path. Paddy descends gradually between two parallel
screens and heated air is forced through the screens.
Advantages over bin dryers

1. Short drying period
2. Less damages or spoilage during wet weather
3. Drying is more uniform.
Advantages of mechanical drying
1. Quick method, timely and uniform drying is possible
2. Makes early harvest possible
3. It reduces the chances of losses due to over ripening and shattering of seed
4. Losses due to rodents and birds are prevented.
5. Less damage during processing operation
6. Permits long time storage by preventing sun checks and other damages.
Disadvantages
1. Initial cost of drying the equipment is high
2. Fuel is expensive
3. It produces possible fire hazards
4. Considerable supervision is necessary.
Air-Distribution Systems
Agrawal described three types of air-distribution systems used for seed drying.
a) The main and lateral duct system b) a single central perforated duct and c) the
perforated false floor system.
Multiple bin storage structures for drying can be built so that they are arranged to
enable the drying of several seed lots simultaneously using the same drying fans.
Alternatively, different seed lots can be dried successively with sliding air gates controlling
the flow of air to the respective bins. A multiple bin arrangement is particularly useful to dry
more than one kind of seed simultaneously.
Heated air drying system

Heated air driers consist of (a) a heater unit where fuel is burned and (b) a fan to force the
heated air through a canvas connecting duct into the air distribution system of the drying bin.
Safety features such as automatic thermostatic high limit temperature control, which cuts off
the burner flame if the air temperature exceeds a certain safe maximum and flame failure
control, which automatically cuts off fuel flow to the burner if the flame goes out are
provided. A thermostat can also automatically maintain the air temperature at a desired
setting. In many driers, such thermostats are provided as a standard feature.
Agrawal categorized types of heated driers as layer-in -bin, batch-in-bin, batch and
continuous driers and described their functions.

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Stirring devices keep the seed in a loose fill condition, allowing easy airflow through the
bottom layers. Such mechanisms alleviate the problems of uneven drying (or over drying) by
breaking up pockets of fires and trash and blending the seed by constant mixing.
Large differences in the degree of drying between the top and bottom layers of seed have
been noticed during drying by heated air. It is therefore, advisable to dry seed at shallow
depths to minimize these differences and avoid overheating of the bottom layer. Agrawal
recommended maximum seed depths and temperatures for batch drying of seeds of
different crop species in bins
Crop seed Maximum depth (cm) Recommended maximum

temperature (0C)
Shelled corn 50.8 (20 in) 43.3 (110 o F)
Wheat 50.8 (20 in) 43.3 (110 o F)
Barely 50.8 (20 in) 40.4 (105 o F)
Oats 91.4 (36 in) 43.3 (110 o F)
Rice 45.7 (18 in) 43.3 (110 o F)
Soyabean 50.8 (20 in) 43.3 (110 o F)
Peanuts 152.4 (60 in) 32.2 (90 o F)
Grain Sorghum 50.8 (20 in) 43.3 (110 o F)
Heated air drying requires higher rates of airflow, because water is evaporated faster
and more air is needed to carry it away. The higher air flow rate also ensures more uniform
drying of the top and bottom layers of the seed, completing the drying much faster at the
recommended temperatures.
The general procedure for bin drying of seeds with heated air consists of charging seed into
the bin to the recommended depth. The drier is operated at the recommended temperature
of the seed using either manual or thermostatic controls to set the desired temperature.
After drying is completed, blowing of the air through the seed is continued for sometime
without heat to bring the seed to an ambient temperature.
SEED PROCESSING
Seed lots received from the field are often at high moisture content and contain trash
and other inert material, weed seeds, deteriorated and damaged seeds, off-size seeds, etc.
Seed processing is necessary in order to dry the seeds to safe moisture level; remove or
reduce to the extent possible the various undesirable material, weed seeds, other crop
seeds, deteriorated or damaged seeds.

