Internship Report Jayant

INTERNSHIP REPORT
Master of Arts (Psychology)

(MPCE- 025)
Submitted by
Name: JAYANT BABANRAO AMTE

IInd year
Enrolment No.: 168870919
Regional Centre: 16 : PUNE
Study Centre: 1639 : BALBHIM COLLEGE BEED
Name of the organization where internship was carried out: Psychoshiksha
Discipline of Psychology
School of Social Sciences (SOSS)
Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU)
Maidan Garhi, New Delhi – 110068
Table of Contents
Sl. No. Contents Page No.

1. Approval email from discipline of psychology 1
2. Information to Academic Counsellor before starting the Internship 1
3. Certificate of completion of Internship 1
4. Appendix I (Declaration) 2
5. Appendix III (Consent Letter- Agency Supervisor) 3
6. Appendix VIII (Certificate) 4
7. Appendix V (Evaluation sheet- Agency Supervisor) 5
8. Appendix VI (Evaluation sheet- Academic Counsellor) 6
9. Profile of the Organization 7
10. Day 1- Orientation of the Program and Introduction to Counselling 12
11. Day 2- Scope of Counselling Psychology 13
12. Day 3- Essentials in Counselling 14
13. Day 4- Approaches to Counselling 16
14. Day 5- Gestalt and Humanistic Therapy 21
15. Day 6- Process of Counselling 25
16. Day 7- Types of Therapy 26
17. Day 8- Counselling Skills 29
18. Day 9- Case History 32
19. Day 10- Mental Status Examination 34
20. Day 11- Basic Helper Model and Barefoot Counselling 38
21. Day 12- Egan’s Model 39
22. Case History-1 42
23. Day 13- Solution Focused Brief Therapy 44
24. Case History- 2 48
27. Day 14- Self-Awareness 55
28. Day 15- SWOT Analysis 63
29. Day 16- Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy 64
30. Day 17- Techniques of REBT 68
33. Day 18- Counsellor Burnout 78
34. Day 19- Progressive Muscle Relaxation and Mindfulness 81
36. Day 20- Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 86
37. Day 21- Model of CBT 89
38. Day 22- Identifying and changing thoughts in CBT 90
39. Day 23- Techniques of CBT 92
43. Day 24- Introduction to School Counselling 103
44. Day 25- Role of School Counsellor 107
45. Day 26- Methods of School Counselling 111
46. Day 27- Life Skills 114
47. Day 28- Introduction to Research 116
48. Day 29- Writing a Research Report in APA format 122
49. Day 30- Ethics in Counselling 124
1
Approval email for online Internship (from Discipline of Psychology):
Information to Academic Counsellor before starting the Internship:

I inform to academic councellor by mobile conversation dt. 18/3/21
NAME: JAYANT BABANRAO AMTE
E-mail: amtejayant@gmail.com
Contact No. 9404020457
Certificate of completion of Internship:

2
APPENDIX-I
DECLARATION
I Mr. Jayant Babanrao Amte hereby declare that I am a Learner of M.A. Psychology (Part II),
Jane. 2020 year, at the Study Centre Code 1639 Regional Centre 16 : Pune and I want to do my
Internship (MPCE-025) at Psychoshiksha on my own free will. I will adhere to the standards of
the organization and display professionalism during my internship.
Signature of the Learner:

Name of the Learner: Jayant Amte
Enrollment No.: 168870919
Date:
Place:
3
APPENDIX-III
CONSENT LETTER (Agency Supervisor)
This is to certify that the internship in MPCE- 025 for the partial fulfillment of MAPC
Programme of IGNOU will be carried out by Mr. Jayant Babanrao Amte Enrollment No.
168870919, under my supervision.
(Signature)
Name of the Agency Supervisor: Mridhula.A

Designation: Supervisor
Address: Psychoshiksha
Date:
4
APPENDIX-VIII CERTIFICATE
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. Jayant Amte of MA Psychology Second Year (MAPC Programme) has
conducted and successfully completed the Internship in MPCE 025 in the organization-
Psychoshiksha
Name: Jayant Amte
Name of the Study Centre: Balbhim college Beed
Regional Centre: 16 : Pune
Place:
Date:
Name:
Designation:
Place:
Date:
Signature of Agency Supervisor

Name: Mridhula
Designation: Supervisor
Name of the Organization: Psychoshiksha
Address: Patiala, Punjab
Place:
Date:
5
APPENDIX-V
EVALUATION SCHEME FOR INTERNSHIP— (AGENCY SUPERVISOR)
Name of the Programme: MAPC

Course Code: MPCE-025
Study Centre: 1639
Regional Centre: Balbhim College Beed
Internal Marks by Agency Supervisor

Details Maximum Marks Marks Obtained
Sincerity and professional competence 10 09
Assessment (Case history, Mental Status 15 14

Examination, Interview, Psychological Testing
etc.)
Overall interaction with patients, clients & 5 04

employees and handling of cases
Total Marks 30 27
Comments, if any: JAYANT BABANRAO AMTE has completed the internship with
sincerity.
Signature
Name of Agency Supervisor: Mridhula
Date:
6
APPENDIX-VI
EVALUATION SCHEME FOR INTERNSHIP- (ACADEMIC COUNSELLOR)
Name of the Programme: MAPC

Course Code: MPCE-025
Study Centre: 1639
Regional Centre: Pune
Internal Marks by Academic Counsellor

Details Maximum Marks Marks Obtained
Report 20
Provisional diagnosis and 5
Planning of Intervention
Overall understanding of 5
cases
Total Marks 30
Comments, if any:
Signature
Name of Academic Counsellor: SUHAS JOSHI
Date:
7
Profile of the Organization:

Psychoshiksha is a registered & ISO Certified Organization which provides a platform to the
psychology aspirants to learn and enhance their skills.
The organization works under the supervision of Dr. Shaina Kapoor. She is M.A in Psychology,
Ph.D. in Psychology, UGC NET Psychology Qualified. Since 2013 she has been working in the
field of Child Psychology. Providing counselling services to children, parents going through
marital discords, childless parents. She has been working extensively in the areas of child rights,
eradicating child labor & child beggary etc.
Mrs. Anu Kapoor, a passionate graphologist, the current director of Psychoshiksha and Dr.
Shaina Kapoor’s mother stepped up in managing the institution with full enthusiasm.
The organization consists of a team of psychologists specializing in various fields of Psychology
like Counselling, Clinical, Organizational, Applied psychology, Psychotherapy, Drug
dependency, Forensic & Positive Psychology etc. It has been rendering its services under the
supervision of RCI licensed & eminent psychologists.
They provide assessment and early intervention for learning disabilities & other Psychological
problems. They are specialized in IQ testing, aptitude testing, educational testing and career
counselling.
Psychoshiksha, registered under state law, an ISO and MSME certified organization, provides
various courses through online and offline mode. The range of courses vary from coaching for
UGC NET JRF, M.Phil. in Clinical psychology and PhD entrances for psychology, coaching for
school students starting from class 11th and 12th, graduate and master level and regular
interactive workshops, webinars, short term courses, crash courses and internship programs in
various sub-fields of psychology.
Website link: https://www.psychoshiksha.com/

Structure/ Format of the Internship:
Week 1
📌Introduction to Counselling
📌Scope of Counselling Psychology
📌Essentials in Counselling
📌Approaches to Counselling
Psychodynamic approach
Behavioural approach
Gestalt approach
8
Humanistic approach
📌Process of Counselling
Stages in Counselling
Transference
Counter transference
How to manage Transference and Counter transference
📌Case History taking

Counselling Case History
Clinical case history
📌Mental status Examination

Importance
Application
Week 2
📌 Basic Helper Model

Bare Foot counselling
📌Eagan's Model
Being with Client &
Moving with the Client,
Goal setting with the client
📌Solution Focused Brief Therapy

History of SFBT & its
Applications
📌Techniques in SFBT
📌Case Study Discussion
📌Self awareness
To be Counsellor
SWOT analysis
9
Week3
📌Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy

History
Applications
Theory of change
📌REBT MODEL
ABC MODEL
ABCDE MODEL of REBT
📌Techniques in REBT
Cognitive Techniques
Emotional Techniques
Behavioural Techniques
📌Case Study Discussion
📌Counsellor Burnout
Concept of Burnout
Identifying burnout
Dealing with Burnout
Week 4
📌Cognitive Behaviour therapy

History
Principles of CBT
Elements if CBT
Structure of therapy session
Session Protocol
📌CBT MODEL
Case formulation
Dysfunctional Thought Record
10
Identifying Automatic thoughts and core beliefs

Changing the thought pattern
📌Techniques and Types of CBT

Socratic questioning
Cognitive Rehearsal
Validity testing
Journaling
Guided discovery
📌Case study Discussions

Overview of School Counselling
Childhood difficulties to disorders
Role of a school counsellor
Challenges faced
Scope of a school counsellor
An integrated model of school counselling
Working with Parents, Teachers and Management
Group therapy
📌 Life skills and Module Preparation

Importance of Life skills
Types of Life skills
Module preparation
📌Overview of Research Methodology

Qualitative research
Quantitative research
Research Process
Data collection Methods
Writing a research report
APA Format
11
Add on:
📌Presentation of case study
📌One on one - verbatim submission
📌Any 3 pass out test

Time duration:
30 days (2 hours online session and 1 hours of home based learning – Assignments, worksheets,
activities etc.)
Total hours- 90 hours
*Starting of course:* 05th April 2021*
DETAILS OF SUPERVISOR
Mridhula.A, Msc,M.Phil in Applied Psychology Best award for research study on international
conference.
Heading Her Private Counselling Practice in Chennai for 3 years
School Counsellor in reputed Residential school
Psychologist At Oxymed hospital.
Trained in Montessori, CBT, SFBT, NLP and Art therapy.
12
ACTIVITY REPORT
DAY 1
Date: 05/04/2021
Time: 6:00 PM to 8:00 PM
Venue: Zoom meeting
Name of the Host: Ms. Mridhula. A
Topic: Orientation of the program and Introduction to Counselling.
Activity Report:
The agency supervisor Ms. Mridhula, introduced herself and also told about her psychological
background and her career background. The supervisor then asked the students to introduced
themselves in a fun manner. We were supposed to say a positive word beginning from the first
letter of our name. I introduced myself as ‘Joyful Jayant.’ We were also asked about our
educational & professional background, our city and also to provide details on the expectations
that we have from this internship. This was a great start to the first session. After this we started
with the topic of the day.
We learnt that counselling is a type of talking therapy that allows a person to talk about their
problems and feelings in a confidential and dependable environment. A counsellor is trained to
listen with empathy. They can help to deal with any negative thoughts and feelings of the clients.
Sometimes the term "counselling" is used to refer to talking therapies in general, but counselling
is also a type of therapy in its own right. Counselling aims to help deal with and overcome issues
that are causing emotional pain or making one feel uncomfortable. It can provide a safe and regular
space for one to talk and explore difficult feelings. The counsellor is there to support one and
respect their views. They won't usually give advice, but will help one find their own insights into
and understanding of their problems.
• Counselling can help one:
• cope with a bereavement or relationship breakdown
• cope with redundancy or work-related stress
• explore issues such as sexual identity
• deal with issues preventing one achieving their ambitions
• deal with feelings of depression or sadness, and have a more positive outlook on life
• deal with feelings of anxiety, helping one worry less about things
• understand yourself and their problems better
• feel more confident
• develop a better understanding of other people's points of view
13
Counselling can often involve talking about difficult or painful feelings and, as one begins to face
them, one may feel worse in some ways. However, with the help and support of their therapist,
one should gradually start to feel better. In most cases, it takes a number of sessions before the
counselling starts to make a difference, and a regular commitment is required to make the best use
of the therapy.
What to expect from counselling: During their counselling sessions, clients be encouraged to
express their feelings and emotions. By discussing their concerns with the counsellor, they can
help one gain a better understanding of their feelings and thought processes, as well as identifying
ways of finding their own solutions to problems. It can be a great relief to share their worries and
fears with someone who acknowledges their feelings and is able to help one reach a positive
solution.
Counselling can take place: face to face, individually or in a group, over the phone, by email, using
a specialised computer programme. Counselling can be offered as a single session, as a short
course of sessions over a few weeks or months, or as a longer course that lasts for several months
or years. A good counsellor will focus on the client and listen without judging or criticising one.
They may help one find out about how one could deal with their problems, but they shouldn't tell
one what to do. For counselling to be effective, there should be a trusting and safe relationship
with the client.
As counselling involves talking about sensitive issues and revealing personal thoughts and
feelings, their counsellor should be experienced and professionally qualified. Different healthcare
professionals may be trained in counselling or qualified to provide psychological therapies. These
include:
• counsellors ‐ trained to provide counselling to help one cope better with their life and any
issues the clients have
• clinical and counselling psychologists ‐ healthcare professionals who specialise in
assessing and treating mental health conditions using evidence-based psychological
therapies
• psychiatrists ‐ qualified medical doctors who've received further training in diagnosing and
treating mental health conditions
• psychotherapists ‐ similar to counsellors, but they've usually received more extensive
training; they're also often qualified applied psychologists or psychiatrists
• cognitive behavioural psychotherapists‐ may come from a variety of professional
backgrounds and have received training in cognitive behaviour therapy; they should be
registered and accredited with the Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI).
DAY 2
Date: 06/04/2021
14
Venue: Zoom meeting

Topic: Scope of Counselling.
Activity Report:
We were guided on how in a country like India there is a dearth of mental health professionals like
counsellors, and clinical psychologists. There is a rising epidemic of mental health problems, and
disorders. So, there is indeed a need. The scope for counsellors/ counselling psychologists are in
schools, work places, mediating family problems, stress management, mental health units. The
scopes for clinical psychologists are in private practice and hospitals. There is always the added
scope of research and/or teaching in some college/university. Both may also work in NGOs’,
government projects, programs to aid community mental health and in building awareness amongst
the general public. Currently the scope is better abroad than in our country, but the trend is slowly
changing. According to recent studies, mental health disorders account for nearly a sixth of all
health-related disorders. Yet we have just 0.4 psychiatrists and 0.02 psychologists per 100,000
people, and 0.25 mental health beds per 10,000 populations.
But the felt need is not on par with the actual statistics. This is predominantly because of stigma.
Stigma is when a lack of awareness, leads to misinterpretations, in this case with respect to mental
health. People still think mental health problems are because one may be weak, a poor personality
or due to bad luck, a curse etc. and everyone knows how the society avoids these people and topics.
Due to fear, people often keep their problems a secret, and unfortunately this is contra indicative,
which means, it only worsens the problem. But things are changing; people are getting more and
more aware as the days pass, so hopefully the felt need increases and people enjoy these services.
Secondly there are poor legislations with regard to the Indian government. In developed countries,
one need a license to offer psychology courses and finally to practice. However, there aren’t any
hard and fast rules in India. Due to the same, two things happen. First of all, the laymen/regular
people do not know who to consult when they have a problem. Secondly, there are many people
who do a short term, long distance course in some psychology paper, and they end up starting their
own practice. Owing to their lack of proper training and experience, they end up doing a poor job,
(health problems increase than decrease) thus propagating the idea that this field is a sham
(useless). This ensures that the felt need never increases, rather decreases.
There are 5 key barriers to increasing mental health services availability: the absence of mental
health from the public health agenda and the implications for funding; the current organization of
mental health services; lack of integration within primary care; inadequate human resources for
mental health; and lack of public mental health leadership. Thus, there is a lot of scope for work
indeed, but it isn’t frankly going to be easy.
DAY 3
Date: 07/04/2021
15
Venue: Zoom meeting

Topic: Essentials of Counselling.
Activity Report:
We studied how counselling is helpful for the clients, especially students:
1. To give the student information on matters important to his adjustment and growth;
2. To get information about the student which will be of help to him in solving his problems;
3. To establish a feeling of mutual understanding between pupil and teacher;
4. To help the pupil work out a plan for solving his difficulties;
5. To help the pupil know himself better, his interests, abilities, aptitudes and available
opportunities;
6. To encourage special talents and develop right attitudes;
7. To inspire successful endeavor toward he attainment or realization of objectives;
8. To assist the pupil in planning for his educational and vocational choices – formulating plans
for vocations, making surveys of employment opportunities, administering vocational or aptitude
test, gathering cumulative occupational information, following-up pupils for placement and
sponsoring convocations, programs, and career day seminars.
Essential Elements of Counselling Process:

1. Anticipating the interview. 2. Developing a positive working relationship.
3. Exploring feelings and attitudes 4. Reviewing and determining present status.
5. Considering existing problems. 6. Exploring alternatives.
7. Making decision. 8. Post counselling.
Characteristics of Counselling: Counselling involves two individuals - one seeking help and the
other, a professionally trained person, who can help the first. There should be a relationship of
mutual respect between the two. The counsellor should be friendly and cooperative and the
counselee should have trust and confidence in the counsellor. The aim of counselling is to help a
student form a decision, make a choice or seek direction. It helps a counselee to acquire
independence and develop a sense of responsibility, explore and utilize his potentialities. It is more
than advice giving. The progress comes through the thinking that a person with a problem does for
himself rather than through solutions offered by the counsellor.
Functions of Counselling: Like guidance, counselling has also three fold functions adjust mental,
oriental and developmental. Adjustmental Functions: Rapid social change brought about by
industrialization and urbanization has led to several perplexing problems. The pace of this change
is ever on the increase, thus making adjustment a continuous process of grappling way with new
situations. Counselling helps the student in making the best possible adjustment to the current
situations be it in educational institution, occupational world, in the home & in the community
Oriental function: Oriental function means to orient the person about his environmental constraints
& resources and her personal constraints & resources by giving information and awareness in
16
problems of career planning, educational programming etc. Awareness of the need to plan in the
context of the complexity of the world of work is an essential pre-requisite of going through
education and preparation for after education. So oriental function is the important function in the
counselling process. It is a link between adjustment and development function. Developmental
function: Developmental function means not only to help the students having problems but also to
help the students before the problems arise.
Principles of Counselling: The counsellor should follow the above principles while counselling to
make the process of counselling effective. It is not an easy task. To make the process successful
the counsellor should also follow certain principles in his own self to develop his skills. He should
follow the principles as given below during counselling.
Warmth: The Counsellor should communicate personal warmth and make the client feel welcome
valued as individuals.
Acceptance: The Counsellor should accept the person & his feelings for what he is without
criticizing him. He should also accept the person irrespective of age, race, sex, etc.
Genuineness: The counsellor should be very honest with himself and with client he should be very
open, friendly and undefensive.
Empathy: Instead of showing sympathy to the person having problem, the counsellor should show
empathy, which means to sense the feelings and experience of another person. In order to make
good relationship the above qualities should be acquired by a counsellor. He should imbibe these
qualities to follow the principles of counselling properly
DAY 4
Date: 08/04/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Approaches to Counselling.
Activity Report:
A counsellor’s approach is a reflection of their training and coaching philosophy. For example, a
therapist trained in behaviourism will view a client’s behaviour as a function of reward and
punishment systems. Behavioural counsellors primarily focus on how behaviour is impacted by
environmental factors, as opposed to thoughts or unconscious motivations. Counselling
approaches and coaching styles also are differentiated by how therapists interact with clients. For
example, client-centered counsellors tend to focus on a client’s innate goodness and use a
nondirective style of interaction. Generally speaking, counselling approaches are guided by theory
and research, both of which inform the method of practice.
17
Psychodynamic theory (sometimes called psychoanalytic theory) explains personality in terms of

