ARM 205 Digitized

ARM 205: Natural Resources and Management
SOUTH EASTERN KENYA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AND VETERINARY SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES
UNIT CODE: ARM 205 UNIT NAME: Natural Resources and Management
LECTURER: Ms. Peggy Ngila TEL. NO: 0721730227
Email: Pngila@seku.ac.ke
AUGUST 2020
All copyright to South Eastern Kenya University

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1
Course Purpose
The main purpose of this course is to provide students with the need to know
sustainable management of the Earth’s depleting natural resources such as clean
water, energy, minerals and biological resources, in relation to the growth of human
population.
Expected Learning Outcomes
At the end of the unit, the learner should be able to;
1. Advance knowledge of management and sustainable utilisation of natural

resources.
2. Enumerate the challenges facing natural resource management conservation.
3. Discuss the scientific, ecological, economic and social knowledge to come up with
holistic solutions to challenges facing natural resources conservation.
4. Highlight and discuss practical skills in natural resources and environmental data
collection, handling and analysis.
Course Description
Definitions of terms and concepts related to natural resources; Categories and classification of
natural resources, renewable, non-renewable, perpetual/inexhaustible resources. Overview of
principles and philosophies related to natural resources. Natural resource limitations/scarcity;
resource degradation/depletion. Common local/global issues/concerns. Pollution of
environmental and resource base. Initiatives for pollution control; Land/agriculture and food
resources and man; Positive and negative impacts of agricultural, Industry/trade/commercial
activities, Water resources and man; Forests, rangelands, ecological and economic roles.
Challenges, issues, threats and opportunities for sustainable forests use/management and
development of biotic resources (fauna and flora). Environmental effects of different energy
sources / perspectives and imperatives in resource use/conservation, institutional needs and
arrangements.
Teaching Methodologies
Lectures; Group activities and discussions; field trips and excursions
Instructional Material/Equipment
LCD projector, computers, e-learning materials, Internet, whiteboard
Course Assessment
Continuous assessment tests (30%), end of semester examinations (70%).
2
TOPIC 1: NATURAL RESOURCES AND MAN: INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION

OF TERMS
Natural Resource
A natural resource is anything people can use which comes from nature. People do not make
natural resources, but gather them from the earth. Examples of natural resources are air, water,
wood, crude oil, solar energy, wind energy, hydro-electric energy, and coal. Refined oil is not a
natural resource, for example, because people make it.
Natural resources occur naturally within environments that exist relatively undisturbed by
mankind, in a natural form. A natural resource is often characterized by amounts of biodiversity
existent in various ecosystems. Natural resources are derived from the environment. Many of
them are essential for our survival while others are used for satisfying our wants. Natural
resources may be further classified in different ways.
Classification of Natural resources
a) Origin: On the basis of origin, resources may be divided into:
Biotic – Biotic resources are obtained from the biosphere, such as forests and their products,
animals, birds and their products, fish and other marine organisms. Mineral fuels such as coal and
petroleum are also included in this category because they are formed from decayed organic
matter.
Abiotic – Abiotic resources include non-living things. Examples include land, water, air and ores
such as gold, iron, copper, silver etc.
b) Status development: Considering their stage of development, natural resources may be

referred to in the following ways:
Potential Resources – Potential resources are those that exist in a region and may be used in the
future. For example, petroleum may exist in many parts of India, having sedimentary rocks but
until the time it is actually drilled out and put into use, it remains a potential resource.
Actual Resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity and quality determined and are
being used in present times. The development of an actual resource, such as wood processing
depends upon the technology available and the cost involved. That part of the actual resource that
can be developed profitably with available technology is called a reserve.
On the basis of status of development, they can be classified into potential resources, developed
resources, stock and reserves.
c) Renewability: With respect to renewability, natural resources can be categorized as follows:
Renewable resources are ones that can be replenished or reproduced easily. A renewable resource
grows again or comes back again after we use it. For example, sunlight, air, wind, water, and trees
are renewable resources. Some of them, like sunlight, air, wind, etc., are continuously available
and their quantity is not affected by human consumption. Many renewable resources can be
3
depleted by human use, but may also be replenished, thus maintaining a flow. Some of these, like
agricultural crops, take a short time for renewal; others, like water, take a comparatively longer
time, while still others, like forests, take even longer.
Non-renewable resources are formed over very long geological periods. Minerals and fossil fuels
are included in this category. Since their rate of formation is extremely slow, they cannot be
replenished once they get depleted. Of these, the metallic minerals can be re-used by recycling
them.[1] But coal and petroleum cannot be recycled.[2]
d) Availability: On the basis of availability, natural resources can be categorised as follows:
Inexhaustible natural resources- Those resources which are present in unlimited quantity in nature
and are not likely to be exhausted easily by human activity are inexhaustible natural resources
(sunlight, air etc.)
Exhaustible natural resources- The amount of these resources are limited. They can be exhausted
by human activity in the long run (coal, petroleum, natural gas, etc.)
Natural resource management is a discipline in the management of natural resources such as land,
water, soil, plants and animals, with a particular focus on how management affects the quality of
life for both present and future generations. Natural resource management is interrelated with the
concept of sustainable development, a principle that forms a basis for land management and
environmental governance throughout the world.
In contrast to the policy emphases of urban planning and the broader concept of environmental
management, Natural resource management specifically focuses on a scientific and technical
understanding of resources and ecology and the life-supporting capacity of those resources.
Depletion
In recent years, the depletion of natural resources and attempts to move to [sustainable
development] has been a major focus of [development agencies]. This is a particular concern in
[rain forest] regions, which hold most of the Earth's natural biodiversity - irreplaceable genetic
natural capital[energy conservation Conservation] of natural resources is the major focus of
natural capitalism, environmentalism, the ecology movement, and green politics. Some view this
depletion as a major source of social unrest and conflicts in developing nations.
Mining, petroleum extraction, fishing, hunting, and forestry are generally considered natural-
resource industries. Agriculture is considered a man-made resource. Theodore Roosevelt, a well-
known conservationist and former United States president, was opposed to unregulated natural
resource extraction. The term is defined by the United States Geological Survey as "The Nation's
natural resources include its minerals, energy, land, water, and biota."[4]
Protection
The conservation of natural resources is the fundamental problem. Unless we solve that problem,
it will avail us little to solve all others.
Conservation biology is the scientific study of the nature and status of Earth's biodiversity with
the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction. It
4
is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on sciences, economics, and the practice of natural