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Other than this the seed lot heterogeneity in its physical characters like size, colour, shape
etc. The seed lot is heterogeneous due to the following reasons
1. The soil is heterogeneous and there is a lot of variability in the fertility status of the soil
due to the availability of nutrients, physical, chemical and biological properties.
2. Variability is introduced due to the position of seed set on the plant/fruit , time of
pollination and fertilization over a period of time
3. Variability is created by biotic factors like pest and variability infestation.
4. Variability is also due to the management practices like water, land preparation, leveling,
staggered sowing, and uneven distribution of fertilizer and irrigation water, uneven plant
protection sprays and uneven maturity at harvest.
The inherent qualities such as germinability and vigour are exemplified by certain
physical characteristics of the seed i.e., large size, a denser seed, optimum length etc., So,
if grading is done to obtain a particular range of size, shape, length and density of the
seeds, the quality of the lot is upgraded.
Seed Processing Plant Layout Planning

Layout plan for construction of a seed processing plant should be carefully planned to
ensure that the thorough seed cleaning, upgrading, seed treatment and other seed
processing operations are carried out efficiently, without mixing and damaging seed lots,
with a minimum of equipment, personnel, time and at minimum cost. The following factors
should be considered in planning and designing a seed processing plant:
1. Kinds of crop seeds to be handled and kinds of contaminating crop and weed seeds
usually present in the seed lots

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2. Size of operation
3. Whether drying facilities should be required
4. Selection of suitable equipment
5. Location of the plant 6. Source of power for running machinery
7. System of seed delivery to processing plant and
8. Availability of labour
The key to efficient plant layout is a thorough knowledge of what needs to be done, and
sound planning. First, the general sequence of processes involved between the time seeds
enter the processing plant and the time they are cleaned, packaged and ready for shipment,
must be charted. The sequence of operations depends upon the kind of crop and the initial
quality of seed lot, type of contaminants, moisture content of the seed lot, etc. The layout
planner must have an intimate knowledge of the seed to be processed, its physical
characteristics, the contaminants in it, and also of the selection of machines used to bring
the seed to acceptable marketing standards.
Seed Processing Plant Building Layout
Seed processing plant building will comprise of following components:

1. Receiving-cum-drying platform
2. Processing area
3. Auxiliary building
Receiving-cum-drying platform
This area will be utilized to receive the raw seed and to sun dry small lots of crop
seeds. This area can also be utilized for storage of seeds on wooden palettes. The platform
will be connected to processing shed through a rolling shutter.
Processing area
The processing area should be situated between the shed and ventilated storage
building. The hall should be connected to ventilated flat stores through a covered gallery for
easy movement of processed and packaged seed to seed stores. The hall should have a big
rolling shutter in the processing plant to permit entry of seed processing equipment into the
hall for installation.
Auxiliary building
In addition to building discussed above, a provision should be made for generator
room. Sufficient length of road should be provided to connect various functional buildings
with each other and main highway. Boundary wall should be provided all around the
complex for security reasons. Entire complex should have a good drainage system.
Provision for firefighting equipment such as extinguishers, water buckets, sand buckets etc.
should be made to fight minor fire hazards.
The processing plant building should be constructed as per CPWD/PWD norms. It should
have tubular trusses, AC sheets pitched hole roof, cement concrete flooring finished with
water-proofing cement paint, aerated, ventilated, rat proof and bird protection. Sealed doors

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should be provided in these buildings. Buildings will be suitably planned to have

interconnection for movement of seeds and materials.
Analysis of Operation
a) Processing sequence:
After the machines needed have been identified, the next step is to determine the proper
processing sequence. The seed separators, elevators, conveyors and storage bins should
be so arranged that seeds flow continuously from beginning to end, and yet be flexible
enough to bypass a machine or return to a part for re-cleaning.
b) Matching capacity: Equipment size of capacity must be carefully planned to prevent

bottlenecks. When the overall operating capacity needs have been determined, all machines
must be able to handle that capacity with some reserve capacity for problem lots. Surge bins
can handle variations in individual machine capacities. But when differences are great,
either larger models, or more than one machine installed in parallel flow, must be used to
maintain uninterrupted flow.
c) Conveying: The type of conveying system is also a very important factor. The conveying
system must be able to handle the capacity needed in a particular spot. And it must be
carefully adapted to the seed handled.
Type of Layouts
There are three main types of processing plant layouts: multistorey, single level and
combination.
Multistorey: In this system, seed is carried by elevators to the top floor and emptied into
large bins. Cleaning machines are then arranged in a vertical series on the lower floors.
Seed flows from one machine down into the next by gravity.
Single level: In the single storey plant, seed is moved from one machine to the next by
elevators placed between the machines. A great advantage of the single level system is that
one man can supervise the processing line without running up and downstairs. He can thus
maintain closer supervision of all operations.
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Combined designs: A compromise between the single and multistorey system could also
be adapted.
Planning
After the proper machines, elevator capacities, cleaning sequences, and lay out design have
been selected, detailed layout planning can begin. Careful layout planning can identify and
remedy bottlenecks and trouble spots before the plant is built, and thus prevent trouble later.
As the lay out or design develops, it should be drawn on paper. A good method is to draw
lines of flow first and then convert these flow lines into machine lines. After appropriate
revisions, detailed drawings can be made to show exact locations of equipment and
distances. Scale drawings are the most widely used method of layout planning. Scale
models and scale templates are also very effective, but are more expensive.
Requirements in seed processing