unconscious psychological processes (for example, wishes and fears of which we’re not fully
aware), and contends that childhood experiences are crucial in shaping adult personality.
Psychodynamic theory is most closely associated with the work of Sigmund Freud, and with
psychoanalysis, a type of psychotherapy that attempts to explore the patient’s unconscious
thoughts and emotions so that the person is better able to understand him- or herself.
Core Assumptions of the Psychodynamic Perspective:
Assumption 1: Primacy of the Unconscious: Psychodynamic theorists contend that the majority of
psychological processes take place outside conscious awareness. In psychoanalytic terms, the
activities of the mind (or psyche) are presumed to be largely unconscious. Research confirms this
basic premise of psychoanalysis: Many of our mental activities—memories, motives, feelings, and
the like—are largely inaccessible to consciousness.
Assumption 2: Critical Importance of Early Experiences: Psychodynamic theory is not alone in
positing that early childhood events play a role in shaping personality, but the theory is unique in
the degree to which it emphasizes these events as determinants of personality development and
dynamics. According to the psychodynamic model, early experiences—including those occurring
during the first weeks or months of life—set in motion personality processes that affect us years,
even decades, later. This is especially true of experiences that are outside the normal range (for
example, losing a parent or sibling at a very early age).
Assumption 3: Psychic Causality: Our every thought and behaviour, even something as seemingly
random as which seat one chooses on the bus, results from biological or psychological influences.
The third core assumption of psychodynamic theory is that nothing in mental life happens by
chance—that there is no such thing as a random thought, feeling, motive, or behaviour. This has
come to be known as the principle of psychic causality, and though few psychologists accept the
principle of psychic causality precisely as psychoanalysts conceive it, most theorists and
researchers agree that thoughts, motives, emotional responses, and expressed behaviours do not
arise randomly, but always stem from some combination of identifiable biological and
psychological processes.
Techniques: DREAM ANALYSIS
Freud felt that dreams were a pathway to the unconscious mind. He believed that through the
analysis of dreams, we can gain some insight into a person's motivations and wishes. He analyzed
both manifest content (or what people remember about their dreams) and latent content (the
symbolic meaning of the dreams). Dream analysis process of assigning meaning to dreams.
Dreams are unconscious fulfilment of wishes that could not be satisfied in the conscious mind.
Dreams protect sleeper (primary-process thought), but allow some expression to these buried urges
(wish fulfilment). Contents of dreams expressed symbolically. It is thought that dream analysis
causes change by helping a person to become more connected to their unconscious.
TRANSFERENCE ANALYSIS
18
In a therapy context, transference refers to redirection of a patient's feelings for a significant person
to the therapist. Countertransference is defined as redirection of a therapist's feelings toward a
patient, or more generally, as a therapist's emotional entanglement with a patient. In psychoanalytic
theory, transference occurs when a client projects feelings about someone else, particularly
someone encountered in childhood, onto her therapist. Frequently spoken about in reference to the
therapeutic relationship, the classic example of sexual transference is falling in love with one’s
therapist. However, you might also transfer feelings such as rage, anger, distrust, or dependence.
There are two types of transference Positive & Negative.
FREE ASSOCIATION
Free association involves exploring a person's unconscious through spontaneous word association.
Clients are encouraged to say whatever comes to mind when the therapist presents them with a
word, no matter how trivial, illogical, or irrelevant the response may seem. It is the therapist's job
to interpret the responses as patterns in the associations that are identified. Free association is the
expression of the content of consciousness without censorship as an aid in gaining access to
unconscious processes. We were given an activity of associating different words to whatever
comes to our mind first.
RESISTANCE ANALYSIS
Resistance is both a trait that some people have more than others and an emotional state that can
happen during therapy. Resistance in psychology refers to any opposition to the therapeutic
process. It is anything that works against the progress of therapy and prevents the patient from
accessing unconscious material. During free association, a patient may show an unwillingness to
relate to certain thoughts or experiences. Freud views resistance as an unconscious process that
people use to protect themselves against intolerable anxiety and pain that might result if they
became aware of the repressed feelings.
Behavioural Approach
The term behaviour modification and behaviour therapy are often used interchangeably, but they
have slightly different meanings. Behaviour modification is an approach to assessment, evaluation,
and behaviour change that focuses on the development of adaptive, pro-social behaviours and the
decrease of maladaptive behaviour in daily living. Behaviour modification is used by therapists
and paraprofessional workers to help individuals improve some aspect of daily life. Behaviour
therapy is a clinical approach that can be used to treat a variety of disorders, in various types of
settings, and with a wide range of special population groups. The behavioural approach had its
origin in the 1950s and early 1960s and it was a radical departure from the dominant
psychoanalytic perspective. Contemporary behaviour therapy arose simultaneously in the U.S.,
South Africa, and Great Britain in the 1950s. In spite of harsh criticism and resistance from
traditional psychotherapists, the approach survived. Its focus was on demonstrating that
behavioural conditioning techniques were effective and were a viable alternative to traditional
psychotherapy. In the 1960s, Albert Bandura developed social learning theory, which combined
classical and operant conditioning with observational learning. It was during the 1970s that
behaviour therapy emerged as a major force in psychology and made a significant impact on
19
education, psychology, psychotherapy, psychiatry, and social work. Two significant developments
in the field were (1) the continued emergence of cognitive behaviour therapy as a major force (2)
the application of behavioural techniques to the prevention and treatment of medical disorders.
Behaviour therapy is marked by a diversity of views and procedures but all practitioners focus on
observable behaviour, current determinants of behaviour, learning experiences to promote change,
and rigorous assessment and evaluation. The four areas of development are as follows: (1)
Classical conditioning (2) Operant conditioning (3) Social learning theory (4) Cognitive behaviour
therapy In classical conditioning (Pavlovian) certain respondent behaviours, such as knee jerks
and salivation, are elicited from a passive organism. The focus was on experimental analysis and
evaluation of therapeutic procedures. Classical conditioning (respondent conditioning) refers to
what happens prior to learning what creates a response through pairing. Operant conditioning
involves a type of learning in which behaviours are influenced mainly by the consequences that
follow them. If the environmental changes brought about by the behaviour are reinforcing that is,
if they provide some reward to the organism or eliminate aversive stimuli, then the chances are
increased that the behaviour will occur again. If the environmental changes produce no
reinforcement or produce aversive stimuli, the chances are lessened that the behaviour will recur.
B.F. Skinner contends that learning cannot occur in the absence of some kind of reinforcement,
either positive or negative. Reinforcement involves some kind of reward or the removal of an
aversive stimulus following a response. Reinforcement takes place when the consequences of a
behaviour increase the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated.
Behaviour is influenced by stimulus events, by external reinforcement, and by cognitive
mediational processes (thinking processes, attitudes, and values). Social learning and cognitive
theory involves a reciprocal interaction among the environment, personal factors (beliefs,
preferences, expectations, self-perceptions) and individual behaviour. A basic assumption is that
people are capable of self-directed behaviour change. For Bandura, self-efficacy is the individual’s
belief or expectation that he or she can master a situation and bring about desired change. The
theory of self-efficacy represents one of the first major attempts to provide a unified theoretical
explanation of how behaviour therapy and other psychotherapy procedures work. Behaviour
therapists state treatment goals in concrete objective terms to make replication of their
interventions possible. Treatment goals are agreed upon by the client and therapist. Throughout
the course of therapy, the therapist assesses problem behaviours and the conditions that are
maintaining them. Research methods are used to evaluate the effectiveness of both assessment and
treatment procedures. Therapeutic techniques employed must have demonstrated effectiveness.
Behavioural concepts and procedures are stated explicitly, tested empirically, and revised
continually. Clients involved in behaviour therapy are expected to assume an active role by
engaging in specific actions to deal with their problems. They are required to do something to
bring about change. Clients monitor their behaviours both during and outside the therapy sessions,
learn and practice coping skills, and role-play new behaviour. Behaviour therapy is an action-
oriented approach, and learning is viewed as being at the core of therapy. It is an educational
approach in which clients participate in a teaching-learning process. The behavioural approach
emphasizes teaching clients skills of self-management, with the expectation that they will be
responsible for transferring what they learn in the therapist’s office to their everyday lives.
20
Behaviour therapy is generally carried out in the client’s natural environment as much as possible.
The focus is on assessing overt and covert behaviour directly, identifying the problem, and
evaluating change. There is direct assessment of the target problem through observation or self-
monitoring to determine whether the behaviour change resulted from the procedure. Behaviour
therapy emphasizes a self-control approach in which clients learn self-management strategies.
Therapists frequently train clients to initiate, conduct, and evaluate their own therapy. Behavioural
treatment interventions are individually tailored to specific problems experienced by clients. For
example, “What treatment, by whom, is the most effective for this individual with that specific
problem and under which set of circumstances?” The emphasis is on practical applications.
Interventions are applied to all facets of daily life in which maladaptive behaviours are to be
decreased and adaptive behaviours are to be increased. Therapists strive to develop culture-specific
procedures and obtain their clients’ adherence and cooperation.
Goals occupy a place of central importance in behaviour therapy. The client, with the help of the
therapist, defines specific goals at the outset of the therapeutic process. Although assessment and
treatment occur together, a formal assessment takes place prior to treatment to determine
behaviours that are targets of change. Continual assessment throughout therapy determines the
degree to which identified goals are being met. It is important to devise a way to measure progress
toward goals based on empirical validation. The therapist assists clients in formulating specific
measurable goals. Goals must be clear, concrete, understood, and agreed on by the client and the
counselor. This results in a contract that guides the course of therapy. Behaviour therapists and
clients alter goals throughout the therapeutic process as needed. Behaviour therapists tend to be
active and directive and to function as consultants and problem solvers. They use some techniques
common to other approaches, such as summarizing, reflection, clarification, and open-ended
questioning. Behavioural clinicians perform these other functions as well: Conduct a thorough
functional assessment to identify the maintaining conditions by systematically gathering
information about situational antecedents, the dimensions of the problem behaviour, and the
consequences of the problem. Formulate initial treatment goals and design and implement a
treatment plan to accomplish these goals. Use strategies to promote generalization and
maintenance of behaviour change. Evaluate the success of the change plan by measuring progress
toward the goals throughout the duration of treatment. Conduct follow-up assessments.
A large part of the therapist’s role is to teach concrete skills throughout the provision of
instructions, modeling, and performance feedback. The client engages in behavioural rehearsal
with feedback until skills are well learned and generally receives active homework assignments
(such as self monitoring or problem behaviours) and are expected to cooperate in carrying out
therapeutic activities, both during therapy sessions and in everyday life. They are helped to
generalize and to transfer the learning acquired within the therapeutic situation to situations outside
therapy. It is clear that clients are expected to do more than merely gather insights; they need to be
willing to make changes and to continue implementing new behaviour once formal treatment has
ended. Behaviour therapists assume that clients make progress primarily because of the specific
behavioural techniques used rather than because of the relationship with the therapist.
21
DAY 5
Date: 09/04/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Gestalt and Humanistic Therapy.
Activity Report:
Gestalt therapy refers to a form of psychotherapy that derives from the gestalt school of thought.
Developed in the late 1940s by Fritz Perls, gestalt therapy is guided by the relational theory
principle that every individual is a whole (mind, body and soul) and that they are best understood
in relation to their current situation as he/she experiences it. The approach combines this relational
theory with present state - focusing strongly on self-awareness and the ‘here and now’ (what is
happening from one moment to the next). In gestalt therapy, self-awareness is key to personal
growth and developing full potential. The approach recognises that sometimes this self-awareness
can become blocked by negative thought patterns and behaviours that can leave people feeling
dissatisfied and unhappy. It is the aim of a gestalt therapist to promote a non-judgemental self-
awareness that enables clients to develop a unique perspective on life. By helping an individual to
become more aware of how they think, feel and act in the present moment, gestalt therapy provides
an insight into ways in which a person can alleviate any current issues and distress they are
experiencing in order to aspire to their maximum potential.
Key concepts of gestalt therapy
Gestalt therapy works through the interconnection of key concepts. These offer insight into the
processes involved in therapy sessions between the therapist and client(s).
Person-centred awareness - Focusing on the present and imagining it divorced from the future
and past is considered essential. The process follows an individual’s experience in a way that does
not involve seeking out the unconscious, but staying with what is present and being aware.
Respect - Clients, whether an individual, group or family, are treated with profound respect by a
gestalt therapist. Providing a balance of support and challenge is key to helping those taking part
to feel comfortable about opening up, and acknowledging areas of resistance.
Emphasis on experience - The gestalt approach focuses on experience in terms of a person’s
emotions, perceptions, behaviours, body sensations, ideas and memories. A therapy encourages
the client to ‘experience’ in all of these ways, vividly in the here and now.
Creative experiment and discovery - There is a range of experimental methodology used by
therapists to test their client’s experience. These involve highly creative and flexible techniques to
help them open up and acknowledge hidden feelings.
22
Social responsibility - The gestalt approach recognises that humans have a social responsibility
for the self and for others. It demands respect for all people and acknowledges that everyone is
different. Ultimately, it encourages individuals to adopt an egalitarian approach to social life.
Relationship - Relating is considered central to human experience, and gestalt therapy considers
individuals as a ‘whole’ when they have a good relationship with themselves and others around
them. The interpersonal relationship between the individual and therapist developed and nurtured
in sessions is a key guiding process of therapy.
The benefits of gestalt therapy: Ultimately, gestalt therapy is considered to help individuals gain
a better understanding of how their emotional and physical needs are connected. They will learn
that being aware of their internal self is key to understanding why they react and behave in certain
ways. This journey of self-discovery makes the approach beneficial for individuals who can be
guarded when it comes to their emotions, and find it difficult to process why they feel and act the
way they do. It can also provide support and a safe space for individuals going through times of
personal difficulty. Gestalt therapy is considered particularly valuable for helping to treat a wide
range of psychological issues - especially as it can be applied either as a long-term therapy or as a
brief and focused approach. It has been found effective for managing tension, anxiety, depression,
distorted perceptions and other psychological problems that can prevent people from living life to
the full. Overall, people who participate in gestalt therapy are said to feel more self-confident and
at peace with themselves once sessions are over.
How does it work? Gestalt therapy works by teaching clients how to define what is truly being
experienced, rather than what is merely an interpretation of the events. Those undertaking gestalt
therapy will explore all of their thoughts, feelings, behaviours, beliefs and values to develop
awareness of how they present themselves and respond to events in their environment. This gives
them the opportunity to identify choices, patterns of behaviour and obstacles that are impacting
their health and well-being, and preventing them from reaching their full potential. The unfolding
of this therapeutic process will typically involve a range of expressive techniques and creative
experiments developed collaboratively between therapist and client. These will be appropriate for
the client and their specific problems.
The common methods used in Gestalt Therapy are:
Role play: Role play can help individuals to experience different feelings and emotions, and to
better understand how they present and organise themselves.
The ‘open chair’ technique: The open chair technique involves two chairs and role play, and give
rise to emotional scenes. The client sits opposite an empty chair and must imagine someone
(usually themselves or parts of themselves) sitting in it. Next, they will communicate with this
imaginary being - asking questions and engaging with what they represent. Then they must switch
chairs so they are physically sitting in the once-empty chair. The conversation continues, but the
client has reversed roles - speaking on behalf of the imagined part of their own problem. This
technique aims to enable participants to locate a specific feeling or a side of their personality they
had previously disowned or tried to ignore. This helps them to accept polarities and acknowledge
that conflicts exist in everyone.
23
Dialogue: A gestalt therapist will need to engage the client in meaningful and authentic dialogue
in order to guide them to a particular way of behaving or thinking. This may move beyond simple
discussion to more creative forms of expression such as dancing, singing or laughing.
Discussing dreams: Dreams play an important role in gestalt therapy, as they can help individuals
to understand spontaneous aspects of themselves. Fritz Perls frequently asked clients to relive their
dreams by playing different objects and people in the dream. During this, they would be asked
questions such as, ‘what are one aware of now?’ to sharpen self-awareness.
Attention to body language: Throughout therapy, a gestalt therapist will concentrate on body
language, which is considered a subtle indicator of intense emotions. When specific body language
is noticed, the therapist may ask the client to exaggerate these movements or behaviours. This is
thought to intensify the emotion attached to the behaviour and highlight an inner meaning. For
example, a client may be showing signs of clenched fists or frowning, to which the therapist may
ask something such as, ‘what are one saying with this movement?’.
Humanistic approach
Humanistic approach one of the three approaches in counselling psychology emerged after
disillusion with the other two prominent approaches at the time psychodynamic and behaviourist.
It emerges as the third force in the 1950s and 1960s. It moved away from looking at psychology
clinically and more at the human being. The humanistic approach as the third force in
contemporary psychology realizes the important of learning and the different psychological
processes that are usually associated with the focus of research but focuses usually positively on
the individual’s future not the past. The therapy is phenomenological so it is important for the
counsellor to see events exactly the way the client see them. The person being treated is not seen
as a patient but as a client on equal terms to the counsellor. The main goals of humanistic
psychology are to find out how individuals perceive themselves in the here and now and to
recognize growth, self-direction and responsibilities. This method is optimistic and attempts to
help individuals recognize their strengths by offering a non-judgmental, empathic experience.
Humanistic believe this self-actualizing tendency is the essential.
The Humanistic approach offers a therapeutic atmosphere which allows the client to become fully
integrated again. The way the therapeutic relationship works is not only about the theory it is also
about the experience itself. The humanistic perspective was greatly influenced by exceptional
psychologists such as Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, Fritz Perls, and Gardner Murphy. The
Humanistic approach provided individuals with an alternative choice in focusing on realizing
human capabilities in areas such as creativity, personal growth and choice. Two of the major names
in associated with this approach are Carl Rogers Abraham Maslow. Carl Rogers is seen by many
as the person who advance the cause of humanistic psychology the most. Rogers’s client-centered
therapy and person-centered psychology show and verified the differences between humanistic
psychology and behavioural and psychodynamic approaches to personality. Rogers saw humans
as rational creatures inundated by irrational needs. He believed getting to know and understand the
power of those irrational needs on one’s behaviour was what humanistic therapy was about.
24
For therapeutic change to occur in the person-centred approach, Rogers maintained that three core
conditions need to be present. Unconditioned positive regard is where the counsellor accepts the
client unconditionally and non-judgementally. Whatever the client wants to discuss all thoughts
and feelings, positive or negative they are able to discuss without fear of rejection or
condemnation. Empathic understanding, the counsellor accurately identifies with the client’s
thoughts, feelings and meanings from their point of view. Where the counsellors enters the client’s
world his reality without fear or judgment, and without pushing the client into feelings he may not
be ready to discover. Empathy is a never ending process where the counsellor removes their own
thoughts and experiences in order to perceive and relate to the experiences of the client. The third
condition congruence or realness the counsellor is authentic and genuine the counsellor does not
pretend to know it all but is present and transparent to the client and they can draw on their own
experiences to facilitate the relationship. These three core conditions Rogers believed helped the
client to develop and grow their own identity so clients move from having poor self-concept to a
position where they are closer to their real worth of their organism self a state doing so become
the Rogers maintained that growth promoting came from the therapeutic relationship with no
technique or method needed.
Person centered has a set of values and attitudes not ways which people should behave. However
Personal centered counsellors use paraphrasing, reflecting feelings, paraphrasing to share feelings
in response to the client’s disclosure mirroring back emotional communication and so
communicating to the client he cares and understands. It has been argued that this can be looked
at as a techniques but Humanistic look at it as a good working alliance. Maslow’s 1940’s 50’s 60’s
theory has common characteristics with Rogers he posited what he called a hierarchy of human
needs. At the bottom are biological needs, then esteem needs, then cognitive, then aesthetic needs
then a need to self actualise. This theory of self-actualization tendency according to Maslow was
the innate human motivation which everyone has and helps people to reach their potential by using
their own talents and abilities. He believed motivation was essential to understanding human
behaviour. Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs believe psychopathology is cause by the failure to
gratify one’s fundamental needs, physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization.
Maslow hierarchy of needs lists and characteristic are as significant today as they were 40 years
ago. Maslow put great emphasis on peak experiences. Peak experiences are times in life which
bring us beyond our ordinary perceptions, thoughts, and feelings. These peak experiences emerge
unexpectedly and changes an individual understands of themselves and the world. However some
psychologists felt Maslow’s theory because of the “mystical” nature of peak experiences left them
a bit uneasy. But Maslow motivation ideas are widely know and accepted.
The humanistic approach is effective as it offers therapies such as the person centred approach
(Rogers, 1902) and reality therapy amongst others. Personal centred counselling is one of the most
extensively used counselling methods it is used in schools, hospitals workplaces. Roger’s believed
that humans have an actualising tendency to achieve their full potential. It emphasises the role of
over socialisation in preventing people from being able to perceive themselves and their
environment properly, and consequently not being able to self actualise. Through experience with
clients, he found that each person’s reality is different, depending on their perceptions and
experiences. He called this perception a person’s ‘internal frame of reference’. When perceptions
25
become maladaptive, therapy aims to focus on each individuals’ world to help them live more
fully, using the core conditions of congruence, unconditional positive regard and empathy. Rogers
believed that the client knew what was best for them. Rogers spoke of what he called an internal
locus of evaluation where Rogers believed a person could get all the wisdom guidance from within
themselves.
DAY 6
Date: 10/04/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Process of counselling.
Activity Report:
Stage1: Pre-contemplation: This stage is characterized by two distinct elements: a) the person not
being able to see or understand what the problem is, and/or b) the client wanting some other person
to change (the problem is them, not me). Pre-contemplators usually come to counselling because
of some form of pressure from another person (spouse, employer, the courts, school, friends).
Concurrently, pre-contemplators also resist change and therefore employ denial-minimization
tactics to disown any responsibility for their contribution to the issue(s) at hand. Thus, one of the
initial goals in counselling is to determine how much denial or minimization the client is
experiencing that prevents change.
Stage 2: Contemplation: This stage is characterized by the client wanting to better understand
what the "bump in the road" is, to see the causes and as well to explore what options are available
to resolve the demise. The key point to remember here is that even though a person may know
what is the issue and what needs to be changed, contemplators are not quite yet ready to make a
commitment to action (fourth stage of change). The second stage is a critical time for those in
counselling to better understand two key themes before action is undertaken: who am I (their map
of orientation) and what strengths and resources do I have to support my journey (map of
direction)? Hence, in counselling the client and counsellor will know when the time for action
arises when the language and thoughts in counselling focus around the "solution versus the
problem" and a "view more about today and the future than the past."
Stage 3: Preparation: This stage is characterized by the client going through additional areas of
mindfulness in areas of mindfulness, learning and growth. Sometimes the client needs to improve
their communication skills, career goals, parenting behaviours, intimacy practices, and further
strengthening their self-esteem. In particular, we use this stage as an opportunity to identify the
client's values and supporting behaviours in four key areas of life: defining the self, self-
development, work and relationships. The primary goal here is to actualize individual awareness
so that a sense of self-control, comfort and security are present when the client goes from
preparation to action. In short, a mindful sense of well-being.
26
Stage 4: Action: Probably the most misunderstood and misapplied stage of all in counselling. The
common problem here is that most clients and counsellors believe that change means action,
and action now at the onset of counselling. However, if the first three stages of change are not
properly addressed in counselling, failure in counselling and/or after counselling can occur (in fact,
over 45% of all clients stop counselling before the third session as they feel their therapist or family
want action before they are actually ready for action). This stage is characterized by the basic
premise in positive psychology and cognitive behavioural sciences that before we can "change" a
behaviour, we must first change or reframe our thought patterns (our mental tapes we play if one
will). While most of us want to "see" some form of change, often times the more important change
must occur in the way we think where we often don't see that change until some future point and
time. Once the action stage in counselling has allowed us to change our thoughts (reframing), then
can we commence with the more visible desired actions, behaviours and feelings in and outside of
counselling.
Stage 5: Maintenance: This stage is characterized by the counsellor and client (and in most cases
his or her social support network) to identify what possible trigger points or other conflictual issues
exist in the work and social/family setting that could cause a relapse. Whether a client is coming
in to quit smoking or improve his communications at work or in the marriage, the counsellor and
client in this stage shall develop a strong commitment to establishing positive reinforcement
activities (validation, cheerleading, acknowledgement, praise, rewards) to sustain the change made
in the action stage. In other words, change never ends in the action stage, it merely takes a new
form and presence in our life.
Stage 6: After-care: There are some thoughts, behaviours or feelings we wish never return (the
former smoker who doesn't take up smoking again when he gets stressed). However, some
healthcare professionals believe there are certain behaviours, thoughts or feelings we never
completely remove (traditional 12 step programs for example propose that alcoholics will always
remain "an addict in recovery"). This stage is characterized by determining what types of
behaviours, thoughts or feelings can realistically be terminated, and equally as well, what types
require a lifetime of support and maintenance. The ultimate goal though in the after-care stage is
to ensure that the client understands that by embracing lifelong learning he or she increases the
chances for a more healthier and happier life. We believe that the lifelong learning process can be
experienced both in counselling and other environments. In short, our doors are always open for
tune-ups and new learning sessions.
DAY 7
Date: 11/04/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Types of Therapy.
27
Activity Report:
“Therapy” is a very broad term used to describe various styles and modes of treatment. It can be
confusing because in addition to the types of therapy and therapist, there are different techniques,
theories, and approaches that can be used differently.
In individual therapy, the focus is on the development of a one-to-one relationship with the
therapist. The relationship can take on many facets depending on the approach the therapist is
using, but most often involves the creation of an accepting atmosphere along with the use of
techniques for the purpose of symptom reduction and/or personal development. The individual is
engaged in a self-reflective process on his or her emotions and behaviours.
Couples therapy usually involves an intense focus on improving the communication pattern within
the couple. Unlike individual therapy, couple’s therapy involves the therapist entering the couple’s
way of life more directly. They bring their habits and routines with each other directly into the
session. The therapist is involved in analyzing and offering feedback about the interactions the
couple is having, and makes suggestions about ways to improve it. It is typically considered more
intensive than individual therapy because both partners are invited to co-create the process of
change.
Group therapy typically rests on the dynamic interaction of the members of the group. The
emphasis is on helping participants understand the projection they have toward other members,
while learning from the feedback they receive from others, including the therapist.
Therapists need to be trained in each of these different types of therapy. Someone trained in
individual therapy only is typically not adequately prepared to do couple’s therapy or run a group.
In contrast, couples and group therapists have usually begun their training by learning individual
therapy.
Individual therapy offers several advantages:
The confidentiality of the client’s issues is most easily maintained in individual therapy. The client
receives one-on-one attention from the therapist, and this allows the therapist to be very thorough
in understanding the specific problems of the client and in developing an individualized approach
to helping the client. The level of analysis and treatment can be much more intense and
comprehensive in individual therapy compared to group therapy. The pace of the therapy can be
tailored to the specific client. It can be sped up in cases where clients can handle more focused and
intense interventions, or it can be slowed down in cases where clients need time to adjust and move
slowly. The therapeutic alliance is strongest in individual therapy. Research investigating the
components of effective therapy have consistently pointed out that the therapeutic alliance is a key
component of a successful therapy intervention. Individual therapy allows for the development of
self-awareness by discussing issues and getting feedback from the therapist. The client can arrange
a time for the therapy sessions that is most conducive to their schedule. Therapy sessions can be
arranged rather quickly, if needed. Individual therapy allows for the development of
communication skills in individuals who need help with these skills.
28
A couple of relative disadvantages of individual therapy include: Individual therapy is typically

more expensive than group therapy. Some clients may have a strong need to identify with other
individuals who share similar problems/issues. This need can be best addressed in a group
situation. Clients in individual therapy need to be motivated and are obviously in the spotlight.
Clients who are not committed to changing, doing the work, and applying principles learned in
therapy may struggle when they are the center of attention. The research supports the notion that
individual therapy is generally effective for treating most nearly every different psychological
disorder, condition, and problem that is generally addressed in a therapeutic environment.
Some of the advantages that occur in group therapy include: Group therapy assures individuals
that they are not alone and that other individuals share similar problems and struggles. It offers the
opportunity to both receive support from others and to give support to others. Both of these notions
are important in treatment. Receiving support from others is part of the bonding or therapeutic
alliance that occurs in groups, whereas giving support to others allows for growth and learning.
The therapeutic alliance that occurs in groups is broader than the alliance that occurs in individual
therapy. This allows for the incorporation of many different points of view. Group therapy helps
individuals develop communication skills and socialization skills, and allows clients to learn how
to express their issues and accept criticism from others. It also allows individuals to develop self-
awareness by listening to others with similar issues. Sharing one’s experiences with others with
similar problems is often itself therapeutic. Group therapy provides a broad safety net for
individuals who may otherwise be hesitant to discuss their feelings, perceived weaknesses, etc.
Individuals in group therapy can model the successful behaviours of other individuals who have
gone through similar experiences. Modeling is a form of learning where individuals learn by
copying or imitating the actions of others. Group therapy is typically less expensive than individual
therapy.
Several disadvantages to group therapy are: The client is not the focus of attention. In many groups,
the old adage “the squeaky wheel gets the grease” seems to apply. Thus, the level of intervention
is not as focused and intense for any single person as individual therapy. The level of
confidentiality in groups is far less secure than it is an individual therapy. Although group members
are generally instructed that the information and events that occur in the group are to be held
confidential and only to be shared with group members during therapy, the potential for a breach
of confidentiality is far greater in group therapy. The notion of social loafing is a problem with all
group efforts. Some individuals in groups do not actually make changes but simply ride on the
success of others. Groups may allow unmotivated individuals to hide their issues and avoid
accountability. Although the therapeutic alliance is broader, it is not as focused and strong in group
therapy as it is in individual therapy. Groups typically meet at specific times. There is less
opportunity to fit the therapy into the one’s personal schedule. It may be inappropriate for certain
types of individuals, such as individuals who are extremely antisocial, extremely shy, impulsive,
passive-aggressive, psychotic, etc. Sometimes, certain alliances form in groups, and these
subgroups target and denigrate other group members. An experienced and competent therapist is
able to avoid such alliances that are detrimental to the overall group; however, it is inevitable that
certain individuals in the group will identify more strongly with one another and not identify with
other members.
29
DAY 8
Date: 12/04/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Counselling Skills.
Activity Report:
We were given an activity of presenting these skills through discussion and with the help of 3 team
members. This gave us an opportunity to get acquainted with other members of the group and also
make adequate use of our creativity by way of role-plays and audio-video medium. Some of the
skills presented were:
1. Empathy
The definition of “empathy” is the “experience of understanding another person’s thoughts,
feelings, and condition from his or her point of view, rather than from one’s own.” It’s not
sympathy, but rather that one can show their understanding of their clients’ feelings surrounding
an experience. A good counselor will be emotionally attuned to individuals’ needs and can
empathize with a wide variety of people. One can better understand their client’s choices and
feelings even if, as a counselor, one doesn’t always agree with them. In addition, a good counselor
can also help that person to identify and articulate their feelings.
2. Listening
This one might seem kind of obvious, but a good counselor has to truly be a good listener —
listening to not only what is said, but how it’s said, why it’s being said, and what it means in
relation to that particular client. Because between 80 and 93% of all communication is non-verbal,
it’s important that one give their client their undivided attention, making eye contact and showing
them one is listening — and listening with all their senses. Of course, verbal communication plays
a large role in the relationship, and a good counselor can show that they’re listening through the
words that they’re using. Use words like a simple “yes” or “continue” to show one is paying
attention and encouraging the client to continue. Repeat back to the client something important
that they just said. Reference previous conversations and relate them back to the present situation
whenever it’s relevant.
3. Communication and Questioning Skills
In order to achieve success as a counselor, one need to convey confidence and assertiveness as a
good communicator. Having good communication skills can put a client at ease, whether that’s
through an email or an in-person session. In addition, they know that some of the best ways to
communicate are by asking questions that help one get to know more about the client. The tone of
the entire counselling process really depends on the type of questions one asks.
30
These questions come in two forms. Closed questions – These can be answered with a simple “yes”
or “no.” Because they don’t encourage the client to further explore their feelings or options, closed
questions should generally be avoided. Open questions – These questions are critical when trying
to get information because they require more than a “yes” or “no” answer. They should be
intentional and therapeutic and require the client to reflect and deeper explore their thoughts and
goals. A good way to start them off is by using “how” and “what questions.”
4. Critical Thinking
The best counsellors can detect what’s really going on under the surface and use strong critical
thinking skills when working with clients and developing treatment plans or career goals.
Counsellors who can create effective plans that help people try several different proven strategies
are much more likely to achieve success with their clients. And if one can’t use logic and ask the
tough questions, one might miss out on an important behavioural explanation, misguide a client,
or make a wrong recommendation.
5. Flexibility
This means one can adapt and change the way one respond to meet their clients’ needs. Or, when
their clients require a different approach or perspective, one don’t stay rigid and stick to a
predetermined treatment path. Every client that a counselor works with will have a different
background, experience, and engagement in the therapeutic relationship. One client may have no
work experience at all while the next will have worked for decades, so career counsellors must be
able to adapt their services to assist with a variety of career-related issues. It’s critical that the
counselor is able to shift perspective based on what’s going on with each specific client at any
time. Listening/Observing: Listening is one of the most valuable counselling skills in the
therapeutic relationship. It can be used in three ways:
6. Attending:
Attending is the ability to be physically present for the client. It means giving them their undivided
attention and making appropriate eye contact, mirroring body language, and nodding. These
attending behaviours show their client that one care. In fact, approximately 80% of communication
takes place non-verbally External link. This skill can take a little time to learn effectively, but it
begins with the counsellor sitting in the same position as the client. For example, if at first the
client is sitting on the edge of her chair with her arms outstretched resting on her knees the
counsellor can reflect or mirror this position. As the client speaks more, the counsellor can either
lean forward, to indicate empathy and understanding, or slowly slide back into the chair to take up
a more relaxed sitting position. If the rapport has begun to be built between client and counsellor,
the client is likely to follow suit. This will reduce the anxiety levels for the client.
7. Active listening
Active listening occurs when one are listening with all of their senses. According to the Perinatal
Mental Health Project External link , active listening involves listening with their body, heart, ears,
eyes, and mouth. Verbal listening: This is a form of showing one are listening through the words
that one use. These verbal cues are used to show attention and to encourage more exploration from
31
the client External link . This can be as simple as ‘yes’, or ‘go on’. It can also be in the form of
paraphrasing or repeating a word of emotion that the client has just said. Asking Questions:
Questions are helpful in the therapeutic environment because they allow one to learn more about
their client. The type of questions that one ask will set the tone of the session and the entire
counselling process.
8. Reflection
Reflections are used in the counselling process to accurately describe the client’s state External
link from their verbal or nonverbal cues. Feelings reflections: Reflections allow clients to hear
the feelings they have just expressed. Sometimes one have to look for the descriptive feeling in a
client’s statement. It can also be helpful to look at a client’s nonverbal feeling cues. Noting and
reflecting can assist in adding the emotional dimension to the client’s story, so is often used in the
interview stages of gathering information and exploring alternatives. For example we can say,
“You feel disappointed because your mother didn’t call you on your birthday.”
9. Restating/Rephrasing
Restating and rephrasing can build a stronger client therapist relationship. Rephrasing a client’s
statement allows one to better understand what a client has just said and to gain further clarity, if
one have gotten it wrong. Through interpretation/reframing, the client is encouraged to perceive
their experience in a more positive fashion. For example, a client who is upset about having to
move away from home is likely to be focusing on the loss of her support network and the
familiarity of her community. The counsellor, while acknowledging the client’s loss, could reframe
the event to be perceived as an opportunity to experience new places, people and things: an
opportunity for growth. Interpretation/reframing encourage the client to view life situations from
an alternative frame of reference. This strategy does not change the facts of a situation, nor does it
trivialize the hurt or pain the client may be experiencing.
10. Affirmation
Affirmation is a form of encouragement that is used to affirm behaviours or life choices.
Affirmation is important for empowering clients External link. A few common affirmations
include affirming progress that a client has made toward a goal or encouraging a client to do what
is important to them.
11. Encouragers, paraphrasing and summarising
A counsellor can encourage a client to continue to talk, open up more freely and explore issues in
greater depth by providing accurate responses through encouraging, paraphrasing and
summarising. Responding in this way informs the client that the counsellor has accurately heard
what they have been saying. Encouragers, paraphrases and summaries are basic to helping a client
feel understood. Encouragers, also known as intentional listening, involve fully attending to the
client, thus allowing them to explore their feelings and thoughts more completely. Paraphrasing
and summarising are more active ways of communicating to the client that they have been listened
to. Summarising is particularly useful to help clients organise their thinking.
32
12. Paraphrases
To paraphrase, the counsellor chooses the most important details of what the client has just said
and reflects them back to the client. Paraphrases can be just a few words or one or two brief
sentences. Paraphrasing is not a matter of simply repeating or parroting what the client has stated.
Rather it is capturing the essence of what the client is saying, through rephrasing. When the
counsellor has captured what the client is saying, often the client will say, “That’s right” or offer
some other form of confirmation. Example: I have just broken up with Jason. The way he was
treating me was just too much to bear. Every time I tried to touch on the subject with him he would
just clam up. I feel so much better now. Paraphrase: You feel much better after breaking up with
Jason.
13. Confrontation
Confrontation is a skill that can assist clients to increase their self- awareness. It can be used to
highlight discrepancies that clients have previously been unaware of. Confrontation is often used
when the counsellor observes mixed messages or incongruities in the client’s words, behaviours,
feelings or thoughts. Confrontation should only be used after rapport has been developed between
client and counsellor. Example: “You say you would like to do further study but you haven’t
contacted the training institution.”
14. Focusing
Focusing enables a counsellor to direct client’s conversational flow into certain areas. Focusing is
a skill that is relevant to all stages of a counselling interview. This skill however should be used
sparingly. After noticing that a client has mentioned very little about his family, the counsellor,
(believing the family is relevant) directs the conversation toward the client’s family.
DAY 9
Date: 13/04/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Case History.
Activity Report:
A case history basically refers to a file containing relevant information pertaining to an individual
client or group. Case histories are maintained by a broad range of professional organizations
including those in the fields of psychiatry, psychology, healthcare, and social work. The following
information briefly discusses two formal definitions of case histories, the basic contents of case
histories, and how the information for initial case history files is obtained. The type of information
contained in case histories may vary depending on the organization that is maintaining the records.
For example, while a medical clinic will need to include in-depth medical information about its
33
clients in their case histories, social workers may only need to include more generalized medical
information (if any at all).
Instead, they may need more in-depth information pertaining to such things as the client’s history
of services, client investigations, or counselling sessions involving the client. In any case, some of
the most common types of information often included in case histories are as follows:
• Basic Statistical Data (Client’s name, age, sex, address, phone number, occupation, marital
status, and client ID number)
• Client’s History of Services
• Investigations Pertaining to Client’s Case
• Investigation Outcomes
• Past and Present Treatments and/or Counselling Sessions
• History of Illnesses
• History of Complaints and Their Resolutions
• History of Referrals
Common Methods Used to Gather Information
There are essentially three methods used to gather information for initial case history files. A brief
description of each of these methods can be found in the following sections.
• Interviews – By interviewing first-time clients, organizations can gather basic information
pertaining to clients’ concerns and lifestyles. They can also determine whether or not
clients have used the services of similar organizations, and if they have, they can encourage
clients to release this information to them to add to their case histories.
• Questionnaires – Standardized questionnaires ask many of the same questions that would
be asked during a face-to-face interview. This approach is great for organizations that have
little spare time to sit and converse with clients. The disadvantage of this method is that
some issues may be overlooked.
• Combination – Combining these two methods is perhaps the best way to gather data for
case histories. When organizations use a combination approach, clients are better able to
fully explain their histories, and there is little chance of overlooking essential information.
Maintaining complete case histories is an important aspect of providing quality services to clients.
A complete case history can help organizations in many different fields determine the best way to
serve clients now and in the future.
A counsellor may be constrained by agency policy and/or the number of available sessions and
these constraints will influence the emphasis of the type of history taken. If the client is seeking
34
careers counselling the history the counsellor takes will be affected by the type of problem
presented.
When considering client history taking there are four questions to be asked and answered:
– “What information do I require to help me assess the therapeutic needs of my client”?
– “Is it better to elicit the information verbally, in written form or through a mixture of the two”?
– “Am I the best person to be working with this client or would it be more useful to refer them
elsewhere?”
– “Does this case require me to liaise with any other agency and if so in what way?”
This last question attempts to take into account is inter-agency liaison, which is quite common
in psychiatry, social and probation work. The counsellor/counselling agency needs to have a clear
policy regarding appropriate procedures such as confidentiality, responsibilities, individual and
agency boundaries and any codes of ethics adhered to.
DAY 10
Date: 14/04/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Mental Status Examination.
Activity Report:
The Mental Status Examination (MSE) is a standardized procedure used to evaluate the client’s
mental and emotional functioning at the time the client is seen by the mental health professional.
It involves a precise series of observations as well as some specific questions.
Each of the topics listed below is included in the MSE because it provides valuable information
about the client’s function. A completed MSE analysis is usually only a short paragraph of
condensed information, yet it contributes greatly to the diagnostic picture.
The items included in the MSE are:
• Appearance, behaviour, and attitude
• Characteristics of speech
• Affect and mood
• Thought content, thought form, and concentration
• Orientation
35
• Memory
• General intellectual level
• Insight and judgement
APPEARANCE, BEHAVIOUR, AND ATTITUDE- An MSE usually begins by describing the
person’s age, marital status, race, and manner of dress. Appearance is important because a person
suffering from serious mental impairment may lose interest in grooming and personal hygiene or
may be unable to perform these normal functions. Psychomotor behaviour is described to give
some further indication about a person’s ability to maintain normal control. Agitated, restless
behaviours suggest one clinical picture whereas frozen posture with a lack of eye contact suggests
an entirely different clinical situation. The skilled clinician uses subtle cues such as eye contact or
avoidance to aid in diagnosis. This can be followed with a description of the client’s attitude,
cooperation, and ability to provide reliable information. Assessment of attitude provides an
indication of the client’s motivation for treatment.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SPEECH- The quality and quantity of the client’s speech provide
information about thought processes. Quality refers to relevance, appropriateness to topic,
coherence, clarity, and voice volume. Quantity describes the amount and rate of speech, and any
sense of pressure. Typically, the following items are identified, if present: Mutism, or no verbal
response, Circumstantiality, or excessively irrelevant detail, Perseveration, or the repetition of the
same words or phrases, Flight of ideas or rapid, loose association of content, including: Quick
topic changes, Minimal or unusual connection between ideas, Simple rhymes, Clang associations
(associations linked by sound), Puns, Blocking, or a sudden interruption in thought processes that
is thought to occur because an unconscious process interferes with the client’s concentration or
because the client is responding to internal stimuli such as auditory or visual hallucinations. An
example of this element follows: Speech volume was normal; rate of speech was pressured with a
tendency to focus on the negative circumstances surrounding his recent divorce.
AFFECT AND MOOD- Affect is the visible reaction a person displays toward events. Mood is
the underlying feeling state. Affect is described by such terms as constricted, normal range,
appropriate to context, flat, and shallow. Mood refers to the feeling tone and is described by such
terms as anxious, depressed, dysphoric, euphoric, angry, and irritable.
Important patterns to look for include:
• Incongruent affect, in which the client’s expression is of feelings opposite the ones
appropriate for the context
• Lack of affect, in which emotional subjects are described in a detached manner
• Overreactions, in which a client may display an emotional response that is excessive in
relation to the situation
Examples of this element follow:
36
Affect constricted, with mood dysphoric. Mood congruent with content.