resource management.
Habitat conservation is a land management practice that seeks to conserve, protect and restore,
habitat areas for wild plants and animals, especially conservation reliant species, and prevent their
extinction, fragmentation or reduction in range
Natural Resource Management refers to the management of natural resources such as land, water,
soil, plants and animals, with a particular focus on how management affects the quality of life for
both present and future generations.
Natural resource management is congruent with the concept of sustainable development, a

scientific principle that forms a basis for sustainable global land management and environmental
governance to conserve and preserve natural resources.
Natural resource management specifically focuses on a scientific and technical understanding of

resources and ecology and the life-supporting capacity of those resources. Environmental
management is also similar to natural resource management.
Stakeholders/ownership: According to the kind and right of stakeholders, natural resources are
divided into following categories:
 State Property Regime

 Private Property Regime
 Common Property Regime
 Non-property Regimes (open access)
State Property Regime
Ownership and control over the use of resources is in hands of the state. Individuals or groups
may be able to make use of the resources, but only at the permission of the state. National forest,
National parks and military reservations are some examples.
Private Property Regime
Any property owned by a defined individual or corporate entity. Both the benefit and duties to the
resources fall to the owner(s).
Common Property Regimes
It is a private property of a group. The group may vary in size, nature and internal structure e.g.
indigenous tribe, neighbours of village. Some examples of common property are community
forests and water resources.
Non-property Regimes (open access)
There is no definite owner of these properties. Each potential user has equal ability to use it as
they wish. These areas are the most exploited. It is said that "Everybody's property is nobody’s
property". An example is a lake fishery.
5
NRM issues are inherently complex as they involve the ecological cycles, hydrological cycles,
climate, animals, plants and geography etc. All these are dynamic and inter-related. A change in
one of them may have far reaching and/or long term impacts which may even be irreversible. In
addition to the natural systems, NRM also has to manage various stakeholders and their interests,
policies, politics, geographical boundaries, economic implications and the list goes on. It is very
difficult to satisfy all aspects at the same time. This results in conflicting situations.
After the United Nations Conference for the Environment and Development(UNCED) held in Rio
de Janeiro in 1992, most nations subscribed to new principles for the integrated management of
land, water, and forests. Although program names vary from nation to nation, all express similar
aims.
The various approaches applied on NRM include:
 Top-down or Command and Rule

 Bottom-Up
 Adaptive approach
 Precautionary approach
 Integrated approach (INRM)
Integrated natural resource management (INRM)
A process of managing natural resources in a systematic way, which includes multiple aspects of
natural resource use (biophysical, socio-political, and economic) meet production goals of
producers and other direct users (e.g., food security, profitability, risk aversion) as well as goals
of the wider community (e.g., poverty alleviation, welfare of future generations, environmental
conservation). It is focuses on sustainability and at the same time it tried to incorporate all
possible stake holders from the planning level itself, reducing the possible conflicts in future. The
conceptual basis of INRM has evolved in recent years through the convergence of research in
diverse areas such as sustainable land use, participatory planning, integrated watershed
management, and adaptive management.[5][6][7] INRM is being used extensively and been
successful in community based natural management.
Frameworks and Modelling
There are various frameworks and computer modelling developed for NRM.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
GIS is a powerful analytical tool as it is capable of overlaying datasets to identify links. A bush
regeneration scheme can be informed by the overlay of rainfall, cleared land and erosion. [8] In
Australia, Metadata Directories such as NDAR provide data on Australian natural resources such
as vegetation, fisheries, soils and water.[9] These are limited by the potential for subjective input
and data manipulation.
Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM)
The CBNRM approach combines conservation objectives with the generation of economic
benefits for rural communities. The three key assumptions being that; locals are better placed to
conserve natural resources, people will conserve a resource only if benefits exceed the costs of
6
conservation and people will conserve a resource that is linked directly to their quality of life. [10]
When a local people’s quality of life is enhanced, their efforts and commitment to ensure the
future well-being of the resource is also enhanced [11]
The United Nations advocates CBNRM in the Convention on Biodiversity and the Convention to
Combat Desertification. Unless clearly defined, decentralised NRM can result an ambiguous
socio-legal environment with local communities racing to exploit natural resources while they can
e.g. forest communities in central Kalimantan (Indonesia).[12]
A problem of CBNRM is the difficulty of reconciling and harmonising the objectives of