1. There should be complete separation
2. Minimum seed loss
3. Upgrading should be possible for any particular quality
4. Efficiency
5. It should have only minimum requirement
Movement of seed in a processing plant

Handling of seed at the processing plant adheres to a definite path irrespective of crop for
easy management of seed which is sensitive at each and every step of handling and ready
to lose or gain its quality all through the steps.

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Physical characteristics used to separate seeds are

1. Size grader :Based on size it can be separated with air screen cleaner
cum
2. Length :Disc or indented cylinder separator
3. Weight : Specific gravity separator
4. Shape
Spiral separator or draper separator for round and flat seeds
5. Surface texture : Rough from smooth surface seed- dodder mill
6. Colour : Electronic colour separator
7. Electrical conductivity Seed differing in their ability to conduct electrical charge can be
separated with electronic separator.
8. Affinity to liquid The seed coat of seed will absorb water, oils etc., which provides a
means of separating seed on the magnetic separator.
The flow charts illustrating the types of materials removed from harvested produce during
processing.

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Processing equipment used for improving the quality of the seed

From harvest upto final stage of seed storage, the seeds are to pass through various seed
processing equipment depending upon the speciality and specificity. But some equipment
like driers and seed cleaner cum graders are common for all types of seed. The processing
machineries and equipment used in the seed handling are as hereunder.
S.No. Processing Usage with reference to specific seed management

equipments
A. Threshing with extraction equipments
1. Thresher Thresher
2 Ginning machine To separate the lint and seed from kapas in cotton
3 Maize sheller To shell the seed from the cobs
4 Pulse thresher To remove seed from the pods
5 Tomato seed To extract tomato seed from fruit without wasting the pulp
extractor
6 Chilli seed extractor For easy removal of seed from chilli fruits
7 For easy removal To shell the kernel (seed from the pods
of seed from chilli
fruits
8 Sunflower thresher For removal of seeds from the head
9 Debearder Debearder

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10 Mechanical To scarify the hard seed mechanically to improve the

scarifier germination of seeds
11 Pebble mill To remove webby hairs from grasses
12 Timothy bumper To remove weed seed from timothy seed
mill
13 Hammer mill To remove the hook or appendages from the seeds (i.e.
Stylosanthus)
B. Driers To reduce the moisture content to lower or needed level for
safe handling both for processing and for storage at the final
stage
C Grading
equipments
14 Cleaner cum This homogenize the precleaned seed based on size and is
grader known as basic grading in seeds. The sieve sizes
requirement vary with crop
15 Precleaner and This remove the inert material and dust particles from seed
aspirator and improve the grading efficiency
D. Upgrading
machines
16 Specific gravity Improve the quality of graded seed further using its weight
separator or specific gravity. Heavier seeds are good storers and
expresses maximum field establishment
17 Indent cylinder In lengthier seeds it maintains the size of seed (breadth and
length). The broken / damaged are removed and good
seeds are selected
18 Disc separator It is for removal of weed seeds and to improve the general
appearance of seed
19 Roll mill To separate smooth seed from rough seed based on the
surface texture especially the weed seed
20 Magnetic separator Removal of weed seed from clovers, alfalfa, trefoils and
vetch
21 Inclined draper Separation of smooth or round seeds from rough, flat or
elongated seeds
22 Electronic colour Separation of off-coloured seed
sorter
23 Electrostatic Based on electrical properties removes Johnson grass from
separator sesamum seeds (Specific utility)
24 Spiral separator Separation of seeds based on shape (eg.) separation of
rape, vetch and soybean seed form wheat, oat or rye grass
25 Polishers To improve the luster of seed
26 Picker belts To remove undesirable ears / pods from shelled seeds (eg.)
Groundnut, Corn
27 Vibratory separator Removal of weed seed
28 Seed treater To treat the seed with fungicide and pesticide
29 Seed packing To easier the work and to avoid human error of mixing
machine
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30 Conveyors / Easier the transfer of seed from machine to machine and