Affect irritable, hostile and labile. Mood depressed and angry.
THOUGHT CONTENT, THOUGHT FORM, AND CONCENTRATION-
Thought Content: Thought content is examined to identify whether the person is having irrational
thought, thought fixations, or disturbances in thought that would suggest the presence of delusions,
illusions, or hallucinations.
Delusions: Delusions are fixed, false beliefs that are contrary to reality. Rational evidence will not
influence a person to change such a belief. Common delusions include: persecution or special
attention, grandeur, nihilism, alien control, self-deprecation, somatic delusions.
Illusions: Illusions are false perceptions in response to an external object that other people can
also see. For example, a person may perceive a cord lying on the floor as a coiled snake.
Hallucinations: Hallucinations are false sensory perceptions. Auditory or visual distortions are
the most common.
Thought Form: The sequence of thoughts, logical connections, and the ability to provide specific
information are elements of thought form. When a thought disorder exists, associations between
thoughts may be disconnected, constantly changing, or blocked. The person may use vague,
nonspecific terms that indicate an impoverishment of content or he or she may have difficulty with
abstract ideas. Proverbs are used to evaluate this response. A person who is reasoning normally
will interpret such common proverbs as "a rolling stone gathers no moss" and "people who live in
glass houses shouldn’t throw stones" abstractly. A person with a thought disorder will attempt to
explain the statement literally, replying, "The moss can’t stick to the stone" or "Glass breaks
easily."
Concentration: Concentration inability is another indicator of thought disturbance. A good
evaluation tool is the Serial 7 test, in which a person is asked to sequentially subtract 7 from 100.
Many people with thought disorders cannot perform more than one or two calculations.
ORIENTATION- Orientation in terms of time, place, person, and self is assessed to determine
the presence of confusion or clouding of consciousness. This is important information for
determining whether the person has organic mental impairment.
QUESTIONS TO ASK
• Can one tell me today’s date?
• Do one know the day of the week?
• What month is it?
• What year is it?
• Do one know where you are?
• Do one know who I am?
37
• Do one remember their name?

These questions are usually asked in this sequence. With increasing impairment, the client will
tend to have more difficulty with these questions. Orientation to self is usually retained with early
stages of confusion or disorientation.
MEMORY- Both recent and remote memory are assessed. If the person has an organic brain
dysfunction, memory for remote past events commonly remains intact, with loss of memory for
more recent events. Any changes in memory or ability to recognize familiar surroundings or people
should be cause for further investigation because it can be an early sign of a neurological problem
that may respond to medical treatment.
QUESTIONS TO ASK
Long-term memory:
• Where did one live when one were growing up?
• What was the name of the school one went to?
Short-term memory:
• What did one have for breakfast?
• What did one do yesterday?
GENERAL INTELLECTUAL LEVEL- The client’s basic knowledge (often called the fund of
knowledge) and awareness of social events are assessed.
QUESTIONS TO ASK
• Who is the president of India?
• Who is the vice president?
• Who were the last five presidents, in order?
• What is the state capital?
INSIGHT AND JUDGEMENT- Insight is the client’s ability to identify the existence of a
problem and to have an understanding of its nature. This is a very important factor in assessing the
client’s potential for compliance with treatment. A person will not follow treatment
recommendations when he or she does not believe that problems are really there. Social judgement
is also evaluated. A question commonly used is "If one were to find a stamp, addressed envelope
lying on the sidewalk, what would one do?
SAMPLE MENTAL STATUS EXAMINATION- The client is a 33-year-old married woman
who is morbidly obese. She is slightly dishevelled. She is cooperative with the interviewer and is
judged to be an adequate historian. Her mood and affect are depressed and anxious. She became
tearful throughout the interview. Her flow of thought is coherent and her thought content reveals
feelings of low self-esteem as well as auditory hallucinations that are self-demeaning. She admits
38
to suicidal ideas but denies active plan or intent. Her orientation is good. She knows the current
date, place, and person. Recent and remote memory are good. Fund of knowledge is adequate. The
client shows some insight and judgment regarding her illness and need for help.
DAY 11
Date: 15/04/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Basic Helper Model and Barefoot Counselling.
Activity Report:
This is a model used a lot in counselling or coaching situations where the object is to achieve
lasting change and to empower people to manage their own problems more effectively and develop
unused opportunities more fully. The model has three stages which can be summarised as:
• Exploration - What is going on?
• Challenging - What do I want instead?
• How might I achieve what I want?
Stage 1: Exploration The first task is to find out their mentee’s story about what is happening in
their own words and then to reflect it back to them, without judgement. This involves: attention
giving - positive body language, eye contact, etc, active listening - learning forward, nodding,
focusing on what is being said not what one plan to say in response, acceptance and empathy - it
is vital to detach from their judgement about what one are being told. Keep their views to yourself
if want to find out what’s really going on. Nobody opens up in a situation where they feel judged
paraphrasing and summarising - to check their own understanding of what has been said, focusing
- which of the issues discussed seems the most important to the mentee? Reflecting feelings - help
mentees to uncover blind spots or gaps in their perceptions and assessment of the situation
questioning - useful questions are: How did one feel about that? What were one thinking? What
was that like? What else is there about that? For some people, this is enough. Reflecting and
clarifying makes the way forward obvious. However, when upset or confronted, it is often difficult
to see things clearly and find one’s own way out of the mire. The skilled helper can assist in
identifying the blind spots, motes in eye, misperceptions.
Stage 2: Challenging This stage involves challenging existing views - one issue at a time.
Encourage the mentee to think about whether there is another way of looking at the issue. Some
useful questions to do this are: what might this look like from another person’s point of view?
what in particular about this is a problem for one? if one were describing someone else in this
situation, how would one describe them? what does she/he think/feel? goal setting - this is where
39
one seek to move the mentee forward from being stuck, by identifying an area in which progress
can be made Mentoring
Stage 3: Action Planning Useful questions here include: what are the possible ways forward in this
situation? what of these feel best for one? what will one achieve if one do this? what will one do
first and by when? Their goal is to turn good intentions into actual results, so it is important to help
their mentee to set realistic, practical and achievable targets. Make sure the targets are specific and
measurable so the student can know they have been achieved. Agree a time period. Always follow
up at next meeting - did the mentee do what they said they were going to? Do not judge if they
haven’t achieved the goal, but remind them why they committed themselves to it when one spoke
before.
Barefoot Counselling: Can one remember when one were a child, playing barefoot, carefree and
confident? One lived for the moment, had limitless potential and dreamed about how wonderful
life would be when one grew up. As we grow up, we develop beliefs about ourselves that hold us
back. We feel uncertain about our future and are overwhelmed with fear and worry. Our days
become so hectic that we forget that we have one shot at life and we deserve to be happy. Whilst
one cannot return to those carefree days of their childhood, one can rediscover their self-
confidence and belief in yourself so that the wonderful life one dreamed of can become a reality.
Barefoot Counselling provides psychosocial support, strengthens the sense of individual
responsibility, helps to build on new information, helps in understanding the need for modifying
life styles, enables the process of getting to know the nature of the problem, assists in making
realistic decisions, reduces the impact of problems on the individual and his or her family and
friends, facilitates the building up of self confidence, self esteem and self respect, brings about
positive changes in life style and facilitates behavioural change
DAY 12
Date: 16/04/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Egan’s Model.
Activity Report:
Gerard Egan’s model of counselling is an eclectic approach based on stages of counselling with
each stage having specific skills involved to be used in the counselling relationship. It is a three
stage model in which each state consists of specific skills that the therapist uses to help the client
move forward. By mastering the process of using these basic skills in an appropriate manner, the
therapist may be able to increase their efficiency and structure their work in a more logical way,
thus helping clients in a more consistent manner and b ringing the client closer to the counselling
goal. The Skilled Helper (a term used by Egan for counsellor) aims to help their clients develop
the skills and the knowledge necessary to solve both their current problems issues and ones that
40
may arise in the future. To facilitate client development the helper builds a healthy therapeutic
alliance with the client based on collaboration, warmth and acceptance. The Skilled Helper
facilitates the client by helping them to formulate a plan of action, helping them accept their
responsibility for becoming a more effective person and helping them to develop their own inner
resources. Stages of Egan’s Problem Solving Model Pre-Helping Phase
Attending: This phase refers only to the counsellor and not to the person coming for help.
Attending - SOLER
• S- Face the client Squarely (some prefer up to 45 degrees etc)
• O- Maintain an Open Posture with the client.
• L- Lean towards the client (as appropriate).
• E- Maintain appropriate Eye Contact with the client.
• R- Be a Relaxed helper as by doing so one greatly improve the quality and comfort of the
sessions.
Stage I: Exploring the Client’s Existing Situation The purpose of Stage I is to build a
nonthreatening counselling relationship and help the client explore their situation and then focus
on chosen issues. In this stage the Skilled Helper helps the client to identify and clarify problems
and opportunities and assess their resources. Stage I skills include: Accurate Empathy (Primary
level): The helper must respond to the client in a way that shows that he has listened and that he
understands how the client feels and what he is saying about himself. In some way, he must see
the client’s world from the client’s frame of reference rather than from his own. It is not enough
to understand but must communicate his understanding. Respect: The way in which he deals with
the client must show the client that he respects him, that he is basically ‘for’ him, that he wants to
be available to him and work with him. Genuineness: His offer of help has to be real and sincere.
He must be spontaneous and open. He can’t hide behind the role of a counsellor. He must be a
human being to the human being before him. Concreteness: Even when the client rambles or tries
to evade real issues by speaking in generalities, the helper must ground the helping process in
concrete feelings and concrete behaviour. His language cannot be vague, jargon filled counselling
language
Stage II: Integrative Understanding/ Dynamic Self Understanding The purpose of Stage II is to
help facilitate the client in developing a more in-depth and objective understanding of their
situation. The Skilled Helper establishes what the client really wants and needs and the client is
encouraged to consider new possibilities and perspectives, choosing ones that are realistic,
consistent with their values and for which there are adequate incentives. In this state brain-
storming, divergent thinking, a balance-sheet approach and force-field analysis may be used with
the client in order to facilitate choices between different ways of dealing with situations and
achieving goals. Stage II skills include: All skills of stage I Accurate Empathy ( advanced level):
The helper must communicate to the client an understanding not only of what the client actually
says but also of what he implies, what he hints at and what he says non verbally. The helper begins
to make connections between seemingly isolated statements made by the client. In this whole
process, however, the helper must invent nothing. He is helpful only to the degree that he is
41
accurate. Self disclosure: The helper is willing to share his own experience with the client if sharing
it will actually help the client understand himself better. He is extremely careful however, not to
lay another burden on the client. Immediacy: The helper is willing to explore his own relationship
to the client (‘one me’) to explore the here and now of the client - counsellor interaction to the
degree that it helps the client get a better understanding of himself , of his interpersonal style and
of how he is cooperating in the helping process. Confrontation: The helper challenge the
discrepancies, distortions, games and smokescreens in the client’s life and his interactions within
the helping relationship itself to the degree that it helps the client develop the kind of self
understanding that leads to constructive behavioural change. Alternative frame of reference: The
effective helper can offer the client alternative frames of reference for viewing his behaviour, to
the degree that these alternatives are more accurate and more constructive than those of the client.
For instance, the client might suggest that his interchange seem biting or sarcastic to others.
Stage III: Facilitating Action/Acting: The client must ultimately act, in some sense of the term, if
he is to live more effectively. Stage III skills are to assist clients to take appropriate action by
defining goals, changing ways of relating and working through issues using problem solving or
decision making methods, while providing support and encouragement. Stage III skills help the
client to cope with current problems and assist in the learning of new skills that will enable them
to live more effectively in the future. Action is based on exploration and understanding gained by
using stage I & II skills. This process is designed to help the client move from the current situation
to one that they would prefer. Transitions experiences may make the client feel vulnerable
therefore the process may often be built upon the taking of small comfortable steps as the client
grows in confidence (but this must be based upon the needs of the client). Realistic achievable
planning and time-tabling are key to success and the Skilled Helper is warm and supportive -
helping the client look out and overcome obstacles, turning challenges into opportunities and
inspiring the client to mobilise their personal, social and material resources (particularly helpful
family members, friends and self-help networks etc). Stage III skills include Help the Client to
Develop Strategies: Divergent Thinking, Goal Setting, Decision Making, Problem Solving,
Programme Choice, Evaluate Knowledge of Resources, Using Knowledge of How Behaviour is
Changed, Using Knowledge of How Useful Behaviour is Maintained, Teaching skills & Promoting
Learning skills Evaluation In addition to Explore, Understand & Act skills evaluation of the
therapy process is also important. It can take place at the end of each session as a summarization,
whenever appropriate. It helps the client understand what ground they have gone over, helps them
perceive progress they have made and inspires them with understanding on how they want to move
forwards. Intentions Underlying Responses How the helper will respond and what are the
intentions behind it should be understood by the counsellor/ helper so that the counsellor can use
these responses appropriately. In exploring the intentions underlying responses, we will refer to
the person with the problem as the “sender” and the person giving the responses as the “receiver”.
42
CASE HISTORY- 1
NAME: Ms. S
AGE: 15
SEX: Female
CHIEF COMPLAINTS: Emotional Disturbances
HISTORY OF PRESENTING ILLNESS: The child is emotionally disturbed for the last 4
months.
PAST HISTORY: The child said she is from an under privileged background such that she was
below poverty line and she was begging down the streets with her father when she was young.
The child is scared to think about her past.
FAMILY HISTORY: The child was initially living with her parents. Her mother passed away
due to cyst in the stomach. Her father is also a patient of chronic illness. As the child does not
have any siblings she was left at shelter home for her education and basic needs. The father also
married another woman. The child is not comfortable with the step mother as she always
emphasis on their poverty and talks to the child about her father’s illness that is getting advanced
day by day.
PERSONAL HISTORY:
Early childhood:
• Birth history was found to be Normal
• Language and motor developmental milestone were achieved appropriately.
• Sleep patterns were normal
Middle childhood:
The child excels in academics as she always attains above average marks. She is interested
playing badminton, volley ball and kho-kho. She also dances and much interested in drawings.
She is a sociable person.
During problem situation the child exhibits anger outburst and emotional disturbances like
crying, fighting with the house mates. The child reported un controllable anger.
MENTAL STATUS EXAMINATION
APPEARANCE AND BEHAVIOUR: Neatly dressed and well groomed. The client maintained
adequate eye contact throughout the session. Rapport was well established. The client was
comfortable when he speaks. She was very cooperative, attentive and willing to talk.
PSYCHOMOTOR ACTIVITY: Appropriate motor activity
SPEECH: Normal.
43
MOOD AND AFFECT: Appropriate

COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS: Normal
ATTENTION AND CONCENTRATION: Normal
ORIENTATION: well oriented
MEMORY ASSESSMENT immediate retention and recall, Recent memory and Remote memory
were observed to be fair.
INTELLIGENCE: Age appropriate
ABSTRACTING ABILITY: Age appropriate
JUDGEMENT: Age appropriate
INSIGHT: Aware of her illness
SESSION
PROBLEM STATEMENT: Lack of friends in school
The child was irregular to school. She reported that she is not interested in going to school. She
also said she does not like to go to school. When probed more it was found that the child isolates
herself in class. Initially she mentioned saying no one in class talks to her but later it was seen that
she has 4 friends whom she talks to. The child involved in buying her friends gifts and chocolates
despite she was not able to become friends with the others. It was then explored that she wanted
to make friendship with one particular group in class who was perceived to be the superior than
that of others. The fact that she was not able to make friendships with them bothered the child so
much.
PSYCHOLOGICAL THERAPIES AND TECHNIQUES:
• Eagan’s approach was used

• Importance of being regular to class was emphasized.
• Importance of friendships and qualities of a good friend was taught.
• The child was made to understand about her people pleasing need and taught why it is toxic
in relationships.
OUTCOME: The child appeared to be very quiet and listening carefully. She understood the right
ways to make friendships.
44
DAY 13
Date: 17/04/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Solution Focused Brief Therapy.
Activity Report:
The origins of Solution Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT) date back to the early 1980s and the Brief
Family Therapy Centre in Milwaukee, USA, where Steve de Shazer, Insoo Kim Berg and
colleagues explored how best to facilitate change in people’s lives. They observed hundreds of
hours of therapy, carefully noting the questions and client answers that led to client’s achieving
real-life change. They observed that there were often exceptions to patterns of problem behaviour,
times when the problem was less apparent or even absent. Therapy time spent exploring these
exceptions appeared to enable clients to notice possible solutions for moving forwards. This focus
on what the client is already doing that works became one of the central tenets of SFBT. Another
development was that the work increasingly focused on the client’s hopes for the future rather than
problems in their past. As a consequence of this shift they noticed that the number of sessions
decreased.
In the development of SFBT the Milwaukee team drew on a variety of sources including: Systemic
family therapy, with its interest in interactional patterns; The work at the Mental Research Institute
on developing brief therapy and changing behavioural patterns; Milton Erikson and his interest in
client beliefs and capacity to change; The philosophical ideas of Ludwig Wittgenstein on how
people construct realities through language, suggesting that therapeutic dialogue has the capacity
to construct new realities and ‘truths’ about how a person views, and so experiences, their life.
SFBT, which aims to help people experiencing difficulty find tools they can use immediately to
manage symptoms and cope with challenges, is grounded in the belief that although individuals
may already have the skills to create change in their lives, they often need help identifying and
developing those skills. Similarly, SFBT recognizes that people already know, on some level, what
change is needed in their lives, and SFBT practitioners work to help the people in their care clarify
their goals. Practitioners of SFBT encourage individuals to imagine the future they desire and then
work to collaboratively develop a series of steps that will help them achieve those goals. In
particular, therapists can help those in treatment identify a time in life when a current issue was
either less detrimental or more manageable and evaluate what factors were different or what
solutions may have been present in the past.
This form of therapy involves first developing a vision of one’s future and then determining how
internal abilities can be enhanced in order to attain the desired outcome. Therapists who practice
SFBT attempt to guide people in therapy through the process of recognizing what is working for
them, help them explore how best to continue practicing those strategies, and encourage them to
45
acknowledge and celebrate success. In addition, practitioners of SFBT support people in therapy
as they experiment with new problem-solving approaches. SFBT has been used successfully in
individual therapy and with both families and couples. Developed with the primary intention of
helping those in therapy to find solutions to challenges, the approach has expanded to address
issues in other areas of life, such as schools and workplaces. Individuals from different cultures,
backgrounds, and age groups have all been shown to benefit from this type of therapy.
SFBT can be used to treat a wide range of issues. It is most often used to address challenges for
which the person in therapy already has some idea of possible solutions. In SFTB, the person
seeking treatment is considered the "expert" on their concerns, and the therapist encourages the
individual to envision their solution, or what change would look like, and then outline the steps
necessary to solve problems and achieve goals. Because this modality focuses on solutions to
issues, rather than the reasons behind them, it may be more effective at treating some concerns
than others. Research has shown SFBT may be a helpful intervention for youth who are
experiencing behavioural concerns or academic/school-related concerns. It has also proven
effective as an approach to family therapy and couples counselling. This method is often used in
conjunction with other approaches. SFBT may not be recommended for those who are
experiencing severe mental health concerns,
The following assumptions provide the framework on which solution focused therapy is founded:
1. There are significant advantages in focusing on the positive and on solutions for the future.
Focusing on strengths and solution-talk will increase the likelihood that therapy will be
brief.
2. Individuals who come to therapy do have the capacity to act effectively. This capacity,
however, is temporarily blocked by negative cognitions.
3. There are exceptions to every problem.
4. Clients tend to present one side of the problem. Solution focused therapists invite clients
to view their problems from a different side.
5. Small change fosters bigger change.
6. Clients want to change, they have the capacity to change and they are doing their best to
make change happen.
7. As each individual is unique, so too is every solution.
We were taught an ‘Explore Acronym’ – DMCBT- refers to Difficulties, Maintaining Factor,
Causes, Barriers, Thoughts. Another acronym for identifying Goals was also discussed- CNRBS-
which refers to Change, Notice, Recent, Bothered, Step.
The Techniques of SFBT: The Miracle Question
The miracle question is a technique that counsellors can use to assist clients to think ‘outside the
square’ in regard to new possibilities and outcomes for the future. The miracle question has been
asked thousands of times throughout the world. It has been refined as practitioners have
46
experimented with different ways of asking it. The question is best asked deliberately and
dramatically. The miracle question requests clients to make a leap of faith and imagine how their
life will be changed when the problem is solved. This is not easy for clients. It requires them to
make a dramatic shift from problem saturated thinking to a focus on solutions. Most clients need
time and assistance to make that shift.
Exception Questions
Having created a detailed miracle picture, the counsellor has started to gain some understanding
of what the client hopes to achieve and the counsellor and client can begin to work towards these
solutions. This is achieved through highlighting exceptions in a client’s life that are counter to the
problem. This helps empower clients to seek solutions. Exception questions provide clients with
the opportunity to identify times when things have been different for them.
Examples of exception questions include:
1. Tell me about times when one don’t get angry.
2. Tell me about times one felt the happiest.
3. When was the last time that one feel one had a better day?
4. Was there ever a time when one felt happy in their relationship?
5. What was it about that day that made it a better day?
6. Can one think of a time when the problem was not present in their life?
When exploring for exceptions, be aware that such questions can be phrased to ask for the client’s
perception of exceptions (individual questions) and the client’s perception of what significant
others may notice (relationship questions).
Elicit — So when the miracle happens, one and their husband will be talking more about what
their day was like and hugging more. Are there times already which are like the miracle — even a
little bit? If their husband was here and I were to ask him the same question, what do one think he
would say?
Amplify — When was the last time one and their husband talked more and hugged more? Tell me
more about that time. What was it like? What did one talk about? What did one say? When he said
that, what did one do? What did he do then? How was that for one? Was else was different about
that time? If he were here, what else might he say about that time?
Reinforce — Nonverbally:? Lean forward raise eyebrows, take notes. Do what one naturally do
when someone tells one something important. Verbally: Show interest. (Was this new for one and
him? Did it surprise one that this happened?) And compliment. (Seems like that might have been
difficult for one to do, given everything that’s happened in the relationship. Was it difficult?)
Explore how the exception happened — What do one suppose one did to make that happen? If
their husband was here and I asked him, what do one suppose he would say one did that helped
him to tell one more about his day?
47
Use compliments — Where did one get the idea to do it that way? That seems to make a lot of
sense. Have one always been able to come up with ideas about what to do in difficult situations
like this?
Project exceptions into the future — On a scale of 1 to 10, where 1 means every chance, what
are the chances that a time like that (the exception) will happen again in the next week (month,
sometime in the future)? What will take for that to happen?)
What will it take for that to happen more often in the future? Who has to do what to make it happen
again? What is the most important thing for one to remember to do to make sure that
_________________ (the exception) has the best chance of happening again? What’s the next
most important thing to remember?
What do one think their husband would say the chances are that this (the exception) will happen
again? What would he say one could do to increase the chances of that happening again? Suppose
one decide to do that, what do one think he would do? Suppose he did that, how would things be
different for one?around their house? in their relationship with him?
Scaling Questions
Scaling questions invite clients to perceive their problem on a continuum. Scaling questions ask
clients to consider their position on a scale (usually from 1 to 10, with one being the least desirable
situation and 10 being the most desirable). Scaling questions can be a helpful way to track
counselee’s progress toward goals and monitor incremental change.
Once a therapist is given a number, he or she explores how that rating translates into action-talk.
For example, if the client rates his or her situation at a three, the therapist asks, “What specifically
is happening to indicate to one that it is a three?” The next step is to determine the goals and
preferred outcomes. To do this the therapist asks the client where things would need to be for him
or her to feel that the goals of treatment have been met or that therapy has been successful.
Examples of scaling questions include:
One said that things are between a 5 and a 6. What would need to happen so that one could say
things were between a 6 and a 7?
How confident are one that one could have a good day like one did last week, on a scale of zero to
ten, where zero equals no confidence and ten means one have every confidence?
Presupposing Change
When clients are focused on changing the negative aspects (or problems) in their lives, positive
changes can often be overlooked, minimized or discounted due to the ongoing presence of the
problem. The solution focused approach challenges counsellors to be attentive to positive changes
(however small) that occur in their clients’ lives. Questions that presuppose change can be useful
in assisting clients to recognise such changes. Questions such as, “What’s different, or better since
I saw one last time?” This question invites clients to consider the possibility that change (perhaps
48
positive change) has recently occurred in their lives. If evidence of positive change is unavailable,
counsellors can pursue a line of questioning that relates to the client’s ability to cope.
Questions such as:
1. How come things aren’t worse for one?
2. What stopped total disaster from occurring?
3. How did one avoid falling apart?
These questions can be followed up by the counsellor positively affirming the client with regard
to any action they took to cope.”
CASE HISTORY-2
NAME: Mrs. R
AGE: 35
GENDER: Female
ADDRESS: Beed
OCCUPATION: Student
MARITAL STATUS: married
CHIEF COMPLAINT:
• Weight gain/ body image issues
• Fear of health deterioration
• Lack of discipline in routine life
• Ignorant behaviour
• Laziness
• Anxiety
• Anger
HISTORY OF PRESENTING COMPLAINT: The client reported that she needs to lose
weight and do something better for future life. Both her concerns narrowed down to the fact that
she has become very lazy and ignorant in her life because of which she is unwilling to work on
herself. She feels that her unhealthy lifestyle will eventually affect her health which is a big
concern for her. She told that after marriage she has not been doing anything concrete which has
now made her move to her comfort zone. She does not find a motivation to work. She feels that
this has caused immense stress for her as well. This attitude of hers has led to irritability and
anger outbursts.
PAST MEDICAL HISTORY: The client does not have any medical history or complications.
She had a hemorrhoids operation done a few years ago.
49
PERSONAL HISTORY: Birth history was found to be Normal. Language and motor
developmental milestone were achieved appropriately. Sleep patterns were normal.
Academically, the client performed well.
FAMILY HISTORY: The client belongs to a financially middle class family. Her family
comprises of her husband & 2 Daughter. She has cordial relations with her family members.
There is free and open communication. Her Family Members are supportive of her decisions.
There is no rigidity and she is given ample amount of freedom to live her life as per her wishes.
SOCIAL HISTORY: She is a calm woman. She has a number of good friends from school and
college. She likes watching television, travelling and she has addicted with social media.
SYSTEM REVIEW: The client complained that she has breathlessness while climbing stairs
(due to her weight).
APPEARANCE AND BEHAVIOUR: Neatly dressed and well groomed. Rapport was well
established. The client was relaxed and comfortable while speaking. She maintained eye contact
and sat upright throughout the session. She was very cooperative, attentive and willing to talk.
SPEECH: She had a normal tone of speech.
COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS: Normal. She was conscious and attentive. She had well
established memory.
ORIENTATION: Well oriented
THOUGHT PROCESS: Logical and coherent
THOUGHT CONTENT: The client listed her concerns very clearly.
INSIGHT: Aware about her problems
JUDGEMENT: Appropriate. She was very much aware about what needs to be done and how
her decisions will affect her and her family members for the better.
SOLUTION FOCUSED BRIEF THERAPY
❖ PROBLEM STATEMENTS: The client stated that she is having problems related to
her weight, career and independence and is struggling to get her life on track. She want
to do better about her angrily nature. She often feels irritated on small things and gets
angry at people for petty issues.
50
❖ DMCBT (Difficulties, Maintaining factor, causes, Barriers, Thought)
▪ Difficulties -I have became very lazy and this is causing a lot of negative thoughts
in me. Breathlessness while climbing stairs or trying to work out
▪ Maintaining Factor Have been staying like this for the last 3-4 years now and it
feels comfortable.
▪ Causes-Having an ignorant behaviour towards the unhealthy lifestyle.
▪ Barriers -Have just imbibed the habit of giving excuses and become extremely
lazy.
▪ Thoughts- -I think I should reduce my laziness as well as lose weight by working
on health issues.
❖ CNRBS ( Change, Notice, Recent, Bother, Steps)
▪ Change Lose 20 kgs. Earn money and be financially independent. Want to remain
busy and not overthink.
▪ Notice -Weight loss will be clearly visible to everyone. Parents will notice the
change as I’ll be busy and occupied with work. My anger issues will solve as my
energy will be channelized.
▪ Recent-Yes. I try to get involved a bit in my family business. I have reduced
eating junk and stopped midnight munching. I try to sleep and wake up on time
(as per last 3-4 months).
▪ Bothered-Lethargy, making excuses. Lack of dedication, motivation & sincerity.
▪ Steps -Waking up timely and doing yoga every morning seems doable.
❖ RESOURCES USED
Technique of scaling question and miracle question were used.
Scaling Question: If one have to rate the pressure one feel on yourself to make their life
better what would it be? 10 being extreme pressure and 0 being relaxed.
-It is at an 6. And if nothing is done about it probably in the next 2-3 months it will be a 8.
Exception Question: If all their problems are solved, how will one feel?
If I lose the extra weight, I’ll be happier because of my health. If I done so my family will be
happy and satisfied. My husband will be relaxed if I’m doing something productive in life. I’ll be
stress free if I could see them stress free.
INTERNAL SOURCES:
The client was made to realize that she is resilient and just has to take the first step towards
changing her lifestyle.
EXTERNAL SOURCES:
51
Husband of the client are very supportive and she acknowledges that.
She has a good number of friends and has been in a long term relationship with a very supportive
partner.
❖ OUTCOME
The client was able to realize that her concerns are a cause of stress for her family and that she
will start working towards it. She came up with possible steps that she could take: joining her
family business and start doing yoga. She realized its all about taking the first step. Once she
starts working towards it, it will take a couple of days to get used to her new routine and she
might stop feeling worthless.
CASE HISTORY-3
NAME: Ms. L
AGE: 26
GENDER: Female
ADDRESS: Beed
OCCUPATION: Data Operator
MARITAL STATUS: Unmarried
CHIEF COMPLAINT: Communication issues with boyfriend.
HISTORY OF PRESENTING ISSUE: The client is facing communication issues with her
boyfriend for the past three months.
PAST HISTORY: The client feels that her boyfriend is not attending to her calls and messages
as frequently as he did before which has let the client to be feeling unloved and unattended. She
tried to explain this to him but he cites the reason of his work that he could not attend to her in
time.
MEDICATION HISTORY: The client is not suffering from any health problems and is not
taking any medication at present.
FAMILY HISTORY: The client is the youngest daughter of her family. She has an elder sister.
Her mother and father are both working parents. The client says that her parents have frequent
fights with each other over trivial matters which disturbs her peace of mind.
SOCIAL HISTORY: She is a composed woman. She has few friends from school and college
but they are close. She likes reading books, watching movies and cycling.
52