socioeconomic development, biodiversity protection and sustainable resource utilisation. [13] The
concept and conflicting interests of CBNRM,[14][15] show how the motives behind the participation
are differentiated as either people-centred (active or participatory results that are truly
empowering)[16] or planner-centred (nominal and results in passive recipients). Understanding
power relations is crucial to the success of CBNRM. Locals may be reluctant to challenge
government recommendations for fear of losing promised benefits.
CBNRM is based particularly on advocacy by nongovernmental organizations working with local

groups and communities, on the one hand, and national and transnational organizations, on the
other, to build and extend new versions of environmental and social advocacy that link social
justice and environmental management agendas [17] with both direct and indirect benefits observed
including a share of revenues, employment, diversification of livelihoods and increased pride and
identity. CBNRM has raised new challenges, as concepts of community, territory, conservation,
and indigenous are worked into politically varied plans and programs in disparate sites. Warner
and Jones[18] address strategies for effectively managing conflict in CBNRM.
The capacity of indigenous communities to conserve natural resources has been acknowledged by
the Australian Government with the Caring for Country [19] Program. Caring for our Country is an
Australian Government initiative jointly administered by the Australian Government Department
of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry and the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage
and the Arts. These Departments share responsibility for delivery of the Australian Government’s
environment and sustainable agriculture programs, which have traditionally been broadly referred
to under the banner of ‘natural resource management’.
Biodiversity Conservation
The issue of biodiversity conservation is regarded as an important element in natural resource

management. What is biodiversity? Biodiversity is a comprehensive concept, which is a
description of the extent of natural diversity. Gaston and Spicer[20] (p. 3) point out that
biodiversity is "the variety of life" and relate to different kinds of "biodiversity organization".
According to Gray[21] (p. 154), the first widespread use of the definition of biodiversity, was put
forward by the United Nations in 1992, involving different aspects of biological diversity.
Precautionary Biodiversity Management
The "threats" wreaking havoc on biodiversity include; habitat fragmentation, putting a strain on
the already stretched biological resources; forest deterioration and deforestation; the invasion of
"alien species" and "climate change"[22]( p. 2). Since these threats have received increasing
attention from environmentalists and the public, the precautionary management of biodiversity
becomes an important part of natural resources management. According to Cooney, there are
7
material measures to carry out precautionary management of biodiversity in natural resource

management.
Concrete "policy tools"
Cooney claims that the policy making is dependent on "evidences", relating to "high standard of
proof", the forbidding of special "activities" and "information and monitoring requirements".
Before making the policy of precaution, categorical evidence is needed. When the potential
menace of "activities" is regarded as a critical and "irreversible" endangerment, these "activities"
should be forbidden. For example, since explosives and toxicants will have serious consequences
to endanger human and natural environment, the South Africa Marine Living Resources Act
promulgated a series of policies on completely forbidding to "catch fish" by using explosives and
toxicants.
Administration and guidelines
According to Cooney, there are 4 methods to manage the precaution of biodiversity in natural
resources management; 1."Ecosystem based Management" including "more risk-averse and
precautionary management" ,where "given prevailing uncertainty regarding ecosystem structure,
function, and inter-specific interactions, precaution demands an ecosystem rather than single-
species approach to management". 2."Adaptive management" is "a management approach that
expressly tackles the uncertainty and dynamism of complex systems". 3."Environmental impact
assessment" and exposure ratings decrease the "uncertainties" of precaution, even though it has
deficiencies, and 4."Protectionist approaches", which "most frequently links to" biodiversity
conservation in natural resources management.
Land management
In order to have a sustainable environment, understanding and using appropriate management

strategies is important. In terms of understanding, Young[23] emphasises some important points of
land management:
Comprehending the processes of nature including ecosystem, water, soils
Using appropriate and adapting management systems in local situations
Cooperation between scientists that have knowledge and resources and local people that have
knowledge and skills
Dale et al. (2000)[24] study has shown that there are five fundamental and helpful ecological
principles for the land manager and people who need them. The ecological principles relate to
time, place, species, disturbance and the landscape and they interact in many ways.It is suggested
that land managers could follow these guidelines:
 Examine impacts of local decisions in a regional context.