Elevators (Belt , avoids the contamination of seed at various level.
Bucket)
Though all the machines are highly useful in improving the seed quality, specific machines
are utilized for specific crop. The sequential usage of machineries varies with crop seeds
(Gregg, 1967).
References:
R. Abarna Thooyavathy, K. Perumal, V. Suresh and K. Vijayalakshmi (2013). Seed

Production Techniques for Vegetables
Southeastern U. S. Vegetable Crop Handbook (2019). Page 55.

https://content. ces. ncsu. edu/southeastern-us-vegetable-crop-handbook
https://www.krishisewa.com/articles/disease-management/233-okra-ipm
FAO. (2020). Crop production manual journal. ISBN 978-92-5-132128-7
Seed Drying, Processing and Handling accessed @

https://annamalaiuniversity.ac.in/studport/download/agri/gen/resources/GPB
%20329%20PRINCIPLES%20OF%20SEED%20PRODUCTION,%20SEED%20QUALITY
%20REGULATION%20AND%20STORAGE.pdf

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LESSON 6
WEEK 17
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF SEED TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROL
I. Learning Objectives
a. Discuss seed quality control
b. Enumerate the process for seed certification.
c. Discuss seed regulation
d. Describe the role of seed testing laboratory.
II. Readings
SEED TESTING FOR QUALITY ASSESMENT
Importance of Seed Testing
1. Seed testing has been developed to aid agriculture to avoid some of the hazards of crop
production by furnishing the needed information about different quality attributes viz., purity,
moisture, germination, vigour and health.
2. Quality control of seed depends on the different seed testing protocols which determine
the genuine of cultivar.
3. Testing of seed evaluate the planting value and the authenticity of the certified lot.
4. Seed testing is required to assess the seed quality attributes of the seed lots which have
to be offered for sale.
5. The testing of seed quality is carried out on seed samples drawn from seed lot to be used
for cultivation. The quantity of seed sample taken for testing in laboratory is minute
compared to that of seed lot it represent.
Role of Seed Testing Laboratories
Seed testing laboratories are essential organization in seed certification and seed quality
control programs. The main objective is to serve the producer, the consumer and the seed
industry by providing information on seed quality. Test results may cause rejection of seed
lots or further multiplication or low grade seed in a count of law.

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Analysis of Seed in the Laboratory

Seed testing is highly specialized and technical job. With a view to maintain uniformity in
quality control the Seed Analysts laboratory includes for distinct sections.
i. Section for seed purity testing: Purity analysis of seed lot is considered under two factors.
 Testing the cleanliness of seed lot and
 Testing the genuineness of the cultivar
ii. Section for moisture testing
iii. Section for viability , germination and Section for vigour testing
1. Seed Sampling
2. Physical Purity Test
3. Germination Test
4. Viability Test
5. Moisture Content
Determination of seed moisture content
Seed moisture is one of the most important deciding factors of seed viability and quality
during storage. Hence, determination of seed moisture content and drying to the safe
moisture content is utmost important before transit and storage. According to ISTA (1985),
moisture content of the sample is defined as that loss of weight when it is dried in
accordance with the rules or the amount of water collected when it is distilled. It is
expressed as percentage of the original weight of sample (wet basis).

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M2 -M3
Moisture Content (%) = ________ X 100
M2 – M1
Where:
M1= Weight of the empty container and cover
M2 = Weight of container with seed before drying
M3 = Weight of container with seed after drying
In the event of moisture estimation by stage drying, the percentage moisture content is
calculated using the following formula:
Moisture content (%) = S1 + S2 - (S1 x S2 / 100)
Where, S1 = Moisture loss in first stage of drying
S2 = Moist loss in second stage of drying
Seed Analysis Labels