APPEARANCE AND BEHAVIOUR: The client was well groomed. Rapport was established.
She relaxed and comfortable while speaking. There was adequate eye contact throughout the
session. She was cooperative, attentive and willing to talk.
established memory.
THOUGHT CONTENT: The client listed her concerns clearly.
JUDGEMENT: Appropriate.

❖ PROBLEM STATEMENTS: Unattending behaviour of the boyfriend.
The client is in relationship with her boyfriend for the past one year. She believes that her
boyfriend is the most caring and understanding person of this world. All the issues that
bother her she tries to share them with your boyfriend and feel happy to do so. However,
after her boyfriend changed his job the client feels that he is not attentive to her thoughts
and feelings. The client feels as if she is left out of conversations and most of the time her
boyfriend stays silent.
▪ Difficulties - unattending behaviour of boyfriend and communication issues with

him
▪ Maintaining Factor- understanding issues
▪ Causes- work stress and less amount of time
▪ Barriers- managing time
▪ Thoughts- the client finds it difficult to understand the seriousness of her
boyfriend's work
53
❖ CNRBS (Change, Notice, Recent, Bother, Steps)
▪ Change- to try and become more expressive to plan meetings earlier be fire their
work
▪ Notice- the time and attention given by her boyfriend even though he is working
▪ Recent- to try and engage with him more
▪ Bothered- the client is bothered that boyfriend will argue with her
▪ Steps- to reminisce their past happy moments and try to recreate them.
❖ RESOURCES USED
Technique of scaling question was used.
Scaling question: The client was asked to rate a problem on a scale of 1 to 10. The client rated
her problem as 6.5. The client believes that this will be a temporary problem and her boyfriend is
an understanding person who will soon give her the time and attention that she wants.
❖ OUTCOME
The client said that she felt lighter after sharing these issues with someone. She said that she will
try to solve the communication issues and become more proactive to try to engage her boyfriend
and increase their meaningful conversations.
CASE HISTORY- 4
NAME: Ms. M
AGE: 37
GENDER: Female
ADDRESS: Pune
OCCUPATION: Data Operator
CHIEF COMPLAINT: Arguments with sister-in-law
HISTORY OF PRESENTING COMPLAINT: The client is facing issues with her sister in law
for the past one month.
MEDICATION HISTORY: the client was injured due to a fall and is taking medications for the
same.
54
FAMILY HISTORY: The client is only daughter of her parents. Her father is a businessman and
mother is a teacher. The client is married for the past two years and considers her husband's family
as a caring and happy family. Her husband has one elder brother and a younger sister. The elder
brother is already married and is living separately whereas the younger sister lives with them.
SOCIAL HISTORY: She is a composed woman. She has a huge circle of friends from her
college and likes to meet them often. She likes travelling, cooking, meeting friends.
APPEARANCE AND BEHAVIOUR: Well groomed. Rapport was well established. She was
relaxed and comfortable while speaking. There was adequate eye contact throughout the session.
She was cooperative and willing to talk.
established memory.
THOUGHT CONTENT: The client listed her concerns clearly.
❖ PROBLEM STATEMENT: Frequent misunderstandings with sister in law.
The client feels that her sister-in-law has become a cold person for the past one month since
she had lost her job and is finding it difficult to get into a new job. After her marriage, the
client considered sister in law as a best friend but it is saddening to see her sister-in-law
getting into small arguments now and then mainly on the issue of doing the household
chores.
▪ Difficulties- frequent misunderstandings

55
▪ Maintaining factor inability to ask other family members for help, their refusal to
intervene.
▪ Causes sister-in-law’s loss of job
▪ Barriers- mood swings of sister-in-law, not enough time to discuss due to many household
chores.
▪ Thoughts irritated by the frequent arguments
❖ CNRBS (Change, Notice, Recent, Bother, Steps)
▪ Change- to try to get husband and mother in laws advices.

▪ Notice- the amount of time given by sister in law to the household chores, readiness of
sister and law to try and discuss sort out the issues.
▪ Recent- the client's mother-in-law had intervened in their argument
▪ Bothered - friction in their relationship
▪ Steps- try to help sister in law in finding a new job taking some time of the day to sit and
talk with her about what is bothering her right now.
❖ RESOURCES
Scaling question the client rated off problem 7 out of 10. believe that this problem needs to be
solved so that her home environment remains peaceful.
Exception seeking questions The client was asked whether there were times when the sister and
love used to help her and when there was no arguments. The client replied in affirmative and said
that by nature her sister-in-law is a kind and compassionate person, but due to her work issue, she
has become stressed and irritated in recent times.
❖ OUTCOME The client understood what needs to be done. She was confident that her
misunderstandings with her sister-in-law will reduce and the relationship will once again
be a happy one.
DAY 14
Date: 18/04/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Self-Awareness.
Activity Report:
Self-Awareness Worksheet -Who I am? It is used for Self-Discovery and Goal Setting. This Self-
Awareness worksheet focuses on discovering “Who am I?.” It is an all-encompassing worksheet
56
that address talents, qualities, values, perception, and self-reflection. The other worksheets in the
series focus on a specific aspect of self-Discovery.
The other Self Discovery Workshops/worksheets in the series include:
1. Personal Attributes
2. Values and Principles
3. Emotional Awareness
4. Tendencies and Habits
5. Needs Assessment
Self-Awareness happens through reflection. We can have numerous experiences in our life, but
still lack self-awareness. We need to take the time to step outside of our experiences and reflect on
them. The key areas for self-awareness include our personality traits, personal values, emotions,
habits, and the psychological needs that motivate our behaviours.
Self-awareness and/or Self Discovery is about knowing and understanding:
• your beliefs and principles
• What you value and what is important to you
• what motivates you
• your own emotions
• your thinking patterns
• your tendencies to react to certain situations
• what you want out of life
Who I am?
To get you thinking about your personal development plan and your mission statement, spend
some time contemplating the following:
TALENTS
What are your greatest talents or skills?
Good at understanding other people’s emotions and the way of their thinking. I’m good at
interacting with people and listening to them.
Which of your talents or skills gives you the greatest sense of pride or satisfaction?
To be able to understand other peoples emotions and help them feel comfortable sharing their
worries with me without judging them regardless of the problem
57
What talents or skills do you admire most in others?

Being confident enough to be able to hold conversation in front of large crowd as I have fear of
talking in-front of large crowd.
What talent or skill do you wish to develop for yourself?
Being able to be open about myself with others as much as I actually want to be. It makes it like
there’s a barrier between me and others
TRAITS/QUALITIES
What are your five greatest strengths?
1. Hardworking
2. Resoruceful
3. Empathetic
4. Kind
5. Understanding
What do you feel are your two biggest weaknesses?
1. Less confident to try new things
2. Afraid of public speaking
What are your best qualities/characteristics?
I consider myself a good empathetic person who tries to help everyone around me. Easily
multitask. Honest person
What qualities do you wish you had?
Be more patient with myself as well as others
What qualities or traits do you most admire in others?
Confidence to socialize easily and
What behaviours, traits, or qualities do you want other people to admire in you?
my honesty and hardwork
Values
What are ten (10) things that are really important to you?
1. My family
2. My dog and cats
58
3. My friends
4. Memories
5. Honesty
6. My freedom
7. Respect
8. Time
9. Memories (both good as well as bad)
10. Trust
What are the three most important things to you?
1. My family
2. Trust and honesty
3. Love
Do you spend enough time on/with the things you most value? Why or why not?
No I wish I could spend as much as I want to spend but I can not due to my busy school schedule
What are the values that you hold most near to your heart?
Honesty and being true to oneself and not try to change due for other people’s sake
Perception
How is the “public you” different from the “private you”?
“public me” is more cheerful and happy and bubbly by nature but “private me” is more timid and
calm and reserved and way less talkative.
What makes it hard to be yourself with others?
My constant worry about being judged and being less friendly
How are you trying to please others with the way you live your life?
I try my best to compromise as well as I can and listen to others problem and try to change it
What do you want people to think and say about you?
I want to be seen as happy, confident, honest person. A person they can rely on easily without
worrying about being judged.
How do your behaviours and actions support what they think or say?
59
I try my best to be there for others in need and listen to them if they have any problem. I try my
best to be honest about all the things but be respectful at the same time
What do you least want people to think about you?
I don’t want to be known as someone who cheats and lies
Is it more important to be like by others or to be yourself? Why?
I used to be want to be liked by others as much as I want to like myself but in the last year I realized
that the later is far way more important as when I’m sitting alone all I have is nobody just me ,you
cant always be surrounded with other people, so to be happy its best for no one but yourself to love
yourself first. Others will like you and respect you only when you start liking yourself first.
Who are the people who allow you to feel fully yourself?
My best-friends are very important to me as they allow me to be fully myself without me worried
about being judged and knowing very well that they’ll be with me through thick and thin.
What places allow you to feel fully yourself?
I like sitting in my room and that’s the only place I can be fully expressive of I honestly I am.
What activities allow you to feel fully yourself?
I like reading a lot, mostly fictional novels help me escape this world and make me happy the most.
Apart from it I enjoy doing painting and sketching it’s the only time when I feel fully myself
How do you want people to remember you when you are gone?
I want to be remembered as a happy and outgoing girl and respected everyone and was honest till
the end
Accomplishments
What three things are you most proud of in your life to date?
1. I was able to come out of depression and somewhat overcome anxiety
2. I was able to stand up for myself in the important moment of life
3. I adopted a cat
what do you hope to achieve in life?
to be able to stand up on my own feet financially as well as mentally and not depend on anybody.
Do well mentally and emotionally.
If you were to receive an award, what would you want that award to represent? Why?
id like receive an award for being a person who is vey kind and compassionate. Because I believe
these two are most important values in life.
60
if you could accomplish only one thing during the rest of your life, what would it be?
I would like to give all the happiness to my mother because she went through so much for her
children and never asked for anything in return. Not only financially but emotionally as well id
love to support her.
What do you believe you are here to accomplish or contribute to the world?
I’d like to contribute the world in being a little more sympathetic and empathetic toward others
so they can relate to others.
As well as id like to contribute in the betterment to environment so our future generation can live
freely.
Reflection
List three (3) things that you are:
1. Honest
2. Empathetic
3. Happy
List three (3) things that you are not:
1. Confident
2. Free
3. Greedy
What is something that represents you? (e.g. song, animal, flower, poem, symbol, jewellery,
etc…) why?
Daisy, it’s a type of flower.it doesn’t need much care but it can grow in very difficult environments
What do you like best about yourself?
I like my personality and my get-along nature
What do you like least about yourself?
My tendency to trust others easily and low confidence
What three things would you like to change most about yourself?
1. My viewpoint of myself
2. Me easily trusting others
3. Me easily being swayed by others
Who are two people you most admire?
61
1. My mother
2. My maternal grandmother
What do you admire about them?
Their simplicity and power to just give everything up for family
What are five things you love to do?

1. Reading novel
2. Watching series
3. Listeining music
4. Creating art
5. Clicking pictures of things I love
What matters to you most in my life?
My family and my pets and my best-friends
What makes you happy?
I like small things like watching sunset with my loved ones, going for walk or just long latenight
phone calls and trying good food as well as my pet dog.
What are three things you believe you need in order to have a great life?
1. Being happy in life
2. Being at peace with oneself
3. Being close to your otherhalf
Why are those things important to you?
Its very important to be mentally happy in life otherwise you can not enjoy life even if you have
tons of money.
Being close to your partner helps in being happy as you have someone you can depend on when
youre struggling
What do you stand for (principles)?
ive always beleved in the saying “ trust the time of your life” and as my mother taught me “don’t
stoop to the level of others who are doing bad things to you otherwise there wont be any difference
between you and them”
How do you want to impact the lives of others?
62
I want to be able to make others life a little more joyous and a bit more exciting so they can be
their real self.
Finish the sentence
I do my best when... I have something to prove
I struggle when… im not given credit for my work
I am comfortable when… im alone
I feel stress when… im in huge group or when I have to plan
I am courageous when... Im in the face of trouble
One of the most important things I learned was... To be true to oneself and not change myself
I missed a great opportunity when... I loose confidence in myself
One of my favourite memories is… when we used to stay till moring in hostel
My toughest decisions involve... My family
Being myself is hard because… its difficult to find people who geniunly understands me
I can be myself when… im alone or with my people
I wish I was more…. Confident
I wish I could… be happy
I wish I would regularly…. Workout again
I wish I had… more pets
I wish I knew… the truth
I wish I felt… genuine happiness
I wish I saw… my future
I wish I thought… more positively
Life should be about… happiness and finding peace
I am going to make my life about… being more satisfied with myself
Introspective Report: Destiny’s Odyssey: Self Awareness Worksheet
Helped me to know about and understand
-my beliefs and principles
-what I value and what is important to me
-what motivates me
-my own emotions
63
-my thinking pattern

-my tendencies to react to certain situations
-what I want out of life
DAY 15
Date: 19/04/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: SWOT Analysis.
Swot analysis means knowing one’s strength or strong points in him, weaknesses present in him,
the opportunities available and the threats he has to face.
Strength: Strength is the principle fixing in the swot investigation. strength incorporates
information, capacity, ability, expertise, experience, dynamic ability, disposition, strategies, and
techniques. One should make an investigation of his strengths. He should realize what is where he
is skilled and can have the option to deal with the things viably or play out the positions effectively.
Strength is a valuable resource of a person with the assistance of which he can battle out anything
coming in his manner and prevail upon. Just bragging on their pleased belonging strengths isn’t
adequate one ought to build up their insight.
Weaknesses: One should detect his weaknesses truly and make their examination. Some of them
can be handily enhanced. One should attempt to do that first and convert them into their strength.
The absence of information can be refined by picking up it. Abilities can be gained through
preparing. Numerous things can be scholarly through experience and by seeing concerning how
seniors come over or prevail upon the conditions. Conversations, perusing, looking for counsel
can eliminate the shortcomings inalienable in the individual.
Opportunities: The third element of swot investigation is opportunities. There are a few open doors
accessible to the individual of fitness and information. One should know his latent capacity and
proceed to snatch opportunity accessible to him he will prevail in his endeavor. One ought not to
think in those days. Openings ought not to be missed. The possibility once lost will only sometimes
come back once more. Openings are to be followed and gotten. There are numerous in
administration openings moreover. One ought not to miss them. Carelessness concerning an
individual lands him in a tough situation. Association gives numerous chances to its workers to
rise to cause their vocation to develop.
Threats: The last element of swot examination is the threats. One should spot and recognize the
genuine threats and not the nonexistent one. Their opponents and associates in the work might be
a danger to one or their seniors may deny one a chance and represent a threat to one. Be that as it
may, one ought not to be shaken by all these. Try not to permit yourself to be taken out by them.
Face the threats intensely and battle them out. If one are on the right way achievement is yours.
64
One ought to argue their case before the position and request equity. Try not to endure
shamefulness. No one but defeatists can do that. Get ready to confront them strongly and go to any
conceivable and real degree to battle them out.
Analysis
Generally, youngsters are in a hold of stress. These issues if not followed and directed on time may
prompt liquor abuse and illicit drug use too. They need opportune direction from the advocates.
These individuals ought to be firmly watched and ought to be kept in gathering or be permitted to
work in a gathering. A few representatives get abuse by their bosses. These evil medicines likewise
become the reason for stress to the worker. They are the survivors of treachery done to them by
their bosses. Now and again based on one-sided revealing by the bosses get denied numerous
advantages and rights. This hardship drives them to outrageous discouragement and may
frequently become a casualty of liquor abuse or illicit drug use. The ideal impedance and
reestablishing his lost advantages by the guide set back the representative on target.
Self-improvement is the best assistance. One ought to have the option to create manageability so
he can remain under any conditions. Self-advancement is the best turn of events. There are
numerous techniques for the self turn of events. One should remain all alone. Everyone has an
internal desire for the self turn of events. It will assist him with building certainty, skill, and ability
to adapt up to any conditions and changes inside and outside the association. Change can’t be
captured. It is consistent. One should mindful of the change and face it intensely and bravely and
ought not to lose certainty. For self-improvement, one should make his/her swot investigation to
know one’s qualities, shortcomings, openings accessible present, and future and the potential
dangers in his manner.
Activity Report:
DAY 16
Date: 20/04/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy.
Rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) was created and developed by the American
psychotherapist and psychologist Albert Ellis, who was inspired by many of the teachings of
Asian, Greek, Roman and modern philosophers. REBT is the first form of cognitive behavioural
therapy (CBT) and was first expounded by Ellis in the mid-1950s; development continued until
his death in 2007. Ellis became synonymous with the highly influential therapy.
REBT is both a psychotherapeutic system of theory and practices and a school of thought
established by Ellis. He first presented his ideas at a conference of the American Psychological
Association in 1956 then published a seminal article in 1957 entitled "Rational psychotherapy and
65
individual psychology", in which he set the foundation for what he was calling rational therapy
(RT) and carefully responded to questions from Rudolf Dreikurs and others about the similarities
and differences with Alfred Adler's individual psychology. This was around a decade before
psychiatrist Aaron Beck first set forth his "cognitive therapy", after Ellis had contacted him in the
mid 1960s. Ellis' own approach was renamed Rational Emotive Therapy in 1959, then the current
term in 1992.
Precursors of certain fundamental aspects of rational emotive behaviour therapy have been
identified in ancient philosophical traditions, particularly to Stoicists] Marcus Aurelius, Epictetus,
Zeno of Citium, Chrysippus, Panaetius of Rhodes, Cicero, and Seneca, and early Asian
philosophers Confucius and Gautama Buddha. In his first major book on rational therapy, Ellis
wrote that the central principle of his approach, that people are rarely emotionally affected by
external events but rather by their thinking about such events, "was originally discovered and stated
by the ancient Stoic philosophers." Ellis illustrates this with a quote from the Enchiridion of
Epictetus: "Men are disturbed not by things, but by the views which they take of them." Ellis noted
that Shakespeare expressed a similar thought in Hamlet: "There's nothing good or bad but thinking
makes it so."
Applications and interfaces of REBT are used with a broad range of clinical problems in traditional
psychotherapeutic settings such as individual-, group- and family therapy. It is used as a general
treatment for a vast number of different conditions and psychological problems normally
associated with psychotherapy. In addition, REBT is used with non-clinical problems and
problems of living through counselling, consultation and coaching settings dealing with problems
including relationships, social skills, career changes, stress management, assertiveness training,
grief, problems with aging, money, weight control etc. More recently, the reported use of REBT
in sport and exercise settings has grown with the efficacy of REBT demonstrated across a range
of sports.
REBT also has many interfaces and applications through self-help resources, phone and internet
counselling, workshops & seminars, workplace and educational programmes, etc. This includes
Rational Emotive Education (REE) where REBT is applied in education settings, Rational
Effectiveness Training in business and work-settings and SMART Recovery (Self Management
And Recovery Training) in supporting those in addiction recovery, in addition to a wide variety of
specialized treatment strategies and applications. In general REBT is arguably one of the most
investigated theories in the field of psychotherapy and a large amount of clinical experience and a
substantial body of modern psychological research have validated and substantiated many of
REBTs theoretical assumptions on personality and psychotherapy. REBT may be effective in
improving sports performance and mental health.
REBT clearly acknowledges that people, in addition to disturbing themselves, also are innately
constructivists. Because they largely upset themselves with their beliefs, emotions and behaviours,
they can be helped to, in a multimodal manner, dispute and question these and develop a more
workable, more self-helping set of constructs. REBT generally teaches and promotes:
66
That the concepts and philosophies of life of unconditional self-acceptance, other-acceptance, and
life-acceptance are effective philosophies of life in achieving mental wellness and mental health.
That human beings are inherently fallible and imperfect and that they are better served by accepting
their and other human beings' totality and humanity, while at the same time they may not like some
of their behaviours and characteristics.
That they are better off not measuring their entire self or their "being" and give up the narrow,
grandiose and ultimately destructive notion to give themselves any global rating or report card.
This is partly because all humans are continually evolving and are far too complex to accurately
rate; all humans do both self-defeating / socially defeating and self-helping / socially helping
deeds, and have both beneficial and un-beneficial attributes and traits at certain times and in certain
conditions. REBT holds that ideas and feelings about self-worth are largely definitional and are
not empirically confirmable or falsifiable.
That people had better accept life with its hassles and difficulties not always in accordance with
their wants, while trying to change what they can change and live as elegantly as possible with
what they cannot change.
THE ABCS OF REBT
Based on the notion that we are typically unaware of our deeply imbedded irrational thoughts and
how they affect us on a day-to-day basis, Ellis established three guiding principles of REBT. These
are known as the ABCs: activating event, beliefs, consequences, disputing, effect and feelings:
• Activating (or Adverse) Event. First, it is essential to identify the situation or event that
triggers the negative emotional and/or behavioural response. In the case of the above
example, the activating event is the downcast expression or lack of positive feedback from
a colleague.
• Beliefs. Second, the core beliefs that are attached to the emotional or behavioural response
must be identified and examined. Again, using the above scenario, the core beliefs would
be “I am an outcast. Nobody likes me.” A therapist employing REBT techniques would
guide a person to explore where these beliefs originate and develop a plan for recognizing
and replacing them with positive affirmations.
• Consequences. The combination of the activating event and the core beliefs will produce
a result or consequence, such as depression, social anxiety, antisocial behaviour, or issues
with self-esteem. Similarly, the deconstruction of these ingrained negative beliefs and
integration of fresh, positive perceptions can drastically improve a person’s outlook and
experience of life.
• D – Disputation or challenge the irrational or limiting beliefs is required for mental change
to take place. Reviewing, challenging and eschewing the current beliefs sets the person up
for future success. When looking at the D section there are three key kinds of disputes that
can be used:
Empirical / Scientific dispute – Where is the proof or basis for the belief / feelings / thought pattern
67
Functional dispute – Is the belief supporting some other, potentially unconscious goals?
Logical dispute – Does the belief system make common sense? Is there any generalisation or other
thought pattern influencing these beliefs?
Example: The presenter recognises the thought pattern and changes and sees they are not based on
truth or logic and adapts over the time to a view of believing that they can do a decent presentation.
• E – Effect of challenging the self-defeating belief system. Psychologists often this
cognitive restructuring, as new mental patterns and habits are created. Example: Presenter
gains more confidence as presentations become more fluid and gets more positive
feedback, this in turn improves their self belief and creates a positive cycle of change.
Beck’s Cognitive Distortions:
1. BLACK-AND-WHITE THINKING: A person with this dichotomous thinking pattern
typically sees things in terms of either/or. Something is either good or bad, right or wrong, all
or nothing. Black-and-white thinking fails to acknowledge that there are almost always several
shades of gray that exist between black and white. By seeing only two possible sides or
outcomes to something, a person ignores the middle—and possibly more reasonable—ground.
2. PERSONALIZATION: When engaging in this type of thinking, an individual tends to take
things personally. He or she may attribute things that other people do as the result of his or her
own actions or behaviours. This type of thinking also causes a person to blame himself or
herself for external circumstances outside the person’s control.
3. ‘SHOULD’ STATEMENTS: Thoughts that include “should,” “ought,” or “must” are almost
always related to a cognitive distortion. For example: “I should have arrived to the meeting
earlier,” or, “I must lose weight to be more attractive.” This type of thinking may induce
feelings of guilt or shame. “Should” statements also are common when referring to others in
our lives. These thoughts may go something like, “He should have called me earlier,” or, “She
ought to thank me for all the help I’ve given her.” Such thoughts can lead a person to feel
frustration, anger, and bitterness when others fail to meet unrealistic expectations. No matter
how hard we wish to sometimes, we cannot control the behaviour of another, so thinking about
what others should do serves no healthy purpose.
4. CATASTROPHIZING: This occurs when a person sees any unpleasant occurrence as the
worst possible outcome. A person who is catastrophizing might fail an exam and immediately
think he or she has likely failed the entire course. A person may not have even taken the exam
yet and already believe he or she will fail—assuming the worst, or preemptively
catastrophizing.
5. MAGNIFYING: With this type of cognitive distortion, things are exaggerated or blown out
of proportion, though not quite to the extent of catastrophizing. It is the real-life version of the
old saying, “Making a mountain out of a molehill.”
6. MINIMIZING: The same person who experiences the magnifying distortion may minimize
positive events. These distortions sometimes occur in conjunction with each other. A person
68
who distorts reality by minimizing may think something like, “Yes, I got a raise, but it wasn’t
very big and I’m still not very good at my job.”
7. MINDREADING: This type of thinker may assume the role of psychic and may think he or
she knows what someone else thinks or feels. The person may think he or she knows what
another person thinks despite no external confirmation that his or her assumption is true.
8. FORTUNE TELLING: A fortune-telling-type thinker tends to predict the future, and usually
foresees a negative outcome. Such a thinker arbitrarily predicts that things will turn out poorly.
Before a concert or movie, one might hear him or her say, “I just know that all the tickets will
be sold out when we get there.”
9. OVERGENERALIZATION: When overgeneralizing, a person may come to a conclusion
based on one or two single events, despite the fact reality is too complex to make such
generalizations. If a friend misses a lunch date, this doesn’t mean he or she will always fail to
keep commitments. Overgeneralizing statements often include the words “always,” “never,”
“every,” or “all.”
10. DISCOUNTING THE POSITIVE: This extreme form of all-or-nothing thinking occurs
when a person discounts positive information about a performance, event, or experience and
sees only negative aspects. A person engaging in this type of distortion might disregard any
compliments or positive reinforcement he or she receives.
11. FILTERING: This cognitive distortion, similar to discounting the positive, occurs when a
person filters out information, negative or positive. For example, a person may look at his or
her feedback on an assignment in school or at work and exclude positive notes to focus on one
critical comment.
12. LABELING: This distortion, a more severe type of overgeneralization, occurs when a
person labels someone or something based on one experience or event. Instead of believing
that he or she made a mistake, people engaging in this type of thinking might automatically
label themselves as failures.
13. EMOTIONAL REASONING: Mistaking one’s feelings for reality is emotional reasoning.
If this type of thinker feels scared, there must be real danger. If this type of thinker feels stupid,
then to him or her this must be true. This type of thinking can be severe and may manifest as
obsessive compulsion. For example, a person may feel dirty even though he or she has
showered twice within the past hour.
Activity Report:
DAY 17
Date: 21/04/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
69