 Plan for long-term change and unexpected events.
 Preserve rare landscape elements and associated species.
 Avoid land uses that delete natural resources.
 Retain large contiguous or connected areas that contain critical habitats.
 Minimize the introduction and spread of non-native species.
8
 Avoid or compensate for the effects of development on ecological processes.

 Implement land-use and land-management practices that are compatible with
the natural potential of the area.
9
TOPIC 2: PRINCIPLES AND PHILOSOPHIES RELATED TO NATURAL

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
1. The duty of States to ensure sustainable use of natural resources
It is a well-established principle that, in accordance with international law, all States

have the sovereign right to manage their own natural resources pursuant to their own
environmental and developmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that
activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause significant damage to the
environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.
States are under a duty to manage natural resources, including natural resources solely
within their own territory or jurisdiction, in a rational, sustainable and safe way so as
to contribute to the development of their peoples, with particular regard for the rights
of indigenous peoples, and to the conservation and sustainable use of natural
resources and the protection of the environment, including ecosystems. States must
take into account the needs of future generations in determining the rate of use of
natural resources. All relevant actors (including States, industrial concerns and other
components of civil
society) are under a duty to avoid wasteful use of natural resources and promote waste
minimization policies. The protection, preservation and enhancement of the natural
environment, particularly the proper management of climate system, biological
diversity and fauna and flora of the Earth, are the common concern of humankind.
The resources of outer space and celestial bodies and of the sea-bed, ocean floor and
subsoil thereof beyond the limits of national jurisdiction are the common heritage of
humankind.
2. The principle of equity and the eradication of poverty
The principle of equity is central to the attainment of sustainable development. It

refers to both inter-generational equity (the rights of future generations to enjoy a fair
level ofthe common patrimony) and intra-generational equity (the rights of all peoples
within the current generation of fair access to the current generation’s entitlement to
the Earth’s natural resources). The present generation has a right to use and enjoy the
resources of the Earth but is under an obligation to take into account the long-term
impact of its activities and to sustain the resource base and the global environment for
the benefit of future generations of humankind. ‘Benefit’ in this context is to be
understood in its broadest meaning as including, inter alia, economic, environmental,
social and intrinsic benefit.
The right to development must be implemented so as to meet developmental and

environmental needs of present and future generations in a sustainable and equitable
manner. This includes the duty to co-operate for the eradication of poverty in
accordance with Chapter IX on International Economic and Social Co-operation of
the Charter of the United Nations and the Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development as well as the duty to co-operate for global sustainable development and
the attainment of equity in the development opportunities of developed and
developing countries. Whilst it is the primary responsibility of the State to aim for
conditions of equity within its own population and to ensure, as a minimum, the
eradication of poverty, all States which are in a position to do so have a further
10
responsibility, as recognised by the Charter of the United Nations and the Millennium
Declaration of the United Nations, to assist States in achieving this objective.
3. The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities (Shared

responsibility)
States and other relevant actors have common but differentiated responsibilities. All
States are under a duty to co-operate in the achievement of global sustainable
development and the protection of the environment. International organizations,
corporations (including in particular transnational corporations), nongovernmental
organizations and civil society should co-operate in and contribute to this global
partnership. Industrial concerns have also responsibilities pursuant to the polluter pays
principle. Differentiation of responsibilities, whilst principally based on the
contribution that a State has made to the emergence of environmental problems, must
also take into account the economic and developmental situation of the State, in
accordance with paragraph 3.3. The special needs and interests of developing
countries and of countries with economies in transition, with particular regard to least
developed countries and those affected adversely by environmental, social and
developmental considerations, should be recognized. Developed countries bear a
special burden of responsibility in reducing and eliminating unsustainable patterns of
production and consumption and in contributing to capacity building in developing
countries, inter alia by providing financial assistance and access to environmentally
sound technology. In particular, developed countries should play a leading role and
assume primary responsibility in matters of relevance to sustainable development.
4. The principle of the precautionary approach to human health, natural

resources and ecosystems
A precautionary approach is central to sustainable development in that it commits
States, international organizations and the civil society, particularly the scientific and
business communities, to avoid human activity which may cause significant harm to
human health, natural resources or ecosystems, including in the face of scientific
uncertainty. Sustainable development requires that a precautionary approach with
regard to human health, environmental protection and sustainable utilization of
natural resources should include accountability for harm caused (including, where
appropriate, State responsibility), planning based on clear criteria and well-defined
goals, consideration of all possible means in an environmental impact assessment to
achieve an objective (including, in certain instances, not proceeding with an
envisaged activity) and, in respect of activities which may cause serious long-term or
irreversible harm, establishing an appropriate burden of proof on the person or
persons carrying out (or intending to carry out) the activity. Decision-making
processes should endorse a precautionary approach to risk management and in
particular should proceed to the adoption of appropriate precautionary measures even
when the absence of risk seems scientifically assured. Precautionary measures should
be based on up-to-date and independent scientific judgment and be transparent. They
should not result in economic protectionism. Transparent structures should be
established which involve all interested parties, including non-state actors, in the
consultation process. Appropriate review by a judicial body or administrative action
should be available.
5. The principle of public participation and access to information and justice
11
Public participation is essential to sustainable development and good governance in