Analysis label information is very useful to purchasers. Let us examine each statement and
see how it can help in buying seed.
Lot Number: This number allows the seed producer to identify a specific lot from which the
seed was taken in case of performance problems. The term lot means a definite quantity of
seed, identified by a lot number or other identification, that is uniform throughout for the
factors that appear on the label.
Net Weight: The weight given is that of the contents without the container.
Kind and Variety: The kind of crop refers to the species (for example, wheat, cotton, and
tobacco) and is always given on the seed label. The variety may or may not be stated.
Under this definition, a hybrid name is acceptable as a variety name. If the variety is not
given, the seed tag normally has the statement, “Variety not stated.” When two or more
components are named, the word “mixture” or “mixed” must appear on the label.
Origin: This label entry identifies the state or country in which the seed was grown. If the
origin is unknown, a statement “origin unknown” must appear on the label.
Pure Seed: This number tells what percentage of the total weight consists of seed of the
kind and variety stated. If more than one kind or variety is named, the pure seed percentage
of each component must be given. Generally, farmers choose seed with a high pure seed
percentage (98 percent or more) and of one kind and variety.
Inert Matter: This number indicates the percentage of extraneous material such as dirt,
stems, leaves, and seed parts in the seed lot. Inert matter reduces the value of seed. It is
best to choose seed with less than 2 percent inert matter. The standards for certification and
state seed law requirements for labeling differ for some crop species. An inert matter
percentage is not required for cotton, peanut, or tobacco seed in North Carolina.

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Other Crop Seed: This number indicates the percentage of the total weight made up of
seed from a crop other than the kind and variety listed. In the field, other crop plants, such
as corn in soybeans, may be as troublesome as weedy plants. High-quality seed should
contain no seed from other crops or only a low percentage.
Weed Seed: The presence of weed seed is expressed as a percentage of total weight. This
classification includes seed, bulblets, or tubers of plants recognized as common weeds by
official regulations or by general agreement. High-quality seed should contain only a very
low percentage or no weed seed.
Germination: The percentage of pure seed that germinates in a standard germination test
is printed on the analysis label. This percentage is based on the number of seeds that
produced normal seedlings during the test. A normal seedling is one that has the essential
seed structures necessary for plant survival. Germination percentage is based on pure seed
and not on the total contents of the bag. If more than one kind and variety is named, the
germination percentage must be shown for each kind and variety. Choose seed that is high
in germination (80 percent or more).
Hard Seed: This number indicates the percentage of seed that remains hard during the
germination test. It is assumed that most hard seed will germinate, but that is not
necessarily the case. Hard seededness is a characteristic of certain species (especially
legumes) and is caused by water-impermeable seed coats. Where hard seeds are present,
total germination percentages are customarily determined by combining germination and
hard seed percentages.
Test Date: This date reveals the month and year in which the germination test was
completed. The law requires that the germination test be made within nine months (not
counting the month of the test) of the date the seed is offered for sale. For vegetable seed in
hermetically sealed containers, tests are required every 24 months, not counting the month
tested. Be sure to purchase seed with a current germination test date.
The law also requires the individual or company owning the seed to maintain a current
germination test date. Therefore, dealers with carryover seed should have their seed
retested and relabeled before the test date expires.
Noxious Weed Seed: Noxious weeds are plants that are extremely difficult to control with
normal cultural practices. A noxious weed seed list has been established by the North
Carolina Board of Agriculture. The name and number of restricted noxious weed seeds,
bulblets, or tubers per pound of crop seed must be printed on the seed label.
In North Carolina, the noxious weed seed list includes prohibited and restricted noxious
weeds. Seed containing any seed or tubers of prohibited noxious weed seed cannot legally
be sold in the state. Restricted noxious weed seeds are permitted in crop seed, but the
number of weed seed permitted per pound of crop seed is limited. Noxious weed seed and
their limitations in crop seed are listed in Table 3. High-quality seed contains no noxious
weed seed.
Seedsman or Vendor: The name and address of the person or company labeling the seed
are given on the seed label. They are responsible for the accuracy of the label’s information.