Topic: Techniques of REBT.
We learnt that Common core irrational beliefs include:
1. absolutistic musts and shoulds
2. awfulizing
3. I-can’t-stand-it-it is
4. Damning oneself and others
Core beliefs are also related to overgeneralizations, especially related to “is.” Core beliefs
influence each other. Cognitions maintain dysfunctions, sometimes because people have irrational
beliefs about their symptoms. Three main irrational beliefs are:
1. “I absolutely must under all conditions do important tasks well and be approved by
significant others or else I am an inadequate and unlovable person.”
2. “Other people absolutely must under all conditions treat me fairly and justly or else
they are rotten and damnable persons.
3. “Conditions under which I live absolutely must always be the way I want them to be,
give me almost immediate gratification, and not require me to work too hard to change
or improve them; or else it is awful, I can’t stand them, and it is impossible for me to
be happy at all!”
Believing that Adversities directly cause Consequences is a common irrational belief.
Three main insights are likely to help clients:
1. Adversities often contribute to consequences, but so do beliefs.
2. Although disturbed consequences often originated in childhood and adolescence, it is
the continued irrational beliefs that maintain the disturbance.
3. Changing dysfunctional consequences takes work and practice.
REBT is about helping people get better, not just to feel better. REBT promotes active-directive
therapy. Active-directive therapy often helps people change because:
1. they may be biologically prone to be disturbed
2. they may have low frustration tolerance
3. they may view change as dangerous because it takes away their excuses
4. they may prefer to interact with a caring therapist than to get better
5. they may be hostiles to others who are pushing them to change
70
6. they may not agree with a therapeutic approach

There are cautions for being too directive: Be aware of the limitations of the techniques used,
Monitor clients’ reactions and be prepared to change techniques, Have many methods available,
Give unconditional acceptance and show clients how to give it to themselves. Assessment starts
with identifying consequences, then identifying adversities, and then identifying irrational beliefs.
Before beginning interventions, make sure clients understand the ABC model and they understand
that they are primarily responsible for their own reactions to life events. Disputing irrational beliefs
is the primary method of REBT. There are different kinds of disputations:
1. Functional disputes – questioning whether the belief helps accomplish desired goals.
2. Empirical disputes – questioning whether the “facts” are accurate.
3. Logical disputes – questioning the logic of thinking processes.
4. Philosophical disputes – (Which is not philosophical I the technical sense) questioning
whether despite dissatisfactions if some pleasure can be derived from life anyway.
Making rational coping statements is the next step after disputing the irrational beliefs. The deeper
and more profound the statements, the more helpful they are likely to be.
Other techniques include:
1. Modeling - asking a client to emulate someone who demonstrates the desired
behaviour.
2. Referenting – cost benefit analysis of the behaviour
3. Cognitive homework – e.g. identifying and disputing irrational beliefs
4. Bibliotherapy and psychoeducational assignments – books, lectures, groups
5. Proselytizing – sharing the approach with others
6. Recording sessions – allows clients to review ideas they may have missed and to
reinforce other ideas.
7. Reframing – viewing a problem from a different perspective, which gives it a different
meaning.
8. Stop and monitor – establish cues to stop and notice thought processes throughout the
day.
Following are the strategies that are common in use
RATIONAL ANALYSIS: It is the first step in REBT, analyses of specific episodes to teach the
client how to uncover and dispute irrational beliefs. These are usually done in session at first; then,
as the client gets the idea, they can be done as homework.
71
DISPUTING IRRATIONAL BELIEFS: It is actively disputing client’s irrational beliefs and

teaching them how to do this challenging on their own. Client go over a particular “must”, “should”
or “ought” until they longer hold that irrational belief or at least until it is diminished in strength.
Disputing with irrational beliefs can be done both by the therapist and the client.
CHANGE IN LANGUAGE: REBT contends that imprecise language is one of the cause of
distorted thinking processes. Client’s learn that “musts”, “shoulds” and “oughts” can be replaced
by preferences. REFRAMING Another strategy for getting bad events into perspective is to re-
evaluate them as “disappointing”, “concerning”, or “uncomfortable” rather than as awful or
unbearable. A variation of reframing is to help the client see that even negative events almost
always have a positive side to them Emotive Techniques helps the clients to understand the value
of unconditional self acceptance and unconditional other’s acceptance, even though the behavior
may be difficult to accept, they can decide to see themselves and others as worth while.
RATIONAL-EMOTIVE IMAGERY It is a form of intense mental practice designed to establish
new emotional patterns by making the clients imagine themselves the worst thing that could
happen, unhealthy and upset feelings, intense experience of feelings and changing them to healthy
and positive feelings. As clients change their feelings about adversities, they stand a better chance
of changing their behavior in the real situation. ROLE PLAYING There are both emotional and
behavioral components in role playing. Clients can rehearse certain behaviors to bring out what
they feel in a situation with the therapist in a presumed environment. The focus is on working
through the underlying irrational beliefs that are related to unpleasant feelings. SHAME
ATTACKING EXERCISES Ellis has developed exercises to help people reduce shame over
behaving in certain ways. When we stubbornly refuse to feel ashamed by telling ourself that it is
not catastrophic if someone thinks we are foolish. The exercises are aimed at increasing
selfacceptance and mature responsibility.
USE OF FORCE AND VIGOR: It is a way to help clients go from intellectual to emotional insight.
Clients are shown how to conduct forceful dialogues by reverse role playing in which therapist
adopts the client’s belief and vigorously argues for it; while the client tries to convince the therapist
that the belief is dysfunctional. It is especially useful when the client now sees the irrationality of
a belief, but needs help to consolidate that understanding. Behavioral Techniques are one of the
best ways to check out and modify a belief by act. Clients can be encouraged to check out the
evidence for their fears and to act in ways that disprove them.
EXPOSURE: Possibly the most common behavioural strategy used in REBT involves clients
entering feared situations they would normally avoid. Such exposure is deliberate, planned and
carried out using cognitive and other coping skills.
RISK TAKING: The purpose is to challenge beliefs that certain behaviours are too dangerous to
risk, when reason says that while the outcome is not guaranteed they are worth the chance.
PARADOXICAL BEHAVIOUR: When a client wishes to change a dysfunctional tendency,
encourage them to deliberately behave in a way contradictory to the tendency. Emphasise the
importance of not waiting until they feel like doing it: practising the new behaviour even though
it is not spontaneous will gradually internalise the new habit.
72
POSTPONING GRATIFICATION: Postponing gratification is commonly used to combat low

frustration-tolerance by deliberately delaying smoking, eating sweets, using alcohol, sexual
activity, etc.
CASE HISTORY- 5
NAME: Mr. T
AGE: 31
GENDER: Male
ADDRESS: Pune
MARITAL STATUS: Married
CHIEF COMPLAINT:
• Lost job due to covid
• Unable to find a new job (It has been almost a year)
• Feeling of worthlessness
• Decrease in confidence level
• Low Self- esteem
• Disturbed sleep pattern
• Irritability & stress
• Anger outbursts
HISTORY OF PRESENTING COMPLAINT:
The client reported that he was working as a clerk in a reputed English school in Pune. He was
working on contract basis and her contract ended in May 2020. It was to be renewed in July 2020
but due to the pandemic, the school said they would not be able to retain much staff so all the
contract teachers were discontinued from service. This was a major setback in the client’s life. he
felt really disturbed and worthless for quite some time. he started looking for new opportunities
in a few months but in vain. he has not been taking this pandemic situation very well. he feels
that there’s nothing to do. His sleep cycle has been disturbed and he feels that his time is being
wasted.He was also facing financial difficulties as his job was gone. With the help his fther and
brother, he was found a temporary solution to his financial problem. But he was thinking to
unable to do anything productive in life. Sitting at home all the time and not being able to travel,
go out, eat out, meet friends etc. has become really frustrating. All of this cumulatively has made
her irritable and short tempered.
FAMILY HISTORY: The client belongs to an middle class family. Her family comprises of his
wife & 1 daughter. He has cordial relations with his wife. There is free and open communication
at his home. Her family members are supportive of his decisions. There is no rigidity and he is
source of income for his family.
73
SOCIAL HISTORY: He drinks occasionally. He has a limited number of friends from college.
He likes to watching tv shows.
established. The client was relaxed and comfortable while speaking. He maintained eye contact
throughout the session. He was very cooperative, attentive and willing to talk.
established memory.
THOUGHT PROCESS: Client’s responses throughout the session were coherent and relevant
and no thought disturbances were observed.
JUDGEMENT: Appropriate. He was very much aware about what needs to be done and how
his decisions will affect him and his family members for the better.
RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY
FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN DISTURBANCES

1) Ego disturbances
The client was asked about any event which they found emotionally challenging.
The client shares that from past few months he has been struggling to accept his lost job and it is
a really big setback for him.
74
2) Discomfort disturbances
The client was asked how this event makes his feel to which he replies “my confidence level
has become low, I feel hesitant in talking to people now. When someone asks my wife that what
is their husband doing, I feel that they are embarrassed because of me telling the other person-
that I don’t have a job right now. I feel I need to get a job quickly so that I can make her proud”
ABC MODEL
A: ANTECEDENT - The client reported that he got laid off from her job due to covid. The call
came in the last week of June when the school was about to resume after the summer break.
Situational A- Losing Job due to pandemic
Critical A- At this point many people have lost their jobs or their businesses have been affected.
The time is such. I’m not alone in this.
B: BELIEF- The client had a belief that he was not good enough. “Maybe I was not good
enough at work and I might never get a new job now. My career will come to a standstill.”
C: CONSEQUENCE- As a result of his belief the client gave up after looking for jobs for a few
months. He even sat for a few interviews but no luck.
COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS
The cognitive distortions which were identified in the client are:
 Personalization: The client was blaming himself for the job loss and not looking at the
pandemic situation and that many people are in it with her.
 Magnification: He is trying to see the problem in magnified way and minimizing his
capabilities to look for new opportunities.
 Jumping to Conclusions: The client created a mental block in his mind that he will
never get a new job and he will have to be dependent on his father and brother forever.
He will not get any respect in society because he’s lost his job.
THEORY OF CHANGE: The client was made to acknowledge that he has cognitive distortion
of “Personalization, magnification and jumping to conclusion.” It was found out that these
distortions were affecting him in different areas of life. The client stated that sometimes he feels
worthless as even after trying to look for job he could not crack one. His irrational and rigid
belief about himself that he is incapable was affecting his social life. The client was also made
aware about the reason why his belief is irrational. The client was given examples from his own
life where he had been doing really well at studies and at work to make his understand that he
has irrational and rigid belief. He was asked to give a rational alternative to his irrational belief
which is logical, consistent with the reality. Client’s irrational belief was challenged so that he
began to strengthen his conviction in the rational alternative.
❖ TECHNIQUES USED
COGNITIVE TECHNIQUE:
75
• RATIONAL ANALYSIS:
The client was made to understand that he has an irrational belief. Enough evidence was given
to support that. The client was asked to come up with a rational alternative for his belief. The
client himself stated “I will probably get a job when things are a little better, when the schools
begin to function normally job opportunities will be created” The client was also made to
understand that he should not be worried about people's judgement. He was made aware that
jumping to conclusions is not good. The client was made to understand that it was not his fault
that he lost the job, the situation was such.
• REFRAMING:
As the client earlier stated that he was frustrated due to the incident he faced, he was made aware
that frustration is an extreme emotion which is not good. He was made aware that he faced a
disappointing situation but to remain frustrated with that is not the solution. The client was asked
to reframe her statement. The client stated “It is a challenging situation for me but I will look
forward now and get past it.”
EMOTIVE TECHNIQUE:
SHAME ATTACKING EXERCISE - The therapist observed that the client also has a feeling
of embarrassment of what his friends and relatives will think about him that he is stupid. So
through this technique client will gradually have self-acceptance. he can practice some ways of
firmly refusing to feel ashamed by telling himself that “it is not my concern if someone thinks I
am incapable because I know that I’m not.
❖ OUTCOME
The client realised that he has a few cognitive distortion which needs to be worked upon. he
realized that everyone is going through some or the other crisis right now (people are losing their
loved ones, becoming ill, married couples who have lost jobs have become dependent on parents,
people are not getting proper medical treatments and facilities) so his problem seemed futile. he
stated that he’ll keep trying to look for a new job till he gets one and in the meanwhile will also
work on himself to improve his skills and perception about himself.
CASE HISTORY- 6
NAME: Mr. B
AGE: 36
GENDER: Male
ADDRESS: Pune
76
CHIEF COMPLAINT: The client has recently become a father. He explains that he feels his
self-esteem has been gradually deteriorating ever since he was married. He says that he can’t find
reasons to enjoy life with his wife due to feelings of inadequacy as a husband.
HISTORY OF PRESENTING COMPLAINT: In his new role as a father, the client had hoped
to find the happiness that he was looking for; however this has not been the case. He mentions
that his relationship with his wife’s family is strained and he thinks that this is the root of his
problem. They think that he is not capable enough to handle the family.
FAMILY HISTORY: The client belongs to a upper class family. His family comprises of his
wife & a son. He has cordial relations with his wife. There is free and open communication at his
home. He is source of income for his family. His in-laws stay in a building near by and visit
them often after the birth of his son.
SOCIAL HISTORY: The client has a limited number of friends from college. He likes hiking,
gardening and watching tv shows.
established memory.
THOUGHT CONTENT: The client listed his concerns very clearly.
INSIGHT: Aware about his problems
77
RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY
FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN DISTURBANCES

1) Ego disturbances
The client was asked about any event which they found emotionally challenging.
The client shares that from past few months he has been surprised and sad that his in-laws
behavior has changed after the birth of his son.
2) Discomfort disturbances
The client was asked how this event makes him feel very draining for the client as his parents-
in-law are still openly critical of him. At best, he says, they ignore him.
ABC MODEL
A: ANTECEDENT - The client reported that he was not present at a ceremony kept for the
child as he had to attend to his work and could not get leave.
B: BELIEF- The client had a belief that he was not good enough. “Maybe I should have
supported them.”
C: CONSEQUENCE- As a result of his belief the client does not want to talk to wife or in-laws
as politely as he used to before.
COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS
The cognitive distortions which were identified in the client are:
 Should/must statements: The client said that he must have the respect of my parents-in-
law. “It is my duty as a good son-in-law and husband to meet the approval of my wife’s
parents”.
 Magnification: He is trying to see the problem in magnified way and minimizing his
capabilities to look for new opportunities.
 Jumping to Conclusions: The client created a mental block in his mind that “My wife will
never completely respect me if her parents do not respect me”.
THEORY OF CHANGE: The client was made to acknowledge that he has cognitive
distortion of “Should/must statements, magnification and jumping to conclusion.” It was
found out that these distortions were affecting him in different areas of life. The client stated
that sometimes he feels worthless as even after trying his best to gain respect from his in-
laws. His irrational and rigid belief about himself that he is incapable was affecting his social
78
life. The client was also made aware about the reason why his belief is irrational. The client
was given examples from his own life where he had been doing really well and at work to
make his understand that he has irrational and rigid belief. He was asked to give a rational
alternative to his irrational belief which is logical, consistent with the reality. Client’s
irrational belief was challenged so that he began to strengthen his conviction in the rational
alternative.
❖ TECHNIQUES USED
COGNITIVE TECHNIQUE:
• RATIONAL ANALYSIS:
The client was made to understand that he has an irrational belief. Enough evidence was given
to support that. The client was asked to come up with a rational alternative for his belief. The
client himself stated “I will probably make them happy in future” The client was also made to
understand that he should not be worried about people's judgement. He was made aware that
jumping to conclusions is not good. The client was made to understand that it was not his fault
that he could not attend the ceremony, the situation was such.
• REFRAMING:
As the client earlier stated that he was frustrated due to the incident he faced, he was made aware
that frustration is an extreme emotion which is not good. He was made aware that he faced a
disappointing situation but to remain frustrated with that is not the solution. The client was asked
to reframe her statement. The client stated “It is a challenging situation for me but I will look
forward now and get past it.”
EMOTIVE TECHNIQUE:
SHAME ATTACKING EXERCISE - The therapist observed that the client also has a feeling
of embarrassment of what his friends and relatives will think about him that he is stupid. So
through this technique client will gradually have self-acceptance. he can practice some ways of
firmly refusing to feel ashamed by telling himself that “it is not my concern if someone thinks I
am incapable because I know that I’m not.
❖ OUTCOME
The client realised that he has a few cognitive distortion which needs to be worked upon. He
gained adequate understanding and felt confident that he can handle the situation.
DAY 18
Date: 22/04/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
79
Topic: Counsellor Burnout.

Activity Report:
By nature, therapists are caring and compassionate people. We enter the field to help others, and
this is a noble and wonderful thing. However, like any quality, caring can be over-done. If
therapists leave themselves out of the circle of care, “emotional fatigue and burnout come – and
can come fast. Therapists’ tendency to focus exclusively on other people’s well being and the fact
that we spend long hours in this mode account for the high rates of stress, substance abuse,
depression and (yes, even) suicide among members of our ranks. In addition to the personal ill
effects of burnout, providing poor treatment for clients as a result of burnout is unethical.
• Burnout is the result of job stress stemming from the numerous emotional hazards of the
profession.
• It affects most counsellors, psychotherapists or mental health workers at some point in their
careers. It is not reserved for the seasoned-older therapists; it can strike therapists earlier in
their careers as well.
• It manifests primarily as emotional exhaustion, “emotional fatigue” or “emotional
overload.”
• This can lead to depersonalization (of patients and self) which manifests through general
dislike, and a detached and callous – even dehumanized – attitude towards clients, who are
perceived as energy drains or stressors.
Top Stressors: Ingredients for Burnout
1. Emotional Depletion or Emotional Fatigue: Working constantly with people who are in
pain, feel suicidal, are grieving over the loss of loved ones, or those severely traumatized,
takes a heavy toll on practitioners. The psychotherapist can be “infected” with a patient’s
sadness; a condition Jung called “psychic poisoning.”
2. Vicarious Traumatization: This term has been introduced in recent years and has become
even more popular after the events of Sep. 11, 2001. It refers to the cumulative effect upon
the trauma therapist of working with trauma survivors. In this process, the therapist’s
experience is negatively affected through empathic engagement with clients’ trauma
material.
3. Grandiosity and Demonization by Clients: While some patients idealize therapists,
others put them down. Still others oscillate every other week. The healer may be set on a
pedestal only to be knocked off of it soon thereafter. Without objective feedback, therapists
can end up confused and in doubt about their own qualities, qualifications, and sense of
worth.
4. Constant Worry: Therapists are often in a constant state of worry about whether a patient
is going to follow up on a suicidal or homicidal threat. Whether or not the therapist reports
80
such intentions or makes a suicide contract with the patient, sleepless nights and anxiety
are significant hazards of the profession.
5. Distraction: Focusing on other people’s problems, which may be more severe than their
own, can lead therapists to lose track of their own situation.
6. Helplessness and Sense of Inefficiency: Unlike carpenters, gardeners, or surgeons,
psychotherapists rarely see immediate, profound, or tangible results from their efforts. The
work is often (though not always) slow. Even when therapy is effective in relieving painful
symptoms and termination is successful, patients leave, and with them goes the knowledge
of the long-term effect the work has had on their lives.
7. Inability to Shut Off the Therapeutic Stance: While many patients disclose the most
intimate aspects of their lives to their therapists, the therapist must share only what is
appropriate and beneficial to the patients. Experiencing many such relationships can lead
the practitioner to acquire extreme voyeuristic tendencies. It may also lead therapists to
transfer the mode of one-way intimacy to friends and family outside of the therapy office.
8. Worry About Board Investigations: Most ethical and risk management instructions fuel
unrealistic fears about board investigations and lawsuit. The fact that board disciplines and
lawsuits against therapists are relatively rare does not help therapists who carry the burden
of constant worry and fear.
9. Grandiosity: Working with people who often idealize one and often are desperate for help
and guidance can result in what Ernest Jones labeled “God Syndrome.” Those who develop
such an inflated sense of self are likely to be sarcastic, disconnected, and un-empathetic
with clients.
Burnout is Preventable:
• Practice Personal Restoration. This can include therapy for one, spiritual practice,
exercise, proper sleep, and time with loved ones. Enjoy their life in a way that is
sustainable. Everyone needs regular downtime and restoration – especially those in the
helping professions. Take time to remember who one are and meet their own needs.
Connect with others when one are not in the therapist role. Seek solitude and time in nature.
Keep “in touch” with yourself.
• Consult and Get Peer Support. Rather than struggle with difficult cases on their own,
seek consultation from experts or colleagues. Ongoing peer support and consultation can
be very helpful in preventing burnout.
• Grow as a Person. One is not just a therapist, there to help others. The counsellor is a full
person, with their own needs and desires. Whether their passion is painting, writing,
playing basketball, cooking, etc. – make sure one has time to do what one love. Provide
their clients with good care, but do not make them the (only) center of their life.
• Belong to a Professional Organization. As a member, one can meet with colleagues
online one will also receive their monthly publication. This can help foster a sense of
81
community, and keep one involved with professional updates. Finding out early about
ethical and legal developments in the field will save one from unnecessary stress.
• Practice Ethical Risk Management: Continue to update on changing laws and ethical
guidelines. Stay flexible and open; do not resort to rigid risk management practices.
Especially in difficult and stressful cases, seek consultation and extra documentation.
• Make Time for Family and Friends. Whether one is married with children, single, or
anywhere in between, quality connection with loved ones is important. Make time to
engage in activities one enjoys, or simply have downtime with people who are close to one.
Staying centered and balanced as an active psychotherapist presents a multitude of challenges.
Clients can be demanding, there are times when we are in a state of constant worry, the field is
constantly evolving, and our clients often need a great deal of care. Conversely, practicing therapy
can be highly rewarding, gratifying work because for many of us, our work is our calling rather
than just an occupation. Balance is the key to practicing effectively and preventing burnout. This
includes balance between our personal and professional lives, between taking care of others and
taking care of ourselves, time alone and time with others, and finding balance between the physical,
mental and spiritual aspects of our being.
Activity Report:
DAY 19
Date: 23/04/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Progressive muscle relaxation and Mindfulness.
Activity Report:
Progressive muscle relaxation script: Find yourself a quiet place to relax. Turn off your phone
and dim the lights. This is your time...a time for complete and utter relaxation. For this relaxation,
you can either sit or lie down. Just make sure that you are warm enough, and that you are
comfortable. Let your hands rest loosely in your lap, or by your side. Now close your eyes. Become
aware of your breathing, and notice how your abdomen rises and falls with each breath... Now take
a long slow deep breath in through your nose, all the way down into your stomach. Hold the breath
for just a moment, and then exhale through your mouth. Allow your breath to carry away all stress
and tension as the air floods out of your lungs. Take another slow breath in through your nose. Fill
your lungs completely. Hold it for a moment...and release the breath through your mouth. Empty
your lungs completely. Take a third deep breath in. Hold it for a moment, and then let it go. Feel
that your body has already undergone a change. The tension in your body has begun to loosen and
subside. Now let your breathing rhythm return to normal...and relax.... During this relaxation I will
ask you to tense various muscles throughout your body. Please do this without straining. You do
82
not need to exert yourself, just contract each muscle firmly but gently as you breathe in. If you feel
uncomfortable at any time, you can simply relax and breathe normally. Bring your awareness to
your feet and toes. Breathe in deeply through your nose, and as you do, gradually curl your toes
down and tense the muscles in the soles of your feet. Hold your breath for just a few seconds and
then release the muscles in your feet as you breathe out. Feel the tension in your feet wash away
as you exhale. Notice how different your feet feel when tensed and when they are relaxed. Take
another deep breath in again, tense the muscles in the soles of your feet and hold this position for
a few seconds. Now release. Feel yourself relaxing more and more deeply with each breath. Your
whole body is becoming heavier, softer and more relaxed as each moment passes. Now bring your
awareness to your lower legs...to your calf muscles. As you draw in a nice deep breath, point your
toes up towards your knees and tighten these muscles. Hold for just a moment, and then let those
muscles go limp as you exhale. Once again, draw in a deep breath...and tighten your calf muscles.
Hold for a few seconds, and then let it all go. Feel your muscles relax, and feel the tension washing
away with your out-breath. In a moment you will tense the muscles in the front of your thighs. If
you are lying down, you can do this by trying to straighten your legs. You’ll feel the muscles
pulling your kneecap upwards. If you are seated, you can tense these muscles by pushing your
heels down onto the floor. Take a deep breath in, and tense the muscles in your thighs. Hold for
just a moment, and then release everything. As you do this, the blood flow to your muscles
increases, and you may notice a warm tingling sensation. Enjoy this feeling of soothing relaxation
in your thighs. Again, breathe in deeply and tighten your thigh muscles. Hold for a moment. Now
release. Focus on letting your muscles go limp and loose. Draw in a nice deep breath and gradually
tighten the muscles in your buttocks. Hold this contraction for a few seconds, and then release your
breath. Feel the tension leaving your muscles. Feel them relaxing completely. Once more, breathe
in deeply and tighten the muscles in your buttocks. Hold for a moment. Now release them. You
are becoming more and more deeply relaxed. Take another breath, and this time, gradually tighten
all the muscles in your legs, from your feet to your buttocks. Do this in whatever way feels natural
and comfortable to you. Hold it...and now release all these large strong muscles. Enjoy the
sensation of release as you become even more deeply relaxed. Now bring your awareness to your
stomach. Draw in a nice deep breath and then tighten these muscles. Imagine you are trying to
touch your belly button to your spine. Now release your breath and let your muscles relax. Notice
the sensation of relief that comes from letting go. Once again, draw in a deep breath and then
tighten your stomach muscles. Hold for a few seconds... and then let them relax as you exhale and
release all tension. Bring your awareness to the muscles in your back. As you slowly breathe in,
arch your back slightly and tighten these muscles....Now release your breath and let your muscles
relax. Again, draw in a deep breath and then tighten your back muscles. Hold for a few
seconds...and then let them relax and release. Now give your attention to your shoulder muscles
and the muscles in your neck. As you slowly draw in a nice deep breath, pull your shoulders up
towards your ears and squeeze these muscles firmly. Now breathe out completely, and allow your
contracted muscles to go loose and limp. Again, pull your shoulders up towards your ears and
squeeze these muscles firmly. Now feel the tension subside as you relax and breathe out. Feel the
heaviness in your body now. Enjoy the feeling. Feel yourself becoming heavier and heavier. Feel
yourself becoming more and more deeply relaxed. You are calm, secure, at peace. Now it’s time
to let go of all the tension in your arms and hands. Let’s start with your upper arms. As you breathe
83
in, raise your wrists towards your shoulders and tighten the muscles in your upper arms. Hold that
breath and that contraction for just a moment...and then gently lower your arms and breathe all the
way out. You may feel a warm, burning sensation in your muscles when you tighten them. Feel
how relaxing it is to release that tightness and to breathe away all tension. As you curl your upper
arms again, tighten the muscles as you breathe in. Breathe in deeply. Now relax your arms and
breathe out. Now bring your awareness to your forearms. As you breathe in, curl your hands
inwards as though you are trying to touch the inside of your elbows with your fingertips. Now feel
the tension subside as you relax and breathe out. Again, take a deep breath in, and tighten the
muscles in your forearms. Hold it for a moment, and then release them. Feel the tension washing
away. Now, take another breath in and tightly clench your fists. When you have finished breathing
in, hold for just a few seconds, and then release. Notice any feelings of buzzing or throbbing. Your
hands are becoming very soft and relaxed. Take another deep breath in and clench your fists again.
Hold for just a few seconds, and then release. Let your fingers go limp. Your arms and hands are
feeling heavy and relaxed. Take a couple of nice long slow breaths now, and just relax. Feel
yourself slipping even deeper into a state of complete rest. Now tighten the muscles in your face
by squeezing your eyes shut and clenching your lips together. As you do, breathe in fully. Hold
it...now breathe out and relax all your facial muscles. Feel your face softening. Once more, breathe
in deeply while you scrunch the muscles in your eyes and lips....and release. Now bring your
awareness to the muscles in your jaw. Take a deep breath in, and then open your mouth as wide as
you can. Feel your jaw muscles stretching and tightening. Now exhale and allow your mouth to
gently close. Again, fill your lungs with air and then open your mouth wide. Now let your mouth
relax and let your breath flood all the way out. You are now completely relaxed from the tips of
your toes to the top of your head. Please take a few more minutes to rest. Relax. Listen to the sound
of your breathing and enjoy the lovely, warm sensation of physical relaxation. If you have the
time, feel free to fall asleep. You will wake feeling completely rejuvenated and relaxed.
Body Scan Script: Begin by making yourself comfortable. Sit in a chair and allow your back to
be straight, but not stiff, with your feet on the ground. You could also do this practice standing or
if you prefer, you can lie down and have your head supported. Your hands could be resting gently
in your lap or at your side. Allow your eyes to close, or to remain open with a soft gaze. Take
several long, slow, deep breaths. Breathing in fully and exhaling slowly. Breathe in through your
nose and out through your nose or mouth. Feel your stomach expand on an inhale and relax and
let go as you exhale. Begin to let go of noises around you. Begin to shift your attention from outside
to inside yourself. If you are distracted by sounds in the room, simply notice this and bring your
focus back to your breathing. Now slowly bring your attention down to your feet. Begin observing
sensations in your feet. You might want to wiggle your toes a little, feeling your toes against your
socks or shoes. Just notice, without judgment. You might imagine sending your breath down to
your feet, as if the breath is traveling through the nose to the lungs and through the abdomen all
the way down to your feet. And then back up again out through your nose and lungs. Perhaps you
don't feel anything at all. That is fine, too. Just allow yourself to feel the sensation of not feeling
anything. When you are ready, allow your feet to dissolve in your mind’s eye and move your
attention up to your ankles, calves, knees and thighs. Observe the sensations you are experiencing
84
throughout your legs. Breathe into and breathe out of the legs. If your mind begins to wander
during this exercise, gently notice this without judgment and bring your mind back to noticing the
sensations in your legs. If you notice any discomfort, pain or stiffness, don't judge this. Just simply
notice it. Observe how all sensations rise and fall, shift and change moment to moment. Notice
how no sensation is permanent. Just observe and allow the sensations to be in the moment, just as
they are. Breathe into and out from the legs. Then on the next out breath, allow the legs to dissolve
in your mind. And move to the sensations in your lower back and pelvis. Softening and releasing
as you breathe in and out. Slowly move your attention up to your mid back and upper back. Become
curious about the sensations here. You may become aware of sensations in the muscle, temperature
or points of contact with furniture or the bed. With each outbreath, you may let go of tension you
are carrying. And then very gently shift your focus to your stomach and all the internal organs
here. Perhaps you notice the feeling of clothing, the process of digestion or the belly rising or
falling with each breath. If you notice opinions arising about these areas, gently let these go and
return to noticing sensations. As you continue to breathe, bring your awareness to the chest and
heart region and just notice your heartbeat. Observe how the chest rises during the inhale and how
the chest falls during the exhale. Let go of any judgments that may arise. On the next outbreath,
shift the focus to your hands and fingertips. See if you can channel your breathing into and out of
this area as if you are breathing into and out from your hands. If your mind wanders, gently bring
it back to the sensations in your hands. And then, on the next outbreath, shift the focus and bring
your awareness up into your arms. Observe the sensations or lack of sensations that may be
occurring there. You might notice some difference between the left arm and the right arm – no
need to judge this. As you exhale, you may experience the arm soften and release tensions.
Continue to breathe and shift focus to the neck, shoulder and throat region. This is an area where
we often have tension. Be with the sensations here. It could be tightness, rigidity or holding. You
may notice the shoulders moving along with the breath. Let go of any thoughts or stories you are
telling about this area. As you breathe, you may feel tension rolling off your shoulders. On the
next outbreath, shift your focus and direct your attention to the scalp, head and face. Observe all
of the sensations occurring there. Notice the movement of the air as you breathe into or out of the
nostrils or mouth. As you exhale, you might notice the softening of any tension you may be
holding. And now, let your attention to expand out to include the entire body as a whole. Bring
into your awareness the top of your head down to the bottom of your toes. Feel the gentle rhythm
of the breath as it moves through the body. As you come to the end of this practice, take a full,
deep breath, taking in all the energy of this practice. Exhale fully. And when you are ready, open
your eyes and return your attention to the present moment. As you become fully alert and awake,
consider setting the intention that this practice of building awareness will benefit everyone you
come in contact with today.
85
CASE HISTORY- 7
NAME: Mrs. H
AGE: 34
GENDER: Female
ADDRESS: Pune
CHIEF COMPLAINT: Anxiety issues due to newborn baby
HISTORY OF PRESENTING COMPLAINT: The client is facing this issue from the past two
months. The client was feeling very anxious and fearful as her baby was delivered by cesarean
section. She also has a 3-year-old toddler at home and due to the lockdown she was finding it
difficult to arrange house help or call some of her relatives for her help since the last one year.
FAMILY HISTORY: The client belongs to a middle-class family. The elder brothers of the client
are living in different districts and the younger brothers and a sister are staying near by the client.
The client is close to all her family members and has cordial relations with them.
SOCIAL HISTORY: The client is a kind and homely person. Socially, she is a little awkward
around strangers, but very friendly with people whom she knows. She likes activities such as
knitting, cooking and watching television.
APPEARANCE AND BEHAVIOUR: Neatly dressed groomed. Rapport was well established.
The client was relaxed and comfortable while speaking. She maintained eye contact throughout
the session. She was cooperative, attentive and willing to talk.
established memory.
86