that it is a condition of responsive, transparent and accountable governments as well a
condition for the active engagement of equally responsive, transparent and
accountable civil society organizations, including industrial concerns and trade
unions. The vital role of women in sustainable development should be recognised.
Public participation in the context of sustainable development requires effective

protection of the human right to hold and express opinions and to seek, receive and
impart ideas. It also requires a right of access to appropriate, comprehensible and
timely information held by governments and commerce on economic and social
policies regarding the sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of the
environment, without imposing undue financial burdens upon the applicants and with
due consideration for privacy and adequate protection of business confidentiality. The
empowerment of peoples in the context of sustainable development requires access to
effective judicial or administrative procedures in the State where the measure has
been taken to challenge such measure and to claim compensation. States should
ensure that where transboundary harm has been, or is likely to be, caused, individuals
and peoples affected have non-discriminatory access to the same judicial and
administrative procedures as would individuals and peoples of the State from which
the harm is caused if such harm occurred in that State.
6. The principle of good governance

The principle of good governance is essential to the progressive development and
codification of international law relating to sustainable development. It commits
States and international organizations:
(a) to adopt democratic and transparent decision-making procedures and financial
accountability;
(b) to take effective measures to combat official or other corruption;
(c) to respect due process in their procedures and to observe the rule of law and
human rights; and
(d) to implement a public procurement approach according to the WTO Code on
Public Procurement.
Civil society and non-governmental organizations have a right to good governance by
States and international organizations. Non-state actors should be subject to internal
democratic governance and to effective accountability.
Good governance requires full respect for the principles of the 1992 Rio Declaration
on Environment and Development as well as the full participation of women in all
levels of decision-making. Good governance also calls for corporate social
responsibility and socially responsible investments as conditions for the existence of a
global market aimed at a fair distribution of wealth among and within communities.
7. The principle of integration and interrelationship, in particular in relation to

human rights and social, economic and environmental objectives
The principle of integration reflects the interdependence of social, economic,
financial, environmental and human rights aspects of principles and rules of
international law relating to sustainable development as well as of the needs of current
and future generations of humankind.
All levels of governance – global, regional, national8. Principle of conservation of
biological diversity and ecological integrity
12
The conservation of biological diversity and ecological integrity should be a

fundamental consideration in decision making.
Central to the conservation of biological diversity is the establishment of a
comprehensive, representative and adequate system of ecologically viable protected
areas, integrated with sympathetic management of all other areas, including
agricultural and resource production systems.
9. Principle of improved valuation, pricing and incentive mechanisms

(1) Environmental factors should be included in the valuation of assets and services.
(2) Persons who generate pollution and waste should bear the cost of containment,
avoidance and abatement.
(3) Users of goods and services should pay prices based on the full life cycle costs of
providing the goods and services, including costs relating to the use of natural
resources and the ultimate disposal of wastes.
(4) Established environmental goals should be pursued in the most cost effective way
by establishing incentive structures, including market mechanisms, which enable
persons best placed to maximise benefits or minimise costs to develop solutions and
responses to environmental problems.
10. Principle of integrated environmental management

If approaches to managing environmental impacts on one segment of the environment
have potential impacts on another segment, the best practicable environmental
outcome should be sought.
11. Principle of enforcement

Enforcement of environmental requirements should be undertaken for the purpose of:
(a) better protecting the environment and its economic and social uses;
(b) ensuring that no commercial advantage is obtained by any person who fails to
comply with environmental requirements;
(c) influencing the attitude and behaviour of persons whose actions may have adverse
environmental impacts or who develop, invest in, purchase or use goods and services
which may have adverse environmental impacts.
12. Principle of accountability

(1) The aspirations of the people of GSL for environmental quality should drive
environmental improvement.
(2) Members of the public should therefore be given--
(a) access to reliable and relevant information in appropriate forms to facilitate a good
understanding of environmental issues;
(b) opportunities to participate in policy and program development.".
NATURAL RESOURCE LIMITATIONS