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Treated Seed: All seed that is treated with chemicals must be labeled to show the chemical
used. Either “Caution,” “Poison,” or “Poison Treated” must be written on the label,
depending on the harmfulness of the seed treatment to humans. The statement “Do not use
for food, feed, or oil purposes” is printed on labels for treated seed (Figure 12). Chemically
treated seed is also required by law to be dyed a bright color.
*The seed label serves as a means of communication between the buyer and seller
Agency in the Philippines mandated for Seed Quality Control

The National Seed Quality Control Services Division (NSQCSD), as mandated by the
Seed Industry Act of 1992 (Republic Act 7308), supports the major thrusts of the
Department of Agriculture and the Bureau of Plant Industry through the provision of quality
assurance and control services for seed and planting material production, processing,
storage and distribution, seed research and seed training in seed quality control towards
sustainable agriculture and environmental protection.
The BPI-NSQCSD has stations spread across the country in the spirit of greater
accessibility of the Bureau's services relevant to the agency's efforts to uphold availability of
quality seeds.
Seed Certification Section
 Accreditation of seed growers to produce various seed crops

 Field inspection – inspection of the field by authorized seed inspectors at least three
times per cropping season as per standards established such as isolation
requirements, presence of off types, admixtures and weeds and incidences of seed-
borne diseases and pests, among others.
 Seed sampling – drawing of a quantity of seed from seed lot in accordance with the
International Rules of Seed Testing or as prescribed by NSIC.

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 Seed Testing – accurate and prompt analysis of seed sample to determine the
planting value of seed based on the methodologies prescribed by the ISTA.
 Tagging – after all field and laboratory standards are met, seed lots are then issued
certification tags. Different seed classes are issued different colors: white-breeder
seeds; red-foundation seeds; green-registered seeds; and blue-certified seeds.
 Inspection of seed warehouses, processing plants and seed producers/dealers‘
distribution centers and production areas.
 Pre and post control test-investigation of growing cultivars and the occurrence of
certain seed-borne diseases grown on field plots. It needs familiarity of well-trained
staff with the characteristics of the variety.
Seed Testing Section - samples for different quality attributes in planting value such as
germination, purity, varietal purity, moisture content, seed health, vigor, mechanical injury
and other attributes are tested in accordance with the International Rules for Seed Testing
(ISTA) or as prescribed NSIC. The following crops require seed testing:
 Agricultural Seed and Vegetable Seed Tree

 Shrub Seed Flower
 Spice, Herb and Medicinal Species
Plant Material Certification Section - aims to produce and distribute high quality planting
materials of superior crop varieties of known genetic and varietal purity including freedom
from the seed-borne systemic diseases.
Reference
Seed testing for Quality Assessment access @
http://jnkvv.org/PDF/0904202021015820.SEED%20TESTING%20FOR%20QUALITY
%20ASSESMENT.pdf
Seed and Seed Quality access @ https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/seed-and-seed-quality
National Seed Quality Control Services Division (NSQCSD) functions accessed @
https://www.buplant.da.gov.ph/index.php/bpi-office-divisions/2021-01-11-00-31-49/national-
seed-quality-control-services

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Factors for Flower induction and Flower Initiation

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Shoot vigor & orientation

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

Complications and types of fruits

SEED FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

Size and seed set

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

The Seed Chemistry

Most of our knowledge of the chemical composition of seeds concerns cultivated

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

Conditions Necessary for Seed Germination

Temperature- For a seed to germinate, it requires a moderate temperature of around 25-

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

Factors Affecting Seed Germination

1. Water: The poor or additional supply of water affects seed germination.

During seed dormancy:

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Seeds and Seedling Vigor

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

The basic objective of seed vigor testing is to provide a precise identification of

Methods of measuring seed vigor

Figure: Factors for Loss of Germinability

A. COLD TEST (CT)

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

transferred to a favorable temperature for germination (e.g., 25°C/77°F in case of sweet

a. Tray Cold Test – ISU Procedure

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

 Finely sifted soil is added, tray returned to cart in 10oC overnight.

Accelerated Aging – Soybean Procedure

 Add 40 mL water to acrylic boxes.

 Place screen into box(es).

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

 Add appropriate amount of seed (42g for soybeans).

 Use two boxes containing 40g for large-seeded samples.

 For some species a single layer can be used (corn, soybeans)

 Add water to pan at bottom of chamber.

Plant seed within 30 minutes. Cover seeds with moist sand*.

Gently press seeds down Place in 25oC with light.

*Option: Rolled towels

Accelerated Aging – Considerations

Worktext in Agri 312- Post-Harvest Handling and Seed Technology

• AA chamber temperature should not vary more than 0.3 oC