SESSION
PROBLEM STATEMENT: The client is feeling very anxious and scared taking care of a
newborn baby. She has a lot of tension of taking care of her family members and her home. She
feels burdened with responsibilities and feels that she does not have the capacity to cope with all
of this.
TECHNIQUES: Progressive muscle relaxation was performed. To get the client for a accustomed
to the process, a relaxation session of 10 minutes was given first and after assessing the client’s
level of comfort the whole procedure was performed. Mindfulness activity was also given. The
clients seemed to be genuinely interested in the activities and was eager to solve her problems.
OUTCOME: the client was able to distinguish her thoughts with more clarity after the relaxation
session. Her expression and demeanor became calmer and she acknowledge this calming effect
too. She said that she will definitely practice this at home whenever she get stressed out and feels
that things are going out of hand.
Activity Report:
DAY 20
Date: 24/04/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Cognitive Behaviour Therapy.
Cognitive Therapy (CT), or Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT), was pioneered by Dr Aaron T.
Beck in the 1960s, while he was a psychiatrist at the University of Pennsylvania. Having studied
and practiced psychoanalysis, Dr. Beck designed and carried out several experiments to test
psychoanalytic concepts of depression. Fully expecting the research would validate these
fundamental concepts, he was surprised to find the opposite. As a result of his findings, Dr. Beck
began to look for other ways of conceptualizing depression. He found that depressed patients
experienced streams of negative thoughts that seemed to arise spontaneously. He called these
87
cognitions “automatic thoughts.” He found that the patients’ automatic thoughts fell into three
categories. The patients had negative ideas about themselves, the world and/or the future.
Dr. Beck began helping patients identify and evaluate these automatic thoughts. He found that by
doing so, patients were able to think more realistically. As a result, they felt better emotionally and
were able to behave more functionally. When patients changed their underlying beliefs about
themselves, their world and other people, therapy resulted in long-lasting change. Dr. Beck called
this approach “cognitive therapy.” It has also become known as “cognitive behaviour therapy,” or
“CBT.” CBT is based on an ever-evolving formulation of patients’ problems and an individual
conceptualization of each patient in cognitive terms. The patient's current thinking patterns and
problematic behaviours are identified. Several factors must be considered including the patient's
life experiences, throughout childhood, and even through the therapy sessions.
1. Information is Important: A conceptualization of the patient is formulated based on the
information gathered to provide an accurate picture of the patient’s whole situation. This
conceptualization is refined each session as more information becomes available.
2. CBT requires a sound therapeutic alliance: It is important to have a strong trusting relationship
between the therapist and patient. The therapist should be able to provide care, warmth, empathy,
and competence.
3. CBT emphasizes collaboration and active participation: Teamwork is encouraged throughout
the sessions and decisions of what to work on and how often are decided together. Active
participation from the patient is important for making a lasting impact in their treatment.
4. CBT is goal-oriented and problem-focused: The patient should set specific goals during the
initial sessions. Goals are necessary to evaluate and respond to thoughts that interfere with those
goals. This helps the patient easily identify and interrupt those thoughts.
5. CBT initially emphasizes the present: The treatment should be focused on current problems and
specific situations that are distressing to them. CBT only considers the past when the patient
expresses a strong preference to do so or the patient gets stuck in dysfunctional thinking and trying
to understand their childhood can potentially help modify their core beliefs.
6. CBT is educative, aims to teach the patient to be their own therapist, and emphasizes relapse
prevention: Teaching the patient to understand the process, how their thoughts influence emotions
and behaviour, how to identify and evaluate their thoughts and beliefs, and plan for behavioural
changes is an essential part of CBT.
7. CBT aims to be time-limited: Straightforward anxiety and depression can typically be treated
within 6 to 14 sessions. However, for those with more severe mental illnesses and rigid beliefs,
the time frame can range from a few months to years if necessary.
8. CBT sessions are structured: Structured treatment helps maximize efficiency and effectiveness.
This process includes:
• Introduction: doing a mood check, a brief review of the week, collaboratively setting an
agenda for the session
88
• Middle: reviewing homework, discussing problems on the agenda, setting new homework,
and summarizing
• Final: eliciting feedback
9. CBT teaches patients to identify, evaluate, and respond to their dysfunctional thoughts and
beliefs: Therapists help patients identify key cognitions and adopt more realistic, rational
perspectives. This is achieved through the process of guided discovery by questioning their
thoughts to evaluate their thinking. Also, the therapist creates behavioural experiments for the
patient to directly test their thinking.
10. CBT uses a variety of techniques to change thinking, mood, and behaviour: Behavioural and
problem-solving techniques are essential in CBT. The types of techniques the therapist will select
will be influenced by the conceptualization of the patient, the problem one are discussing, and their
objectives for the session.
Although the cognitive-behavioural approach has been proven to be effective for most people with
a wide range of applications, it isn’t necessarily for everyone.
Here are the advantages of the CBT approach:
• can be completed in a relatively short period of time for most people
• can help treat some mental illnesses where medication alone has not improved symptoms
• focuses on altering their thoughts and behaviours to make changes to how one feel
• teaches one practical strategies that can be applied in their daily life
• provides the skills for one to be their own therapist enable one to be proactive and prevent
relapses
Some of the disadvantages of CBT are:
• requires the patient to play an active role and be committed to the process which can take
a lot of effort and their time
• proves difficult for people with more severe mental illness or those with learning
disabilities
• involves confronting their anxiety, this initial exposure can be uncomfortable for some
people
• addresses the individual’s needs, the patient’s environment (family and interactions) are
not addressed and can have a significant impact on their well-being
• the cognitive model focuses on a narrow scope and focuses on only present problems
instead of underlying causes
CBT typically includes these steps:
89
Identify troubling situations or conditions in their life. These may include such issues as a medical
condition, divorce, grief, anger or symptoms of a mental health disorder. One and their therapist
may spend some time deciding what problems and goals one want to focus on.
Become aware of their thoughts, emotions and beliefs about these problems. Once one've identified
the problems to work on, their therapist will encourage one to share their thoughts about them.
This may include observing what one tell yourself about an experience (self-talk), their
interpretation of the meaning of a situation, and their beliefs about yourself, other people and
events. Their therapist may suggest that one keep a journal of their thoughts. Identify negative or
inaccurate thinking. To help one recognize patterns of thinking and behaviour that may be
contributing to their problem, their therapist may ask one to pay attention to their physical,
emotional and behavioural responses in different situations.
Reshape negative or inaccurate thinking. Their therapist will likely encourage one to ask yourself
whether their view of a situation is based on fact or on an inaccurate perception of what's going
on. This step can be difficult. One may have long-standing ways of thinking about their life and
yourself. With practice, helpful thinking and behaviour patterns will become a habit and won't take
as much effort.
CBT Session Overview
•The first 1/3 or 20 min: Is focused on assessing where a client is, their concerns about the problem
and reviewing homework.
•The second 1/3 20 min: Is focused on introducing session topic and relating topic to client’s life
and symptoms.
•The third 1/3 20 min: Is focused on exploring clients understanding and reaction to interventions,
developing home work and reviewing and addressing risk and challenges they may face in HW or
in the week.
Activity Report:
DAY 21
Date: 25/04/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Model of CBT.
Cognitive behaviour therapy is based on the cognitive model, which hypothesizes that people’s
emotions, behaviours, and physiology are influenced by their perception of events. Situation/event,
Automatic thoughts, Reaction (emotional, behavioural, physiological.) It is not a situation in and
of itself that determines what people feel, but rather how they construe a situation for example, a
situation in which several people are reading a basic text on cognitive behaviour therapy. They
90
have quite different emotional and behavioural responses to the same situation, based on what is
going through their minds as they read.
The way people feel emotionally and the way they behave are associated with how they interpret
and think about a situation. The situation itself does not directly determine how they feel or what
they do; their emotional response is mediated by their perception of the situation. Cognitive
behaviour therapists are particularly interested in the level of thinking that may operate
simultaneously with a more obvious, surface level of thinking. In a specific situation, one’s
underlying beliefs influence one’s perception, which is expressed by situation-specific automatic
thoughts. These thoughts, in turn, influence one’s emotional, behavioural, and physiological
reaction. Example - Core belief: “I’m incompetent.” Intermediate beliefs Attitude: “It’s terrible to
fail.” Rule: “I should give up if a challenge seems too great.” Assumptions: “If I try to do
something difficult, I’ll fail. If I avoid doing it, I’ll be okay.” Situation: Reading a new text
Automatic thoughts: “This is just too hard. I’m so dumb. I’ll never master this. I’ll never make it
as a therapist.” Reaction: Emotional: Discouragement Physiological: Heaviness in body
Behavioural: Avoids task and watches television instead.
The Cognitive Triad
The cognitive triad are three forms of negative (I.e helpless and critical) thinking that are typical
of individuals with depression: namely negative thoughts about the self, the world and the future.
These thoughts tended to be automatic in depressed people as they occurred spontaneously.
Activity Report:
DAY 22
Date: 26/04/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Identifying and changing thoughts in CBT.
1. Thought records are cognitive restructuring techniques which encourage balanced
thinking. The Dysfunctional Thought Record is a style of thought record which encourages
identification of any cognitive biases / cognitive errors which are operating. It can be useful
to use this form in combination with the Unhelpful Thinking Styles information sheet –
clients are encouraged to identify in which ways their specific cognitions are distorted. This
thought record can also be used to identify characteristic ways in which an individual’s
cognitive styles are distorted. tart by cueing the client’s memory for the dysfunctional
thought by directing them to think about where & when it occurred. Record this in the first
and second columns (‘date & time’ and ‘situation’).
2. The cue for completing a thought record is usually a sudden change in emotion. In the
fourth column record the emotion felt and it’s subjective intensity.
91
3. In the third column record the automatic thought. Helpful prompts are “what were one
thinking about when one started to feel that way?” or “what was going through their mind
as one started to feel that way?”. Automatic thoughts can be images as well as thoughts.
In the case of an image ask the client to reflect on what the image meant (e.g. if the client
has an image of themselves frozen to the spot it may have idiosyncratic meanings ranging
such as “I’m weak”).
4. If there are multiple NATs then select one to work on.
5. In the fifth column identify whether a cognitive bias was in operation. It may be helpful to
train the client in the use of the Unhelpful Thinking Styles worksheet.
6. In the sixth column write an alternative to the original automatic thought which is not
subject to the original bias. For example, if the original thought bias was personalization
(e.g. “I’m pathetic”) the client might be encourgaed to use less perjorative language. The
new thought may be considerably longer than the original thoughts. It may not necessarily
be positive, the aim is to counter bias in the original thought.
7. In the final column record the outcome. This might be a change in emotional state, or a
resolution to act in a different way.
Identifying maladaptive automatic thoughts is the first step in the cognitive component of therapy.
The focus of intervention in Brief CBT is the dysfunctional automatic thought. Patients must
master identifying and challenging thoughts to be able to grasp the concept and techniques of
challenging beliefs. Because of the interrelated nature of thoughts and beliefs, an intervention
targeting automatic thoughts may also change underlying beliefs (depicted below). Therefore,
Brief CBT can result in belief modification, even if the target of treatment was automatic thoughts.
It is important for therapists to teach patients how to identify automatic thoughts during and outside
of session. Automatic Thoughts in Session Be aware of patient’s hot thoughts during sessions. Hot
thoughts are automatic thoughts that occur in combination with a change in emotion or mood. Hot
thoughts are particularly poignant or strong thoughts that are often associated with dysfunctional
core beliefs, and should be targeted in therapy. Hot thoughts and the accompanying situation and
emotion are tracked on the first three columns of the thought record. To identify which automatic
thoughts are “hot”, the therapist listens for verbal cues, such as the language used in the thought
and watches nonverbal cues, such as increased volume of speech or fidgeting. Changes in facial
expression, shifts in position, or hand movements can be helpful in determining whether a patient
is experiencing an automatic hot thought. Listening to tone, pitch, volume, and the pace of a
patient’s speech is also beneficial. When one notice these actions, this is an opportune time to
bring it to the patient’s attention and assist him/her in identifying an automatic thought associated
with the shift in emotions. In these instances, one are simply an observer of the behaviour and
make a note of their observation to the patient (“One are speaking more loudly; what is going
through their mind right now?”). The patient then provides an explanation of the behaviour.
Core Beliefs Throughout therapy, hypothesize core beliefs that may be underlying dysfunctional
behaviours and thoughts. These hypotheses aid development of the case conceptualization and
92
treatment plan. A belief that is likely to be core will appear in several different areas of the patient’s
life (I.e., relationships, work, parenting). After one has collected enough evidence to support the
alleged core belief, present and discuss it with the patient. At this point, one can also elicit
childhood experiences consistent with the belief. This helps identify the possible origin of the
belief and helps one explain it to the patient.
In educating the patient about core beliefs, make several things clear:
• Core beliefs are only ideas. Feeling them strongly does not make them true.
• These beliefs started developing during childhood. The patient believes them today because
he/she has stored evidence to support them and rejected evidence to contradict them.
• These beliefs can be tested and changed through use of the techniques that will be taught in
therapy. Example Homework Assignments 1. Keep a notepad with one and attempt to list
automatic thoughts one has during the day. 2. Use the triangle diagram to dissect three to five
situations when one experienced a strong emotion. 3. Create a list of assumptions and evidence for
and against those assumptions. 4. Complete the first three sections of the Thought Record for one
to two situations.
Cognitive restructuring is useful for understanding what lies behind negative moods. These may
undermine our performance, or damage our relationships with other people. To use cognitive
restructuring, work through the following process:
• Calm yourself.
• Write down the situation that triggered the negative thoughts.
• Identify the moods that one felt in the situation.
• Write down the automatic thoughts one experienced when one felt the mood. The most
significant of these are their "hot thoughts."
• Identify the evidence that supports these hot thoughts.
• Identify the evidence that contradicts the hot thoughts.
• Now, identify fair, balanced thoughts about the situation.
• Finally, observe their mood now, and decide on their next steps.
Clients should go through this process when one experience a negative mood, or when one feel
fear, apprehension, or anxiety about a person or event.
Activity Report:
DAY 23
Date: 27/04/2021
93
Venue: Zoom meeting

Topic: Techniques of CBT.
Graded Exposure Assignments: Exposure is a cognitive behaviour therapy technique that helps
people systematically approach what they fear. Generally, fear causes people to avoid situations.
Unfortunately, avoidance of feared situations is what maintains feelings of fear and anxiety.
Through systematic exposure, people master feared situations one-by-one, and then tackle
increasing difficult exposure assignments. Exposure is one of the most effective psychological
treatments that exists, having a 90% effectiveness rate with some anxiety disorders.
Activity Scheduling: Activity scheduling is a cognitive behaviour therapy technique designed to
help people increase behaviours they should be doing more. By identifying and scheduling helpful
behaviours, such as meditating, going for a walk, or working on a project, it increases the
likelihood of their getting done. This technique is especially helpful for people who do not engage
in many rewarding activities due to depression, or people who have difficulty completing tasks
due to procrastination.
Successive Approximation: This cognitive behaviour therapy technique works for people who
have difficulty completing a task, either due to lack of familiarity with the task, or because the task
feels overwhelming for some reason. The technique works by helping people master an easier task
that is similar to the more difficult task. It’s akin to practicing addition and subtraction before
learning long division. Once one are practiced at addition and subtraction, long division isn’t as
daunting. Likewise, by having rehearsed one behaviour, one that is slightly more difficult feels
more manageable.
Mindfulness Practice: Mindfulness is a cognitive behaviour therapy technique borrowed from
Buddhism. The goal of mindfulness is to help people disengage from ruminating or obsessing
about negative things and redirect their attention to what is actually happening in the present
moment. Mindfulness is the subject of a lot of new research in psychology and represents the
cutting edge of psychotherapy practice. Significant research has shown mindfulness to be effective
in improving concentration, pain management, and emotion regulation.
Skills Training: A lot of people’s problems result from not having the appropriate skills to achieve
their goals. Skills training is a cognitive behaviour therapy technique implemented in remedying
such skills deficits. Common areas for skills training include social skills training, communication
training, and assertiveness training. Usually skills training takes place through direct instruction,
modeling, and role-plays as well as through problem-solving therapy.
Validity Testing: It is one of the CBT techniques in which the therapist tests the validity of beliefs
or thoughts of the client. Initially, the client is allowed to defend his viewpoint by means of an
objective evidence. The faulty nature or invalidity of the beliefs of the client is exposed if he is
unable to produce any kind of objective evidence.
94
Writing in a Journal: It is the practice of maintaining a diary to keep an account of the situations
that arise in day-to-day life. The thoughts which are associated with these situations and the
behaviour exhibited in response to them are also mentioned in the diary. The therapist along with
the client reviews the diary/journal and finds out the maladaptive thought pattern and how do they
actually affect the behaviour of an individual.
Guided Discovery: The objective/purpose behind using this technique is to help the client and
enable him understand his cognitive distortions. Guided discovery is a process that a therapist uses
to help his or her client reflect on the way that they process information. Through the processes of
answering questions or reflecting on thinking processes, a range of alternative thinking is opened
up for each client
Modelling: It is one of the cognitive behavioural therapy techniques in which the therapists
performs role-playing exercises which are aimed at responding in an appropriate way to overcome
difficult situations. The client makes use of this behaviour of the therapist as a model in order to
solve the problems he comes across.
CASE HISTORY- 8
NAME: Mr. G
AGE: 12
SEX: Male
CHIEF COMPLAINTS: Feeling socially isolated
HISTORY OF PRESENTING ILLNESS: The child is feeling left out from his group of
friends for the last 1 months.
PERSONAL HISTORY:
Early childhood:
• Birth history was found to be Normal
• Language and motor developmental milestone were achieved appropriately.
• Sleep patterns were normal
Middle childhood: The child excels in academics as he always attains above average marks.
He is interested in cricket, singing and sketching.
FAMILY HISTORY: The child is the elder son of his parents. He has a younger sister. His
father is in merchant navy and mother is a nurse. He has good relations with all the family
members and is considered by them as an obedient child.
SOCIAL HISTORY: The client loves to be around people and engage in group activities. He has
a large group of friend circle near his home as well as in school.
95
APPEARANCE AND BEHAVIOUR: Neatly dressed and well groomed. The client maintained
adequate eye contact throughout the session. Rapport was well established. The client was
comfortable when speaking. He was very cooperative, attentive and willing to talk.
SPEECH: Normal.
COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS: Normal
ORIENTATION: well oriented
MEMORY ASSESSMENT immediate retention and recall, Recent memory and Remote memory
were observed to be fair.
INTELLIGENCE: Age appropriate
ABSTRACTING ABILITY: Age appropriate
JUDGEMENT: Age appropriate
INSIGHT: Aware of his problems
SESSION
PROBLEM STATEMENT: Feeling ignored, ridiculed and hated by close friends.
❖ BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL
The client was asked about his physiological and psychological symptoms. It covered all the
cognitive components of attitude I.e. thought, emotion and behaviour. The client was also asked
about his behaviour in social context.
Physical symptoms: headache, less appetite
Thoughts: The client is having recurrent thoughts of how his friends have become mean and are
ignoring him for days.
“Why do friends always have to hurt so much?”
“I did not do anything wrong or try to hurt them”
“We had so many happy moments together”
“I feel very sad, lonely and not confident enough to handle the situation”
96
Behaviours: He tries to talk watch movies, play online games, sketching.