Due to global population growth and overconsumption, human demand for products
and services is increasing. This depends on the exploitation of natural resources and
causes damage which can be irreversible. In response to this threat, stakeholders have
established a coalition on capping resource use.
State of play - overuse of natural resources is threatening biodiversity, the basis of all
life on Earth
13
During the past 60 years, people have impacted the environment more extensively
than in any other period in human history. Increasing natural resource exploitation is
encouraged by a continuous need for growth which is determined by the current
economic system. This phenomenon cannot continue forever within a finite system
like the Earth, which already exceeded its carrying capacity in the seventies. Since
that time humanity has been living in a state of overshoot, in which people are
consuming natural resources faster than they can be regenerated. In other words, we
are using up resources which were meant to serve future generations.
As a consequence of this overconsumption, the scarcity of fossil resources such as oil,

on which our present society is heavily based, is already becoming a reality.
Moreover, the impacts of unsustainable resource use are already being felt through a
growing number of economic, environmental and social issues such as: economic
tension because of resource depletion and unequal access to scarce resources; climate
change and biodiversity loss; and health problems due to pollution. Unless there are
increased efforts to move humanity towards a sustainable framework; economic,
environmental and social problems will continue.
Currently stakeholders focus on problems within the established sectoral framework

and apply 'end-of pipe' solutions, for example: economic actors work out strategies to
aid resource supply; environmentalists designate pieces of land as protected areas to
save valuable biodiversity; and transport and industrial pollution limits are set to
protect people's health and the planet's climate. Decision-makers with different
backgrounds and interests are often unaware of the numerous interactions and
connections between seemingly disconnected issues and tend not to explore the
deeper relationships between them. This leads to a focus on short-term solutions
within the existing sectoral framework instead of looking ahead and developing
holistic long-term solutions.
The best way to tackle the problem - cap our resource use
Members of the Resource Cap Coalition are convinced that effective and long-term
solutions to today's many inter-related issues are only possible if we look at the root
of the problem and are prepared to tackle it. Bearing in mind the importance of
applying holistic approaches instead of sectoral ones, it is crucial to look beyond the
pressures and consider the driving forces behind them. These driving forces are
threefold:
14
 Structural drivers
include production and
consumption patterns as
well as urban and spatial
structures leading to
environmental pressures
such as pollution, habitat
degradation or the
exploitation of natural
resources. Besides
creating environmental
pressures, resource
intensive production
processes also require
less human labour and
thus increase
unemployment.
 Institutional
drivers determine the
structural ones. These
are, inter alia, the current
legislative and economic
regulatory frameworks,
which enable energy
intensive products and
services to flourish due
to unlimited access to
cheap natural resources.
Consequently, the loss of
natural heritage is able to
continue without any
compensation.
 Cultural drivers provide the basis for the two above. These include our history,
common believes, customs, behaviour, etc. All of them are determined by societal
values, of which by far the most dominant is the value placed on material wealth and
the continuous growth of GDP. This is often at the expense of other values such as a
healthy environment, strong family, community relationships or security. According
to recent indices the more balanced people's values are (i.e. when values are taken into
account equally), the happier they are . Societies with more balanced values would
contribute to achieving a fair distribution of resources, which in turn would lead to
greater global environmental and social equity. Ecological justice would also have a
positive effect by cutting the ecological debt from the "north" to the "south", caused
by centuries of social and economic exploitation.
Analyzing this complex structure of drivers, it becomes clear that introducing

resource use cap would change their course. As a result of legally set limits, fewer
natural resources would be used across Africa, which would lead to an increase in
products and services with low energy and natural resource demand. At the same time
human labour would become more competitive and more jobs would be created in
15
different sectors such as agriculture, forestry or fishery. Moreover, people would start
consuming less, appreciate more ecosystems, which deliver indispensable services for
them, and thus material wealth would become relatively less important in their set of
values.
The time is ripe to kick off the coalition on capping resource use
Firstly, resource efficiency is currently high on the political agenda in the framework
of the Kenyan Vision 2030. Using this momentum, stakeholders emphasizes on
avoiding Jevons' Paradox. This paradox shows that the more efficient use of a
resource could lead to the increased use of the same resource rather than to its
reduction. That is why efforts to become resource efficient have to be carefully
designed so that they are not negated by parallel growing demand in other regions.
the Jevons paradox, sometimes called the Jevons effect, is the proposition
that technological progress that increases the efficiency with which a resource is used
tends to increase (rather than decrease) the rate of consumption of that resource.
Secondly, we are aware of the importance of integrating different views and