Emotions: confused, sad, unmotivated.
The client was asked to share the negative thought he had about himself and how that negative
thought resulted into negative thoughts about the world and the future.
NEGATIVE THOUGHT ABOUT YOURSELF: “I must be a mean person that is why they
are ignoring me.”
NEGATIVE THOUGHTS ABOUT THE WORLD: “All friends always hurt each other by
ignoring their best friends”, “They never respond back, even if we try to find why they are
ridiculing us”
NEGATIVE THOUGHTS ABOUT THE FUTURE: “I will not be able to make true and long-
lasting friendships”
NEGATIVE VIEWS ABOUT THE WORLD

“All friends always hurt each other by ignoring
their best friends”, “They never respond back,
even if we try to find why they are ridiculing us”
NEGATIVE VIEWS ABOUT

NEGATIVE VIEWS ABOUT THE FUTURE
YOURSELF
“I will not be able to make true and
“I must be a mean person that is long-lasting friendships”
why they are ignoring me.”
The client stated his core belief and how it was attracting negative thoughts.
CORE BELIEF OF THE CLIENT: Friends should always be there and they should not be
hurtful or ignoring.
GOAL SETTING: Understanding that some people might be having trust issues and friends
cannot always be on our side or always be polite due to some reasons.
❖ TECHNIQUES USED:
97
As the client stated that friends should always be there and they should not be hurtful or ignoring
few techniques were used to challenge his core belief:
VALIDITY TESTING: The client was asked if there is any objective evidence about what he
was talking.
Evidence which supports the core belief- he was ridiculed by his friends and they were not
talking to him.
Evidence which contradicts the core belief- he has seen other friends of his friend circle
getting distanced from each other.
❖ OUTCOME
The client accepted that it is natural to be feeling this way. He feels that he is on the right track
and will soon be over it. He knows where he needs to work and what is to be done.
CASE HISTORY- 9
NAME: Mr. D
AGE: 22
GENDER: MALE
ADDRESS: BEED
OCCUPATION: Student
CHIEF COMPLAINT: Increasing stress, Time management issue, Irregular routine, Pressure
to do better in career, decreasing weight and hair fall, Struggling to deal with break-up (Chief
Complaint)
HISTORY OF PRESENTING COMPLAINT: The client had been Studied D.Farm in sangli
and working in medical store and doing really well. He wanted to prepare mpsc Exam, so he quit
her job and came back home in Dec 2019. He had to start him preparation/coaching in Jane 2020
but then covid happened and things were delayed. He has taken admission for coaching with
Online batch and his classes will be starting in Next month. he had been in a relationship for last
3 years which has been in a turmoil for around 2 years. Now that it is over, He has been having a
really hard time dealing with it. It is there on his mind throughout the day which affects his mood
to a great extent. He trying to cope with it and struggling with her emotions. He feels irritated at
times and doesn’t know what to do.
His Weight decrease 3 kg in past 6 month.
98
developmental milestone were achieved appropriately. Sleep patterns were normal. Academically,
the client performed well.
FAMILY HISTORY: The client belongs to middle class family. His family comprises of her
mother, a younger sister and a younger brother , grand mother & grand father. he has no father. he
has friendly relations with his family members. There is free and open communication. His parents
are supportive of her decisions. There is no rigidity and he is given freedom to live his life as per
his wishes.
SOCIAL HISTORY: He is calm boy. He has limited number of friends from school, work and
college. He was addicted to play pub g game on mobile
SYSTEM REVIEW: The client complained that he has a headache from some time.
SPEECH: He had a normal tone of speech.
COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS: Normal. He was conscious and attentive. He had well established
memory.
THOUGHT PROCESS: Logical and compatible
JUDGEMENT: Appropriate. He was very much aware about what needs to be done and how his
decisions will affect him and his family members for the better.
COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY
Physical symptoms: Disturbed sleep cycle, a feeling of being stressed many times.
99
Thoughts: he constantly has thoughts as to what happened all of sudden between them. “We had
been like this forever, fighting going away and coming back, but this time he doesn’t want to come
back”
“Where and how did so much gap come between us?”
“How could She just go without discussing anything?”
“Maybe I am wrong, I was not able to handle it properly”
“What made her talk to others due to which I started having trust issues?”
Behaviours: Tries to keep himself busy in Pubji Games on Mobile. He also tries to see her ex’s
activities on social media.
Emotions: confused, stressed, sad, frustrated but also somewhere happy that it’s over.
❖ COGNITIVE TRIAD
NEGATIVE THOUGHT ABOUT YOURSELF: “Maybe I was not able to handle it well
according to my partner’s nature and personality”
NEGATIVE THOUGHTS ABOUT THE WORLD: “People have stopped putting efforts in
maintaining relations. Rather than talking to each other, they talk about each other. People should
be honest and say whatever they are feeling on the other person’s face. People don’t tend to
understand or own up their mistakes, rather they play blame and mind games”
NEGATIVE THOUGHTS ABOUT THE FUTURE: “I will have trust issues in future
relationships be it with girlfriend or wife.”

People have stopped putting efforts in maintaining relations.
Rather than talking to each other, they talk about each other.
People should be honest and say whatever they are feeling
on the other person’s face. People don’t tend to understand
or own up their mistakes, rather they play blame and mind
games”
NEGATIVE VIEWS ABOUT NEGATIVE VIEWS ABOUT

YOURSELF THE FUTURE
“Maybe I was not able to handle it I will have trust issues in future
well according to my partner’s relationships be it girlfriend or
nature and personality” wife.”
100
The client stated her core belief and how it was attracting negative thoughts.
CORE BELIEF OF THE CLIENT: “People should not be trusted blindly”
GOAL SETTING: “I need to stop stalking my ex and inculcate new and healthy habits like
exercising and meditation”
As the client stated that people should not be trusted blindly, few techniques were used to
challenge her core belief:
was talking.
Evidence which supports the core belief- he is afraid of future commitments and fears the
same might happen.
Evidence which contradicts the core belief- he is still trying to communicate with other people
and believes in friendships. he wants to be in another relationship maybe after some time. he is
ready for accepting the current failure and moving on.
❖ RECOMMENDATIONS
The client was asked to do journal writing to be able to vent out and express her emotions. To
keep an account of situations arising in day to day life and the thoughts that are associated with
these situations. The behaviour exhibited in response to them are also to be mentioned in the
diary. Later on the therapist and the client will review the matter written in the journal and find
out maladaptive thought pattern. The discussions will prove to be useful in finding different
ways in which behaviour of the client gets affected.
❖ OUTCOME
CASE HISTORY- 10
NAME: Mr. S
AGE: 15
GENDER: Male
ADDRESS: Pune
OCCUPATION: Student
CHIEF COMPLAINTS- Fearful and irritated by neighbour
101
HISTORY OF PRESENTING COMPLAINT- The client is scared about facing the neighbour
after he heard a huge argument in their house. He is dealing with this issue for past two weeks.
MEDICATION HISTORY -The client is not suffering from any health problems and is not
taking any kind of medications.
FAMILY HISTORY- The client is the only son of his parents. He lives with grandparents, his
uncle and his parents. He has very close and loving relationship with all his family members and
also regards them with due respect.
SOCIAL HISTORY: He is a calm and composed boy. He has limited number of friends from
school, work and college.
SPEECH: He had a normal tone of speech.
COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS: Normal. He was conscious and attentive. He had well established
memory.
THOUGHT PROCESS: Logical and compatible
THOUGHT CONTENT: The client listed his concerns very clearly.
COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY
102
Physical symptoms: sweating, dilation of eyes, vibration of voice

Thoughts: The client is having recurrent thoughts of how frightening the neighbour is and he
thinks that he will never be able to face the neighbor.
“Do people have such high levels of anger?”
“How can someone be so mean?”
“They should have thought of the other people were staying on the same floor.”
Behaviours: He tries to talk with other friends, tries to read story books movies to take his mind
off the thing
Emotions: confused, stressed, sad
NEGATIVE THOUGHT ABOUT YOURSELF: “I will not be able to deal with this as I
become easily afraid about anything”
NEGATIVE THOUGHTS ABOUT THE WORLD: “How can people be so hurtful and mean?
Does this kind of behaviour happen everywhere?”
NEGATIVE THOUGHTS ABOUT THE FUTURE: “I will not able to face the neighbour and
even if I do, I would not be able to speak with them.”

“How can people be so hurtful and mean? Does
this kind of behaviour happen everywhere?”
NEGATIVE VIEWS ABOUT NEGATIVE VIEWS ABOUT

YOURSELF THE FUTURE
“I will not be able to deal with this “I will not able to face the
as I become easily afraid about neighbour and even if I do, I would
anything” not be able to speak with them.”
103
The client stated his core belief and how it was attracting negative thoughts.
CORE BELIEF OF THE CLIENT: People should always be polite and peaceful.
GOAL SETTING: Understanding that some people might be having anger issues and we must
help them to deal effectively with it rather than being scared to face them again in future.
As the client stated that people should always be polite and peaceful, few techniques were used
to challenge his core belief:
was talking.
Evidence which supports the core belief- he has never seen any person becoming so angry.
Evidence which contradicts the core belief- he has seen that there are arguments in his own
family and there are situations in which people cannot control their anger.
❖ RECOMMENDATIONS
The client was asked to do journal writing to be able to vent out and express his emotions. To
keep an account of situations arising in day to day life and the thoughts that are associated with
these situations. The behaviour exhibited in response to them are also to be mentioned in the
diary. Later on, the therapist and the client will review the matter written in the journal and find
out maladaptive thought pattern. The discussions will prove to be useful in finding different
ways in which behaviour of the client gets affected.
❖ OUTCOME
DAY 24
Date: 28/04/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Introduction to School Counselling.
Activity Report:
Among the various services of guidance programme organised by the educational institutions or
schools ‘counselling service’ has a vital role to play. It is the most prominent aspect of guidance
which conveys the meaning of guidance in different situations for different services. Most of the
time, it is treated as synonym of guidance. That’s why it is regarded as the very core of the guidance
104
programme. It is as old as society itself. Usually counselling is given at many levels. It means in
homes, parents counsel their children, in the clinic or hospital the doctor counsels the patient. In
the court, the lawyer counsels the client. Like this in educational institutions or schools, teachers
counsel their pupils as counsellors.
Pupils need counselling services for the purpose to know how they should deal with or tackle the
problems they are facing in their daily life situations. Sometimes a pupil is unaware that he has a
problem. Unless he is made aware of his problems he can’t be helped in his development. For this
he requires counselling to develop insight into his problems. Besides, it has been observed that a
pupil needs a wise and sympathetic person to whom he can talk about his personal problems, a
person who can give a patient hearing to his problems and assist him to solve his problems. The
counselling session provides this opportunity to the pupils to talk about his problems and develop
insight into the possible solutions to his problems.
Functions of Counselling in General:
1. It establishes a trusting, accepting, safe and sharing relationship with the pupils.
2. It allows and encourages the pupils to express his worries, problems
3. It helps the pupils to develop insight into his real problems and to assist him in self-
understanding and self-development. It is in this sense that counselling is developmental in nature.
It assists the pupil to understand the factors which have caused his problems, worries and
difficulties and thereby to be alert about those factors so as to be able to prevent the recurrence of
his problems and difficulties. In this sense, counselling is preventive in nature.
It assists the pupil to understand themselves and his environment and to find out solutions to his
problems with satisfaction to himself and benefit to the environment. Finding solution to his
problems leads to emotional release and reassurance. Therefore, counselling is remedial in nature.
Organisation of Counselling Service in School:
The counselling service is to be organised as per the following criteria for making counselling
service a grand success in the school:
1. A qualified counsellor should be appointed.
2. The counsellor should be given a separate room so that it will provide adequate privacy to him.
3. The room should have sufficient equipment’s.
4. The room should have adequate furniture.
5. The counsellor should take advantage of every opportunity or facility offered by the school like
bulletin board, the assembly period etc., to publicize the counselling service and to explain its
nature and purpose.
6. The room should be made as attractive as possible.
105
7. The counsellor should make himself easily available to the pupils as and when necessary.
8. The counsellor should be very receptive and humane in nature.
Just as adults, children too suffer from psychological problems. These may be simple behavioural,
emotional or learning problems to complex psychological problems. Treatment exists for all types
of problems and Clinical Psychologists can determine if the child has a problem. Many problems
cycle with periods of worsening followed by periods of improvement. Some issues resolve with a
little help while others persist through adulthood. Prompt diagnosis and appropriate treatment
increases the likelihood of successful management of these problems and help children live their
lives without breakdowns. Problems range from school refusal, difficulty with concentration and
learning, disruptive behaviour, eating and sleeping problems. Some are transitory, mild and
moderate, others serious causing distress, confusion, lack of control, become unmanageable.
Problems at school can show up as poor academic performance, lack of motivation in school, loss
of interest in school work, or poor relationships with peers or teachers. Teachers are expert
observers, and after proper training they can recognize the early warning signs of psychological
problems. Their observation of students and judgment on the characteristics of their cognitive and
emotional behaviours can provide vital insight for preparing prevention and intervention
programmes for children and their problems. Common psychological problems we face in school
children are as follows –
Anxiety Disorders: Children experience a range of anxiety disorders, including generalised
anxiety, panic, phobias and obsessive-compulsive disorder. These disorders are characterised by
significant fear and uneasiness that lasts for a month or longer and affects the child’s quality of
life manifesting in school refusal, distress when separated from parent, social withdrawal and
timidity, pervasive worry and fearfulness and restless sleep and nightmares. Often these anxieties
can be easily dealt with counselling; a long delay requires initial medication as well.
Learning Disorders: Some children have difficulty in learning at the same level as their peers. It
may help to determine how the child learns best. For some children, reading is easy, while other
children benefit from a visual demonstration. Still others work best by having hands-on learning.
Testing is required to determine the specifics of the disorder and develop a specialised learning
plan. Learning disabilities are characterised by a significant difference in the child’s achievement
in some areas, as compared to his or her overall intelligence. The student may have some of these
difficulties in problems with reading comprehension, delays in speaking and listening, difficulty
performing arithmetic functions and understanding basic concepts, difficulty with reading writing
and spelling, difficulty organising and integrating thought and poor organisation skills. These
problems can be dealt by simple to complex learning and teaching interventions by multi
professional approach.
Conduct Disorder: The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry describes
conduct disorder as a mental illness in which the child encounters difficulty behaving in the way
that is expected of him. He may run away from home, steal, set fires, destroy property or harm
animals, siblings or peers. This serious disorder requires treatment that may include medication,
counselling and behavioural management. Some of the easy identifiable symptoms include easily
106
angered, annoyed or irritated, frequent temper tantrums, argues with adults / teachers, aggressive
towards animals and other people, low self-esteem, blames others for misdeeds, refusal to obey
parents/teachers, lack of empathy, frequent lying, difficulty concentrating/forgets things, never
completes a task and restlessness and fidgeting. These problems require multi pronged approach,
sometimes medication, and intense individual counselling along with family intervention for good
outcomes.
Eating Disorders: Some children fall victim to eating disorders, including anorexia nervosa and
bulimia. Typical symptoms are being underweight, feeling she is fat even when she is thin,
obsession with counting calories, and frequent excuses for not eating. Currently, we are seeing
obesity on the rise in Indian children. These children will become victims of bullying and lose self
esteem and confidence resulting in being physically inactive or lethargic leading to excessive
eating and depression which is the beginning of acute health related problems in the future.
Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: ADHD is suspected when a school-aged child has
difficulty focusing on homework, does not give close attention to details or makes careless
mistakes in schoolwork, work, or other activities, has trouble keeping attention on tasks or play
activities, does not seem to listen when spoken to directly, does not follow instructions and fails
to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace, has trouble organising activities, avoids,
dislikes, or doesn’t want to do things that take a lot of mental effort for a long period of time (such
as schoolwork or homework), loses things needed for tasks and activities (such as toys, school
assignments, pencils, books, or tools), easily distracted, forgetful in daily activities. Some of the
common Symptoms for Hyperactivity/Impulsivity may include – often fidgets with hands or feet
or squirms in seat, gets up from seat when remaining in seat is expected, runs about or climbs when
and where it is not appropriate, has trouble playing or enjoying leisure activities quietly, “On the
go” or often acts as if “driven by a motor”, talks excessively, blurts out answers before questions
have been finished, has trouble waiting one’s turn and interrupts or intrudes on others. Most often
these children can be treated with medication and intensive behaviour modification to manage
adequate behaviours in the class.
Autism: Autism is a pervasive disorder in which the child does not communicate at the same level
as his/her peers and may show little interest in contact with others. S/he may have learning
difficulties and become focused on rigid routine and particular objects instead of showing interest
in new things. Autistic children often have particular mannerisms, such as flapping their hands and
an exaggerated startle response. Some of the observable behaviour in the class is that the child has
difficulty with communication, delayed developmental milestones, particularly speech, difficulty
making or maintaining friendships, difficulty in understanding how others feel/empathy, isolated
or indulges in repetitive play, takes language literally, having obsessional behaviour and rituals,
tantrums, extreme sensory sensitivity and sometimes flapping arms or toe walking. While no
medication directly treats autism, behaviour modification treatment and a specialised learning
environment can maximise the child’s potential.
Substance Addiction: Older children may fall into substance abuse and addiction. Substances
commonly abused include alcohol, marijuana and prescription drugs, among other drugs. Inhalants
such as gasoline, paint, glue and solvents are also used for getting ‘high’. There is a rise in our
107
school children getting addicted to inhalants; we have come across students who keep their
solvents in the wash rooms and in their bags. They do inhale when no one around them. We have
witnessed children as young as in 6th standard getting addicted and these children sometimes
become psychologically or physically addicted to substances and require treatment for recovery.
Parents must become familiar with signs of substance abuse. These children like to stay away from
people, stay in their rooms behind closed doors, argue vehemently for pocket money, frequently
become sick with fevers, colds/chills, etc decreased appetite, excessive sleeping at odd times and
sudden behavioural changes.
Schizophrenia: Rare but this psychotic illness may strike children during their late school years
around Class 10 to 12. Early manifestations may include withdrawing from friends, developing
unusual speech patterns, seeming to have no emotions, acting peculiar and elevating
suspiciousness. Schizophrenia is commonly treated with medication and may require periods of
hospitalisation.
DAY 25
Date: 29/04/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Role of School Counsellor.
Activity Report:
1. Academic Guidance: In helping students understand their learning needs and blocks, such
as equipping them with study skills, doing semi-formal assessments for Learning
Disabilities and Difficulties. Academic guidance is often necessary for children that are
unable to get it at home, or have a paucity of resources to equip them with specific
knowledge otherwise.
2. Career and Vocational Guidance: While career guidance exists as a field in itself, school
counsellors are generally required to keep abreast with career options as well as things such
as entrance examinations, college requirements etc. More pertinent in Ma School
counsellors can help by providing information on the various career and vocational options
available. ii. School counsellors can guide the students in choosing the right career based
on suitable aptitude tests.
3. Issues with Peers: Issues such as bullying, clique formation, estrangement and infighting,
are all issues that we worked with in our fieldwork setting. Within this, we saw how the
teachers, administration and parents interacted to either mediate or exacerbate the situation
as well as how it was developmentally crucial to resolve these issues.
4. Psychosocial Problems: A school counsellor helps in early identification of problem
behaviours and takes suitable steps to prevent the onset of psychosocial problems. In case
108
of psychosocial problems detected after their onset, the school counsellor works towards
finding suitable solutions, or due to the time constraints in school, looks at referring the
child to a more suitable setting if the child’s home environment allows for it.
5. Working with Parents: To enable holistic support and to ensure that the child’s home
environment is secure and nurturing for her, as well as to keep the parents in the loop about
the work done in counselling, and how to ensure that the results are maintained at home.
Students require counsellor help in the following areas:
1. Change of subject.
2. Developing proper study habits.
3. Making and keeping friends.
4. Feelings of inferiority.
5. Free studentship and concession.
6. Getting along with one’s peers
7. Preparing for the examination.
8. Problems relating to use of leisure time.
9. In adequate participation or over involvement in school activities.
10. Dropping out of the school.
11. Planning for the future.
12. Continuous absence from school.
13. Problems relating to love affairs.
14. Problems relating under achievement.
15. Manners and Morals.
In this complex and troubled society, school counsellors are being asked to assume a greater role
in the lives of their students and the students' families. The challenges facing counsellors and
demands on their time will continue to grow during the next decade. School counsellors must
choose carefully where they spend their time and energy. But, given the challenges faced by today's
students, school counsellors must focus on students' personal/social, educational, and career needs.
In order to do so, counsellors need to move from a services-oriented approach (orientation,
information, assessment, counselling, placement, and follow-up) to a school counselling program
approach. They must be clear about their "scope of practice"--the responsibilities for which they
are trained--and not allow themselves to become assistant principals, attendance officers, substitute
teachers, and clerks.
109
A PROGRAM APPROACH TO SCHOOL COUNSELLING

School counsellors can exert more control over their scope of practice if they commit themselves
to designing and implementing developmental school counselling programs (Gysbers, 1990).
While crisis and remedial counselling will always be a part of the school counselor's
responsibilities, counsellors must provide assistance to as many students as possible. Emphasizing
developmental counselling programs permits counsellors to be seen as contributing to the growth
of all students and not just working with those "in trouble." Developmental counselling programs
focus on meeting students' needs and lead to activities and structured group experiences for all
students (Gysbers, 1990). They are proactive rather than reactive and when counsellors are busy
implementing their program, they are unavailable for unrelated administrative and clerical duties
(Gysbers, 1990).
Developmental Counselling Programs include both "content" and "process" components. The
content component of the program speaks to:
1. The rationale for the program (why the school and children need a counselling program);
2. The personal-social, educational, and career development skills or competencies needed by
children and youth; and
3. The management plan or blueprint intended to guide counsellors' management of the counselling
program.
The process component includes:
1. The activities counsellors will use to help students achieve the designated skills or
competencies;
2. The counselling strategies they intend to employ, e.g., individual counselling, group counselling,
classroom guidance, and/or consultation; and
3. Methods to be used to evaluate their program and improve their effectiveness with students,
staff, and parents (Sears, 1990).
THE SCOPE OF PRACTICE OF THE SCHOOL COUNSELOR IN DEVELOPMENTAL
COUNSELLING PROGRAMS
In a comprehensive developmental school counselling program, the counselor has the following
scope of practice:
Design. Counsellors design the content of the program. The content of the program is designed to
help students gain skills or competencies in personal-social, educational, and career domains.
Following is a list of skills/competencies that one might expect to see in the content of a
developmental counselling program.
1. Personal-Social Skills. Students will: (a) gain self-awareness and improve self-esteem; (b) make
healthy choices and effective decisions; (c) assume responsibility for their own behaviour; (d)
respect individual differences and cooperate; and (e) learn to resolve conflicts.
110
2. Educational Skills. Students will: (a) acquire study and test-taking skills; (b) seek and use
educational information; (c) set educational goals; and (d) make appropriate educational choices.
3. Career Development Skills. Students will: (a) analyze interests, aptitudes, and skills; (b)
recognize effects of career stereotyping; (c) form a career identity; and (d) plan for their future
careers (Sears, 1990).
Delivery. Counsellors must be involved in the delivery of this developmental program content or
curriculum that they have developed. They must allocate significant amounts of time to facilitate
or team teach developmental learning activities in the classrooms. Also, they will need to set up
inservices for teachers to enable them to assist in the facilitation of the activities. Counsellors need
to deliver their program content in small and large group sessions. Large group sessions may be
appropriate for the information about and discussion of post-secondary or vocational education
options and financial aid. Small groups may be more appropriate for interests or aptitude test
interpretations.
Counsel. Counsellors must counsel students both individually and in small groups. Counsellors
must not forget their unique counselling skills. While schools are not appropriate cites for
"caseloads of clients," counsellors must always allot time for counselling students with personal-
social problems, both individually and in small groups. In order to be as effective as possible in a
limited number of sessions, counsellors should utilize newer theoretical approaches such as brief
therapy.
Consult. Counsellors must consult with parents, teachers, other educators, and various community
agencies to help students deal with more serious personal and educational problems, both
individually and in small groups. In order to be as effective as possible, in a limited number of
sessions, counsellors should utilize newer theoretical approaches such as brief therapy.
Coordinate. Counsellors must coordinate or collaborate with others who may be offering mental
health-oriented programs, e.g., substance abuse. Counsellors report that more and more
community-based programs are operating in the schools. The school counsellors should either
coordinate the efforts of these programs or collaborate in their delivery.
Manage. Counsellors must manage the school counselling program. Directors of guidance are a
dying breed. Many counsellors find themselves supervised by individuals who have more
responsibilities than they can handle. Counsellors must take charge of their own programs and
encourage interaction and regular meetings of the counsellors in their district in order to assure
program progress. Managing a school counselling program includes developing an active
staff/community public relations program. Counsellors should orient staff and community to the
counselling program through newsletters, local media, and school and community
presentations. Managing also involves pulling together advisory committees of parents and
community members to gather input related to student needs. The management function is critical
to the success of a school counselling program.
Evaluate. Counsellors need to evaluate their efforts with students, staff, and community.
Counsellors can gather evaluation data from several sources. One source of information is "general
111
evaluation" data which includes number of students seen in individual or crisis counselling,
number of small group counselling sessions, number of large group information sessions, number
of conferences with parents, and number of phone calls to parents and community agencies. While
this kind of general evaluation does not speak to the quality of counselor contacts, it does provide
the school board and administration information about the scope or breadth of the counselling
program. "Specific evaluation" data takes more counselor planning time. Counsellors need to plan
to evaluate their work with students (particularly the delivery of the guidance activities in
classrooms). Ratings scales to be completed by teachers and/or students and short surveys to
determine what students gained from the guidance activities are two additional methods that can
be used to evaluate the counselling program. Program evaluation is one of the weakest areas in
school counselling. Many counsellors will need to seek assistance from nearby counselor educators
in setting up their evaluation process.
CONTINUED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
The need to update professional skills is critical if counsellors are to implement the scope of
practice described in this paper. Certainly school counsellors being trained today have the
advantage of graduating from more rigorous counselor education programs than those of the past.
However, counsellors, particularly those who were trained over a decade ago, must participate in
inservice training (designed for counsellors not teachers), attend professional meetings, and read
professional journals if they intend to meet student needs in this complex society.
DAY 26
Date: 30/04/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Methods of School Counselling.
Activity Report:
We learnt two types of counselling strategies used in schools. The GBG is a classroom-based
behaviour management strategy based on social learning principles that is designed to improve
academic instruction by reducing students’ aggressive, disruptive, and off-task behaviour. It was
first developed in the 1960s by Muriel Sanders, an elementary teacher, as a strategy to manage her
class, and has been evaluated through several teams of researchers. The GBG is a group-based
token economy, where students are organized into “teams” that are reinforced for their collective
success in inhibiting inappropriate behaviour. This structure allows teachers to take advantage of
positive peer pressure to manage student behaviour at the individual and the classroom level. The
PAX version of the GBG (PAX-GBG) was recently developed to improve the effectiveness of the
original GBG model and to make it ready for wide-scale dissemination in Grades K-5. At the
beginning of the “game,” the teacher and students collaborate to define their vision of the ideal
classroom. They identify the behaviours that they feel are necessary for creating a focused,
112
productive, and peaceful classroom. After jointly defining the behavioural expectations in the
class, teachers assign students to one of several teams strategically so that all teams have an equal
chance of winning the game. The teams work cooperatively to maintain appropriate behaviour in
the classroom, and points are given to the team when a member displays an inappropriate
behaviour. At the end of the game period, all teams with three or fewer points win the game and
receive an award. The rewards are nonmaterial and include activities (e.g., pencil tapping, blowing
bubbles) that are typically not allowed or not experienced in the classroom but are within the
capacity of teachers to provide. The ideal implementation of the GBG is multiple times of the day
both during instruction and transitions between activities and settings. In addition to refining the
game, the PAX-GBG incorporates a number of experimentally validated instructional and
interpersonal evidence-based kernels or strategies that engage students in the learning process,
make more time for instruction, and create a positive classroom environment. These strategies
include behavioural cues and practices that reduce disruptions and transition time between
activities and increase student attention. In addition, the PAX-GBG includes the exchange of
written compliments among all members of the school community.
ATHS is a universal, teacher-taught social-emotional curriculum for students in Grades preK-5.
The program is based on the Affective-Behavioural-Cognitive-Dynamic model of development
which places primary importance on the developmental integration of emotion, language,
behaviour, and cognitive understanding as they relate to social and emotional competence. PATHS
is designed to improve student social-emotional skills in four domains: (1) emotional
understanding and emotional expression skills, (2) prosocial friendship skills, (3) self-
control/emotion regulation, and (4) problem-solving skills, including interpersonal negotiation and
conflict resolution skills. At each grade level, the curriculum includes a set of lessons that are
delivered twice a week for 20-30 minutes, depending on the age of the students. Emotion lessons
focus on teaching specific feeling words and skills related to emotional understanding including
emotion recognition, emotion regulation, and communication regarding emotions. Friendship
lessons focus on skills related to the increase of positive social behaviour (e.g., social participation,
prosocial behaviour, communication skills) and the skills needed to make and sustain friendships
(e.g., good manners, negotiation, effective communication). Development of self-control, affective
awareness and communication, and beginning problem-solving skills are integrated with the use
of the “Turtle Technique” in the preschool version and the Control Signals Poster in the elementary
version.
In addition to formal lessons, PATHS includes strategies that can be used throughout the day by
teachers and other school staff to generalize the core concepts and promote a climate that fosters
social-emotional learning. These strategies include the use of a daily special helper who receives
compliments from adults and peers, classroom-wide problem-solving discussions, and teacher-
student dialoguing to facilitate self-control and social problem solving in real situations.
Working with Parents, Teachers and Management :
Counsellors agree that teachers may take action at a classroom level in order to prevent certain
situations, with this aim identifying and understanding the causes being primordial. There are notes
according class master’ intervention in classrooms, which reduce the number of cases that finally
113
reach the specialty counsellors’ attention. Other notes emphasize the fact that class master call a
counselor’s intervention only in severe situations “Teachers can do support counselling, becoming
emphatic towards the emotional and familial problems that some students tell them, trying to
understand the reasons which found their base of some students’ emotional disorders and their
deviant behaviours.” Communicating with students represents, according to counsellors, the key
factor of the relation between teachers and their students, and approaching the aspects which refer
to group cohesion, self-knowledge, reducing violence, class communication represent a starting
point in preventing a significant number of problems.
The relation between teachers and school counsellors manifest, according to the school
environment, at a more superficial level (teachers appeal to counsellors only in situations that
overcome their abilities) or more profound (teachers and counsellors work closely with the aim to
prevent and solve difficult situations even from early signs). It would be ideal a permanent,
proactive collaboration to exist, from the counselor’s part as well as from the head teacher’s in
order to solve situations, cases that appear, but, in practice, it does not always happen like this,
some teachers assume more of the counselor’s competences, some gives the latter responsibilities
that would have been of him.
Collaboration with family is as important as, sometimes even more important, than the relation
with the class master, in order to solve some problems signaled by students, and in the case of
minors obtaining the parents’ written acceptance is obligatory in order to work with the student
individually, at the private practice, according to the identified needs, and in some situations one
should work, council in common and separate meetings even the parent, the parents, who thus
become co-therapists, team mates in solving their child’s problems. Sometimes, due to lack of
time, information, or out of fear, the sense of guilt that they feel, parents refuse collaboration with
school, the head teacher and school counselor, in these cases, the steps of the psychoeducational
counselling becoming a lot harder, difficult to realize, due to the lack of one of the most important
links, family support.
The numerous benefits of the active involvement of parents in the school have been confirmed by
various studies and at various levels with all involved. Quality co-operation between the school
and the home positively affects the child’s development, motivation and achievement at school
and his or her attitude towards it, while the benefits of such co-operation are also evident at the
level of parents, teachers and the school in general. – Studies point out that pupils have better
learning achievements and more motivation for work at school, show a more positive attitude
towards school, have better attendance rates, and invest more energy in school work. A decrease
of improper behaviour is evident and mutual relations improve. – Quality school-home co-
operation positively affects the family (parents): at school they get ideas how to help their children
at home, become more self-confident in helping their children with learning, are more active in
supporting the children, mutual relations and communication in the family improve, parents get
familiar with the school system and educational programmes and in general have a more positive
attitude towards teachers and the school. – Advantages for teachers or the school are evident in
increased satisfaction and a higher level of morals in teachers, teachers gain parents' support, co-
114
operation between teachers is improved and also, last but not least, the school or class climate
improves.
This is the suprasystem that envelops many individuals, but affected, subsystems. Such
centralization looks at strict numbers: number of cases looked at, number of cases closed, and such
a process severely undermines the freedom and the multiculturalism that a school counsellor needs
to function optimally. Common activities that administrators described relying upon counsellors
to perform were class scheduling, coordination of the standardized testing programme,
coordination of the special education staffing and placement process, referral of students for
outside services, and ‘pinch hitting’ as a disciplinarian, substitute teacher
DAY 27
Date: 01/05/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Life Skills.
Activity Report:
The importance of life skills:
In a constantly changing environment, having life skills is an essential part of being able to meet
the challenges of everyday life. The dramatic changes in global economies over the past five years
have been matched with the transformation in technology and these are all impacting on education,
the workplace and our home life. To cope with the increasing pace and change of modern life,
students need new life skills such as the ability to deal with stress and frustration. Today’s students
will have many new jobs over the course of their lives, with associated pressures and the need for
flexibility.
Benefits for the individual: In everyday life, the development of life skills helps students to: Find
new ways of thinking and problem solving Recognize the impact of their actions and teaches them
to take responsibility for what they do rather than blame others Build confidence both in spoken
skills and for group collaboration and cooperation Analyze options, make decisions and understand
why they make certain choices outside the classroom Develop a greater sense of self-awareness
and appreciation for others
Benefits for employment: While students work hard to get good grades, many still struggle to gain
employment. According to research employers are looking not just for academic success but key
employability skills including: The ability to self-manage, solve problems and understand the
business environment, Working well as part of a team Time and people management Agility and
adaptability to different roles and flexible working environments The potential to lead by influence
115
Benefits for society: The more we develop life skills individually, the more these affect and benefit
the world in which we live: Recognizing cultural awareness and citizenship makes international
cooperation easier Respecting diversity allows creativity and imagination to flourish developing a
more tolerant society Developing negotiation skills, the ability to network and empathize can help
to build resolutions rather than resentments
There are several life skills one will need both in and out of the workplace, including:
Communication skills
The ability to communicate effectively is critical in all areas of life. One need to be able to
communicate not only verbally but also through writing and even body language. Communication
skills can include: Active listening, Public speaking, Presentation skills, Verbal communication,
Written communication, Resiliency.
Decision-making skills
Decision-making is a life skill that is essential both in and out of the workplace. Employers want
candidates who know how to analyze situations, weigh the different options and make the best
possible decision based on the information they have. This requires a level of confidence as well
to make firm decisions and avoid second-guessing yourself. Decision-making skills can include
creative thinking, focus, prioritization and time-management.
Cooperation
To advance in their career, one must be able to cooperate with others and work as part of a team.
Improving cooperation skills may require one to improve their conflict management skills,
communication, leadership skills, empathy or teamwork.
Ability to accept constructive criticism
Feedback and constructive criticism are essential to develop and improve professionally. For that
reason, one must be able to thoughtfully receive feedback and apply it to their work or behaviour.
To accept feedback, one must be self-aware, have a desire to learn and grow, and be humble. One
must also maintain their professionalism.
Time-management skills
Time management is crucial to help one stay self-disciplined and focused on completing tasks and
the accompanying goals. It also helps one to accomplish their work within specific time constraints
so one can enjoy other activities like family time, self-development and hobbies. How one manage
their time is crucial to their happiness.
Technology skills
In today’s world, knowing how to use basic technology is essential. One should be comfortable
using smartphones, the internet, email and standard computer programs like Microsoft Word and
Excel. Other technology skills—including social media, online research and spreadsheets—will
only make one a stronger candidate.
116
Creative thinking and critical thinking.