specialized knowledge in the various environmental, social and economic fields in
this process. That is why we have established a coalition of stakeholders committed to
resource use capping. One reason why current measures have failed to tackle the
problem is because of the sectoral approach to the problems and the insufficient
collaboration between different organizations. In this regards, more discussion is
needed especially concerning issues which at first glance may seem to be
disconnected. Our goal is to share our experiences, speak with a common voice and
take a more holistic approach. This would enable us to more effectively influence all
the ongoing processes both at national and global levels.
Natural resource scarcity
Non-renewable natural resources, such as aluminium and crude oil, exist only in fixed
amounts on Earth. Consequently, some observers are concerned that natural resource
scarcity will eventually limit future economic growth and human well-being. Others
remain optimistic that technological change will overcome geophysical scarcity.
Brown and Wolk examine the evidence for natural resource scarcity and find that over
the past century reliance on free markets has promoted sufficient technological
change to overcome geophysical scarcity for most non-renewable natural resources.
Rather than rising--as would result from increased scarcity--the relevant real prices of
most non-renewable natural resources have fallen. Although declines in real prices
have moderated since World War II, the authors find little evidence of increased
scarcity in the postwar era. Increased reliance on markets during the closing decades
of the twentieth century is cause for optimism that these trends will continue in the
twenty-first.
Whether economic growth can be sustained in a finite natural world is one of the
earliest and most enduring questions in economic literature. Even with unprecedented
16
growth in human population and resource consumption, humans have been quite
adept (skilful) at finding solutions to the problem of scarce natural resources,
particularly in response to signals of increased scarcity. Because environmental
resources are not generally traded on markets, however, scarcity signals for these
resources may be inadequate, and appropriate policy responses are difficult to
implement and manage. In the debate over the economic scarcity of natural resources,
one significant change in recent years has been a greater focus on the ecosystem
services and the resource amenities yielded by natural environments. The general
conclusion of this paper is that technological progress has ameliorated the scarcity of
natural resource commodities; but resource amenities have become more scarce, and
it is unlikely that technology alone can remedy that.
RESOURCE DEGRADATION/DEPLETION
Resource depletion is an economic term referring to the exhaustion of raw materials
within a region. Use of either of these forms of resources beyond their rate of
replacement is considered to be resource depletion.
Causes of resource depletion

 Over-consumption/excessive or unnecessary use of resources
 Non-equitable distribution of resources
 Overpopulation
 Slash and burn agricultural practices, currently occurring in many developing
countries
 Technological and industrial development
 Erosion
 Irrigation
 Mining for oil and minerals
 Aquifier depletion
 Forestry
 Pollution or contamination of resources
Sub-national and local – and all sectors of society should implement the integration
principle, which is essential to the achievement of sustainable development. States
should strive to resolve apparent conflicts between competing economic, financial,
social and environmental considerations, whether through existing institutions or
through
the establishment of appropriate new ones.
17
TOPIC 3: GLOBAL ISSUES/CONCERNS IN NATURAL RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT
 Human population
 Deforestation
 Trade and markets
 Environmental factors (Climate change, desertification etc)
 Intellectual property rights
 Land transformation (use and tenure systems)
 Financial resources
 Stakeholder participation
Assignment
Discuss some of the global/local issues or concerns with regards to natural resource
management (10 marks)
POLLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND RESOURCE BASE

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into a natural environment that causes
instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem i.e. physical systems or
living organisms. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such
as noise, heat, or light. Pollutants, the elements of pollution, can be foreign substances
or energies, or naturally occurring; when naturally occurring, they are considered
contaminants when they exceed natural levels. Pollution is often classed as point
source or nonpoint source pollution.
“Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the environment that cause harm
or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or that damage the environment”
which can come “in the form of chemical substances, or energy such as noise, heat or
light”. “Pollutants can be naturally occurring substances or energies, but are
considered contaminants when in excess of natural levels.
Environmental pollution is “the contamination of the physical and biological

components of the earth/atmosphere system to such an extent that normal
environmental processes are adversely affected”.
FORMS OF POLLUTION
There are three major types of environmental pollution:
a) Air pollution, the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere.
Common gaseous pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor
vehicles. Photochemical ozone and smog are created as nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Particulate matter, or fine dust is characterized by their
micrometre size.
- The most important air pollutants are sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon
monoxide, ozone, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and airborne particles, with
radioactive pollutants probably among the most destructive ones (specifically when
produced by nuclear explosions). Some soil pollutants are: hydrocarbons, solvents
and heavy metals.
18
b) Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are released intentionally, by spill

or underground leakage. Among the most significant soil contaminants are
hydrocarbons, heavy metals, herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons.
c) Water pollution, by the discharge of wastewater from commercial and

industrial waste (intentionally or through spills) into surface waters; discharges of
untreated domestic sewage, and chemical contaminants, such as chlorine, from treated
sewage; release of waste and contaminants into surface runoff flowing to surface
waters (including urban runoff and agricultural runoff, which may contain chemical
fertilizers and pesticides); waste disposal and leaching into groundwater;
eutrophication and littering.
- Water pollutants include insecticides and herbicides, food processing waste,
pollutants from livestock operations, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), heavy
metals, chemical waste and others.
Other forms of pollution
 Light pollution, includes light trespass, over-illumination and astronomical