This describes the ability to think in different and unusual ways about problems, and find new
solutions, or generate new ideas, coupled with the ability to assess information carefully and
understand its relevance.
Self-awareness and empathy, which are two key parts of emotional intelligence. They describe
understanding yourself and being able to feel for other people as if their experiences were
happening to one.
Assertiveness and equanimity, or self-control. These describe the skills needed to stand up for
yourself and other people, and remain calm even in the face of considerable provocation.
The most important life skill is the ability and willingness to learn. By learning new skills, we
increase our understanding of the world around us and equip ourselves with the tools we need to
live a more productive and fulfilling life, finding ways to cope with the challenges that life,
inevitably, throws at us. Most people associate learning with a formal education, but learning can,
and should, be a lifelong process that enhances our understanding of the world and improves the
quality of our life.
Personal Skills
Personal skills are the essential life skills we need to help maintain a healthy body and mind. These
skills include many of those on the World Health Organization’s list, such as resilience, self-
control and self-awareness. They include skills such as how we recognise, manage and cope with
emotions. Being able to manage anger and stress can also be essential life skills. Learning about
anger and stress, recognising what may trigger them (in ourselves and others), what the symptoms
are and how to control or manage such emotions can greatly enhance the quality of our lives. One
can find more about how to cope with stress in our pages on Stress and Managing Stress. We also
have a section on Anger and Anger Management.
Literacy: Reading and Writing Skills
Most people communicate, at least some of the time, using the written word—through letters,
emails, reports, text messages, social network feeds and a host of other methods. Being able to
write clearly and concisely is a very powerful way to communicate, either one-to-one or to a much
larger audience. We provide articles that will help one to improve their written communication
and learn or refresh their knowledge on some of the fundamental rules of writing.
DAY 28
Date: 02/05/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Introduction to Research.
117
Activity Report:
Psychological research refers to research that psychologists conduct for systematic study and for
analysis of the experiences and behaviours of individuals or groups. Their research can have
educational, occupational and clinical applications. Research is a careful and detailed study into a
specific problem, concern, or issue using the scientific method. It's the adult form of the science
fair projects back in elementary school, where one try and learn something by performing an
experiment. This is best accomplished by turning the issue into a question, with the intent of the
research to answer the question. Psychological researchers want to learn and understand human
behaviour. It can be about how people think, how they feel, how they behave, or some combination
of these issues. Research, and the understanding that follows, trickles down from the scientists and
alters society. There is constant and competing research.
More specifically, psychological research is used to measure, describe, and categorize human
behaviour. This can result in understanding what might be called normal behaviour. More
interesting and more often researched are the abnormal behaviours, those that eventually become
categorized and labeled with a diagnosis. Qualitative research is the process of collecting,
analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data, such as language. Qualitative research can be used
to understand how an individual subjectively perceives and gives meaning to their social reality.
Qualitative data is defined as non-numerical data, such as text, video, photographs or audio
recordings. This type of data can be collected using diary accounts or in-depth interviews, and
analyzed using grounded theory or thematic analysis.
Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its
subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings,
attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to
them. Research following a qualitative approach is exploratory and seeks to explain ‘how’ and
‘why’ a particular phenomenon, or behaviour, operates as it does in a particular context. It can be
used to generate hypotheses and theory from the data. Quantitative research involves the process
of objectively collecting and analyzing numerical data to describe, predict, or control variables of
interest.
The goals of quantitative research are to test causal relationships between variables, make
predictions, and generalize results to wider populations. Quantitative researchers aim to establish
general laws of behaviour and phenonomon across different settings/contexts. Research is used to
test a theory and ultimately support or reject it. Quantitative researchers try to control extraneous
variables by conducting their studies in the lab. The research aims for objectivity (I.e., without
bias), and is separated from the data. The design of the study is determined before it begins. For
the quantitative researcher reality is objective and exist separately to the researcher, and is capable
of being seen by anyone. Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.
Steps of Research: Step – 1: Identifying the Problem
The first and foremost task in the entire process of scientific research is to identify a research
problem. A well-identified problem will lead the researcher to accomplish all-important phases of
the research process, starting from setting objectives to the selection of the research methodology.
118
Statement of the Problem: A clear and well-defined statement of the problem is considered as the
foundation for the development of the research proposal. It enables the researcher to systematically
point out why the proposed research on the problem should be undertaken and what he hopes to
achieve with the findings of the study.
Justifying the Problem: Once the problem situation has been identified and clearly stated, it is
important to justify the importance of the problem. In justifying the problems, we ask such
questions as to why the problem of the study is important, how large and widespread is the
problem, can others be convinced about the importance of the problem and the like.
Analyzing the Problem: As a first step of analyzing the problem, critical attention should be given
to accommodate the viewpoints of the managers, users, and the researchers to the problem through
threadbare discussions.
Step – 2: Reviewing of Literature
A review of relevant literature is an integral part of the research process. It enables the researcher
to formulate his problem in terms of the specific aspects of the general area of his interest that has
not been so far researched. Such a review, not only provides him exposure to a larger body of
knowledge but also equips him with enhanced knowledge to efficiently follow the research
process. Through a proper review of the literature, the researcher may develop the coherence
between the results of his study and those of the others. A review of previous documents to similar
or related phenomena is essential even for the beginning researchers.
To ignore the existing literature may lead to wasted effort on the part of the researchers. If the
researcher is aware of earlier studies of his topic, or related topics, he will be in a much better
position to assess the significance of his work and to convince others that it is important. A
confident and expert researcher is more crucial in his questioning of the others’ methodology, the
choice of the data, and the quality of the inferences drawn from the study results.
Step – 3: Setting research questions, objectives, and hypotheses
After discovering and defining the research problem, researchers should make a formal statement
of the problem leading to research objectives. An objective will precisely say what should be
researched, to delineate the type of information that should be collected, and provide a framework
for the scope of the study. The best expression of a research objective is a well-formulated, testable
research hypothesis. A hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition that can be refuted or
supported by empirical data. Hypothetical statements assert a possible answer to a research
question.
Step -4: Choosing the study design
The research design is the blueprint or framework for fulfilling objectives and answering research
questions. It is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting, processing, and
analyzing the collected data. There are four basic research designs that a researcher can use to
conduct his or her study are survey, experiment, secondary data study and observational study.
The type of research design to be chosen from among the above four designs depends primarily
119
on four factors: The type of problem, The objectives of the study, The existing state of knowledge
about the problem that is being studied, and The resources are available for the study.
Step – 5: Deciding on the sample design
Sampling is an important and separate step in the research process. The basic idea of sampling is
that it involves any procedure that uses a relatively small number of items or portions (called a
sample) of a universe (called population) to conclude the whole population. It contrasts with the
process of complete enumeration, in which every member of the population is included. Sample
design refers to the methods to be followed in selecting a sample from the population and the
estimating technique, vis-a-vis formula for computing the sample statistics.
These methods are basically of two types: probability sampling and non-probability sampling.
Probability sampling ensures every unit a known nonzero probability of selection within the target
population. The basis of such selection is entirely dependent on the researcher’s discretion. This
approach is variously called judgment sampling, convenience sampling, accidental sampling, and
purposive sampling. The most widely used probability sampling methods are simple random
sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic sampling. They have been
classified by their representation basis and unit selection techniques.
Step – 6: Collecting data
The gathering of data may range from simple observation to a large-scale survey in any defined
population. There are many ways to collect data. The approach selected depends on the objectives
of the study, the research design, and the availability of time, money, and personnel. With the
variation in the type of data (qualitative or quantitative) to be collected, the method of data
collection also varies. The most common means for collecting quantitative data is the structured
interview. Studies that obtain data by interviewing respondents are called surveys. Data can also
be collected by using self-administered questionnaires. Telephone interviewing is another way in
which data may be collected. Other means of data collection include the use of secondary sources,
such as the census, vital registration records, official documents, previous surveys, etc. Qualitative
data are collected mainly through in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, KII, and
observational studies.
Step-7: Processing and Analyzing Data
Data processing generally begins with the editing and coding of data. Data are edited to ensure
consistency across respondents and to locate omissions, if any. In survey data, editing reduces
errors in the recording, improves legibility, and clarifies unclear and inappropriate responses. In
addition to editing, the data also need coding. Because it is impractical to place raw data into a
report, alphanumeric codes are used to reduce the responses to a more manageable form for storage
and future processing. This coding process facilitates processing the data. The personal computer
offers an excellent opportunity in data editing and coding processes.
Data analysis usually involves reducing accumulated data to a manageable size, developing
summaries, searching for patterns, and applying statistical techniques for understanding and
interpreting the findings in the light of the research questions. Further, the researcher, based on his
120
analysis, determines if his findings are consistent with the formulated hypotheses and theories. The
techniques to be used in analyzing data may range from simple graphical technique to very
complex multivariate analysis depending on the objectives of the study, research design employed,
and the nature of data collected.
Step-8: Writing the report – Developing Research Proposal, Writing Report, Disseminating and
Utilizing Results
The entire task of a research study is accumulated in a document called a proposal. A research
proposal is a work plan, prospectus, outline, an offer, a statement of intent or commitment from
an individual researcher or an organization to produce a product or render a service to a potential
client or sponsor. The proposal will be prepared to keep in view the sequence presented in the
research process. The proposal tells us what, how, where, and to whom it will be done. It must also
show the benefit of doing it. It always includes an explanation of the purpose of the study (the
research objectives) or a definition of the problem. It systematically outlines the particular research
methodology and details the procedures that will be utilized at each stage of the research process.
The end goal of a scientific study is to interpret the results and draw conclusions.
Methods for Data collection:
INTERVIEW
An interview is a face-to-face conversation between two individuals with the sole purpose of
collecting relevant information to satisfy a research purpose. Interviews are of different types
namely; Structured, Semi-structured and unstructured with each having a slight variation from the
other.
Structured Interviews - Simply put, it is a verbally administered questionnaire. In terms of depth,
it is surface level and is usually completed within a short period. For speed and efficiency, it is
highly recommendable, but it lacks depth.
Semi-structured Interviews - In this method, there subsist several key questions which cover the
scope of the areas to be explored. It allows a little more leeway for the researcher to explore the
subject matter.
Unstructured Interviews - It is an in-depth interview that allows the researcher to collect a wide
range of information with a purpose. An advantage of this method is the freedom it gives a
researcher to combine structure with flexibility even though it is more time-consuming.
Pros: In-depth information, Freedom of flexibility, Accurate data.
Cons: Time-consuming, Expensive to collect.
QUESTIONNAIRES
This is the process of collecting data through an instrument consisting of a series of questions and
prompts to receive a response from individuals it is administered to. Questionnaires are designed
to collect data from a group. For clarity, it is important to note that a questionnaire isn't a survey,
rather it forms a part of it. A survey is a process of data gathering involving a variety of data
121
collection methods, including a questionnaire. On a questionnaire, there are three kinds of

questions used. They are; fixed-alternative, scale, and open-ended. With each of the questions
tailored to the nature and scope of the research.
Pros: Can be administered in large numbers and is cost-effective, It can be used to compare and
contrast previous research to measure change, Easy to visualize and analyze, Questionnaires offer
actionable data, Respondent identity is protected, Questionnaires can cover all areas of a topic,
Relatively inexpensive.
Cons: Answers may be dishonest or the respondents lose interest midway, Questionnaires can't
produce qualitative data, Questions might be left unanswered, Respondents may have a hidden
agenda, Not all questions can be analyzed easily.
REPORTING
By definition, data reporting is the process of gathering and submitting data to be further subjected
to analysis. The key aspect of data reporting is reporting accurate data because of inaccurate data
reporting leads to uninformed decision making.
Pros: Informed decision making, Easily accessible.
Cons: Self-reported answers may be exaggerated, The results may be affected by bias,
Respondents may be too shy to give out all the details, Inaccurate reports will lead to uninformed
decisions.
EXISTING DATA
This is the introduction of new investigative questions in addition to/other than the ones originally
used when the data was initially gathered. It involves adding measurement to a study or research.
An example would be sourcing data from an archive.
Pros: Accuracy is very high, Easily accessible information.
Cons: Problems with evaluation, Difficulty in understanding.
OBSERVATION
This is a data collection method by which information on a phenomenon is gathered through
observation. The nature of the observation could be accomplished either as a complete observer,
an observer as a participant, a participant as an observer or as a complete participant. This method
is a key base of formulating a hypothesis.
Pros: Easy to administer, There subsists a greater accuracy with results, It is a universally accepted
practice, It diffuses the situation of an unwillingness of respondents to administer a report, It is
appropriate for certain situations.
Cons: Some phenomena aren’t open to observation, It cannot be relied upon, Bias may arise, It is
expensive to administer, Its validity cannot be predicted accurately.
122
FOCUS GROUPS
The opposite of quantitative research which involves numerical based data, this data collection
method focuses more on qualitative research. It falls under the primary category for data based on
the feelings and opinions of the respondents. This research involves asking open-ended questions
to a group of individuals usually ranging from 6-10 people, to provide feedback.
Pros: Information obtained is usually very detailed, Cost-effective when compared to one-on-one
interviews, It reflects speed and efficiency in the supply of results.
Cons: Lacking depth in covering the nitty-gritty of a subject matter, Bias might still be evident,
Requires interviewer training, The researcher has very little control over the outcome, A few vocal
voices can drown out the rest, Difficulty in assembling an all-inclusive group.
COMBINATION RESEARCH
This method of data collection encompasses the use of innovative methods to enhance participation
to both individuals and groups. Also under the primary category, it is a combination of Interviews
and Focus Groups while collecting qualitative data. This method is key when addressing sensitive
subjects.
Pros: Encourage participants to give responses, It stimulates a deeper connection between
participants, The relative anonymity of respondents increases participation, It improves the
richness of the data collected.
Cons: It costs the most out of all the top 7, It's the most time-consuming.
DAY 29
Date: 03/05/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Writing a Research paper in APA format.
Activity Report:
A complete research paper in APA style that is reporting on experimental research will typically
contain a Title page, Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, and References
sections.1 Many will also contain Figures and Tables and some will have an Appendix or
Appendices. These sections are detailed as follows :
Title Page
What is this paper called and who wrote it? – the first page of the paper; this includes the name of
the paper, a “running head”, authors, and institutional affiliation of the authors. The institutional
affiliation is usually listed in an Author Note that is placed towards the bottom of the title page.
123
In some cases, the Author Note also contains an acknowledgment of any funding support and of
any individuals that assisted with the research project.
Abstract
One-paragraph summary of the entire study – typically no more than 250 words in length (and in
many cases it is well shorter than that), the Abstract provides an overview of the study.
Introduction
What is the topic and why is it worth studying? – the first major section of text in the paper, the
Introduction commonly describes the topic under investigation, summarizes or discusses relevant
prior research (for related details, please see the Writing Literature Reviews section of this
website), identifies unresolved issues that the current research will address, and provides an
overview of the research that is to be described in greater detail in the sections to follow.
Methods
What did one do? – a section which details how the research was performed. It typically features
a description of the participants/subjects that were involved, the study design, the materials that
were used, and the study procedure. If there were multiple experiments, then each experiment
may require a separate Methods section. A rule of thumb is that the Methods section should be
sufficiently detailed for another researcher to duplicate their research.
Results
What did one find? – a section which describes the data that was collected and the results of any
statistical tests that were performed. It may also be prefaced by a description of the analysis
procedure that was used. If there were multiple experiments, then each experiment may require a
separate Results section.
Discussion
What is the significance of their results? – the final major section of text in the paper. The
Discussion commonly features a summary of the results that were obtained in the study, describes
how those results address the topic under investigation and/or the issues that the research was
designed to address, and may expand upon the implications of those findings. Limitations and
directions for future research are also commonly addressed.
References
List of articles and any books cited – an alphabetized list of the sources that are cited in the paper
(by last name of the first author of each source). Each reference should follow specific APA
guidelines regarding author names, dates, article titles, journal titles, journal volume numbers, page
numbers, book publishers, publisher locations, websites, and so on (for more information, please
see the Citing References in APA Style page of this website).
Tables and Figures
124
Graphs and data (optional in some cases) – depending on the type of research being performed,
there may be Tables and/or Figures (however, in some cases, there may be neither). In APA style,
each Table and each Figure is placed on a separate page and all Tables and Figures are included
after the References. Tables are included first, followed by Figures. However, for some journals
and undergraduate research papers, Tables and Figures may be embedded in the text.
Appendix
Supplementary information (optional) – in some cases, additional information that is not critical
to understanding the research paper, such as a list of experiment stimuli, details of a secondary
analysis, or programming code, is provided. This is often placed in an Appendix.
General formatting rules for papers written in APA style are as follows:
• Papers should have 1-in. margins on all sides.
• All text should be double spaced.
• Times New Roman, 12-point font is preferred.
• All lines should be flush left and all paragraphs should be indented except for some headings and
exceptions per APA’s Publication Manual.
• Pages should be numbered at the top right.
• A Running Head should be at the top left.
DAY 30
Date: 04/05/2021
Venue: Zoom meeting
Topic: Ethics in Counselling.
Activity Report:
Thoughtful and impactful counselors understand that it is critically important to develop a bond of
trust and respect with their clients. It is this bond that frees clients to feel as though they can be
open and vulnerable without fearing judgment or a betrayal of confidence. To help professional
counselors understand how to safeguard themselves and best serve their clients, the American
Counseling Association (ACA) publishes a set of ethical guidelines that promote respect, dignity
and just treatment within the context of the counselor and client relationship. This Code of Ethics
can assist professionals who are faced with ethical dilemmas in counseling by offering a detailed
set of protocols to help guide their course of action.
125
The ACA Code of Ethics outlines various ethical scenarios for counselors and offers guidelines
for navigating ethical dilemmas in counseling.
The Counseling Relationship: Counselors must keep the welfare of the client in mind and establish
boundaries that make the client-counselor relationship clear. This means that clients need to
understand the counseling process and have clearly established counseling goals. Records should
be safeguarded and recorded in an accurate and timely manner. Professional boundaries should
always be maintained, and a romantic or sexual relationship should never occur between
counselors and clients. Session fees should be affordable for the client, and they should be made
clear from the start.
Confidentiality and Privacy: Counselors need to safeguard the individual rights and privacy of
their clients. Trust is the cornerstone of the counseling relationship, and counselors are responsible
for maintaining a trustworthy partnership. Clients should be made aware if information about them
has to be shared with others outside the counseling relationship, and only essential information
should ever be revealed to outside parties. Counselors are required to disclose client behaviors that
indicate the potential for self-harm or harm to others. Lastly, if sessions are to be recorded or
observed, counselors must first get the permission of their client.
Professional Responsibility: All counseling practices and treatments should be grounded in
research and accepted practice. The ACA also encourages counselors to offer pro bono work as a
part of their professional activity. In order to stay abreast of the practice, counselors must
understand the need for continued education and maintain awareness of changing practices and
procedures in the field.
Relationships With Other Professionals: How professional counselors interact with their peers will
influence what services their clients have access to. Counselors must strive to provide clients with
the most comprehensive clinical and support service available, which means that they should have
a basic knowledge of which additional services are available locally. All positive working
relationships with colleagues should be grounded in respect, even if professional approaches differ.
Evaluation, Assessment and Interpretation: Without an accurate assessment of a client’s presenting
situation, the individual may not receive appropriate treatment. Professional counselors must
understand the context of the client’s beliefs, behaviors and cultural background. In giving a
diagnosis, counselors must carefully consider whether the associated treatment and potential
outcomes will do more harm than good to the client.
Supervision, Training and Teaching: Whether you are a counseling student or instructor,
boundaries within your professional relationships are also important to ethical counseling
behavior. Supervisors must maintain a professional relationship with their students, whether
sessions are electronic or face-to-face. Teachers and supervisors must aim to be fair, honest and
accurate when assessing students or supervisees. Counselor educators and supervisors must apply
pedagogically sound instructional models. In addition, counseling educators should actively work
to recruit and retain a diverse body of students in support of a commitment to improve diversity in
the counseling field.
126
Research and Publication: Benefits to clients will only be realized if important research
advancements in the field of counseling are shared with practitioners. Professionals have an ethical
obligation to contribute to that knowledge base whenever possible and to keep aware of its current
advancements.
Distance Counseling, Technology and Social Media: Current trends in technology have changed
the field, and today, face-to-face interaction isn’t always necessary. While distance counseling has
removed roadblocks to counseling services for some, it also comes with new and evolving ethical
considerations. Counselors have to understand new platforms and resources in order to determine
whether they will better serve their clients. These new service delivery formats also bring increased
concerns for confidentiality and privacy that professionals should be mindful of. And it may seem
obvious, but confidential information should never be shared on social media.
Resolving Ethical Issues: Ethical dilemmas must never be ignored, for the good of the client, the
counselor and, ultimately, the profession itself. Not only should professional counselors follow a
strict personal code of ethics in their work, they should also hold peers accountable to high ethical
standards. The best practice is always to be proactive and take action, and, if necessary, cooperate
with any investigations into wrongdoing.
Facing an Ethical Dilemma: When challenges arise, the way forward may not immediately be
clear. Start by separating facts from assumptions, bias, hypotheses or suspicions. Determine if the
problem is an ethical, professional, clinical or legal problem (or a combination). Review the
professional literature, especially the ACA Code of Ethics, to see if guidelines for addressing the
problem are provided there. Consult with other professional counselors to get input on resolving
the situation. Online resources are also available for contacting state and national professional
associations. The foundational principles of counseling should guide our decisions:
Autonomy: Counselors should encourage and enable clients to take control of the direction of their
own lives wherever possible.
Nonmaleficence: Counselors’ chosen action or inaction should never intentionally cause harm
Beneficence: Mental health and well-being should be a priority for the good of the individual and
for society more broadly.
Justice: Counselors should treat all people fairly and equitably.
Fidelity: Counselors should honor all personal and professional commitments, promises and
responsibilities.

Internship Report Jayant

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Internship Report Jayant

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

INTERNSHIP REPORT

Master of Arts (Psychology)

Name: JAYANT BABANRAO AMTE

Sl. No. Contents Page No.

Approval email for online Internship (from Discipline of Psychology):

Information to Academic Counsellor before starting the Internship:

Certificate of completion of Internship:

Signature of the Learner:

Name of the Agency Supervisor: Mridhula.A

Signature of Agency Supervisor

Name of the Programme: MAPC

Internal Marks by Agency Supervisor

Assessment (Case history, Mental Status 15 14

Overall interaction with patients, clients & 5 04

Name of the Programme: MAPC

Internal Marks by Academic Counsellor

Profile of the Organization:

Website link: https://www.psychoshiksha.com/

📌Scope of Counselling Psychology

📌Case History taking

📌Mental status Examination

📌 Basic Helper Model

📌Solution Focused Brief Therapy

📌Case Study Discussion

📌Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy

📌Case Study Discussion

📌Cognitive Behaviour therapy

Identifying Automatic thoughts and core beliefs

📌Techniques and Types of CBT

📌Case study Discussions

📌 Life skills and Module Preparation

📌Overview of Research Methodology

📌Presentation of case study

📌One on one - verbatim submission

📌Any 3 pass out test

Venue: Zoom meeting

Venue: Zoom meeting

Essential Elements of Counselling Process:

Psychodynamic theory (sometimes called psychoanalytic theory) explains personality in terms of

A couple of relative disadvantages of individual therapy include: Individual therapy is typically

Affect constricted, with mood dysphoric. Mood congruent with content.

• Do one remember their name?

MOOD AND AFFECT: Appropriate

PSYCHOLOGICAL THERAPIES AND TECHNIQUES:

• Eagan’s approach was used

❖ DMCBT (Difficulties, Maintaining factor, causes, Barriers, Thought)

❖ CNRBS ( Change, Notice, Recent, Bother, Steps)

MENTAL STATUS EXAMINATION

SOLUTION FOCUSED BRIEF THERAPY

❖ DMCBT (Difficulties, Maintaining factor, causes, Barriers, Thought)

▪ Difficulties - unattending behaviour of boyfriend and communication issues with

❖ CNRBS (Change, Notice, Recent, Bother, Steps)

❖ PROBLEM STATEMENT: Frequent misunderstandings with sister in law.

❖ DMCBT (Difficulties, Maintaining factor, causes, Barriers, Thought)

▪ Difficulties- frequent misunderstandings

❖ CNRBS (Change, Notice, Recent, Bother, Steps)

▪ Change- to try to get husband and mother in laws advices.

What talents or skills do you admire most in others?

What are five things you love to do?

-my thinking pattern

Name of the Host: Ms. Mridhula. A

6. they may not agree with a therapeutic approach

DISPUTING IRRATIONAL BELIEFS: It is actively disputing client’s irrational beliefs and

POSTPONING GRATIFICATION: Postponing gratification is commonly used to combat low