interference.
 Littering
 Noise pollution, which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial
noise as well as high-intensity sonar.
 Radioactive contamination, resulting from 20th century activities in atomic
physics, such as nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research, manufacture
and deployment. (See alpha emitters and actinides in the environment.)
 Thermal pollution, is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by
human influence, such as use of water as coolant in a power plant.
 Visual pollution, which can refer to the presence of overhead power lines,
motorway billboards, scarred landforms (as from strip mining), open storage of trash
or municipal solid waste.
POLLUTANTS
Pollutant is a waste material that pollutes air, water or soil. Three factors determine
the severity of a pollutant: its chemical nature, the concentration and the persistence.
Sources and causes
Air pollution produced by ships may alter clouds, affecting global temperatures. Air
pollution comes from both natural and man-made sources. Though globally man made
pollutants from combustion, construction, mining, agriculture and warfare are
increasingly significant in the air pollution equation.
Motor vehicle emissions are one of the leading causes of air pollution. China, United
States, Russia, Mexico, and Japan are the world leaders in air pollution emissions.
Principal stationary pollution sources include chemical plants, coal-fired power
plants, oil refineries, petrochemical plants, nuclear waste disposal activity,
incinerators, large livestock farms (dairy cows, pigs, poultry, etc.), PVC factories,
metals production factories, plastics factories, and other heavy industry. Agricultural
air pollution comes from contemporary practices which include clear felling and
burning of natural vegetation as well as spraying of pesticides and herbicides. About
400 million metric tons of hazardous wastes are generated each year. The United
19
States alone produces about 250 million metric tons. Americans constitute less than
5% of the world's population, but produce roughly 25% of the world’s CO2, and
generate approximately 30% of world’s waste. In 2007, China has overtaken the
United States as the world's biggest producer of CO2.
In February 2007, a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

(IPCC), representing the work of 2,500 scientists, economists, and policymakers from
more than 120 countries, said that humans have been the primary cause of global
warming since 1950. Humans have ways to cut greenhouse gas emissions and avoid
the consequences of global warming, a major climate report concluded. But in order
to change the climate, the transition from fossil fuels like coal and oil needs to occur
within decades, according to the final report this year from the UN's
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
Some of the more common soil contaminants are chlorinated hydrocarbons (CFH),
heavy metals (such as chromium, cadmium–found in rechargeable batteries, and lead–
found in lead paint, aviation fuel and still in some countries, gasoline), MTBE, zinc,
arsenic and benzene. In 2001 a series of press reports culminating in a book called
Fateful Harvest unveiled a widespread practice of recycling industrial byproducts into
fertilizer, resulting in the contamination of the soil with various metals. Ordinary
municipal landfills are the source of many chemical substances entering the soil
environment (and often groundwater), emanating from the wide variety of refuse
accepted, especially substances illegally discarded there, or from pre-1970 landfills
that may have been subject to little control in the U.S. or EU. There have also been
some unusual releases of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, commonly called dioxins
for simplicity, such as TCDD.
Pollution can also be the consequence of a natural disaster. For example, hurricanes
often involve water contamination from sewage, and petrochemical spills from
ruptured boats or automobiles. Larger scale and environmental damage is not
uncommon when coastal oil rigs or refineries are involved. Some sources of pollution,
such as nuclear power plants or oil tankers, can produce widespread and potentially
hazardous releases when accidents occur.
In the case of noise pollution the dominant source class is the motor vehicle,
producing about ninety percent of all unwanted noise worldwide
Effects of pollution
a) Human health
Overview of main health effects on humans from some common types of pollution
includes:
Environmental Pollution Effects on Humans
We know that pollution causes not only physical disabilities but also psychological
and behavioral disorders in people.
The following effects of environmental pollution on humans have been reported:
Air pollution
20
 Reduced lung functioning

 Irritation of eyes, nose, mouth and throat
 Asthma attacks
 Respiratory symptoms such as coughing and wheezing
 Increased respiratory disease such as bronchitis
 Reduced energy levels
 Headaches and dizziness
 Disruption of endocrine, reproductive and immune systems
 Neurobehavioral disorders
 Cardiovascular problems
 Cancer
 Premature death
Water pollution
Waterborne diseases caused by polluted drinking water:
 Typhoid
 Amoebiasis
 Giardiasis
 Ascariasis
 Hookworm
Waterborne diseases caused by polluted beach water:
 Rashes, ear ache, pink eye

 Respiratory infections
 Hepatitis, encephalitis, gastroenteritis, diarrhoea, vomiting, and stomach aches
Conditions related to water polluted by chemicals (such as pesticides, hydrocarbons,
persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals etc):
 Cancer, including prostate cancer and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma

 Hormonal problems that can disrupt reproductive and developmental
processes
 Damage to the nervous system
 Liver and kidney damage
21
 Damage to the DNA

 Exposure to mercury (heavy metal):
o In the womb: may cause neurological problems including slower
reflexes, learning deficits, delayed or incomplete mental development,
autism and brain damage
o In adults: Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease,
heart disease, and even death
Other notes:
 Water pollution may also result from interactions between water and
contaminated soil, as well as from deposition of air contaminants (such as acid
rain)
 Damage to people may be caused by fish foods coming from polluted water (a
well known example is high mercury levels in fish)
 Damage to people may be caused by vegetable crops grown / washed with
polluted water (author’s own conclusion)
Soil contamination
 Causes cancers including leukaemia

 Lead in soil is especially hazardous for young children causing developmental
damage to the brain
 Mercury can increase the risk of kidney damage; cyclodienes can lead to liver
toxicity
 Causes neuromuscular blockage as well as depression of the central nervous
system
 Also causes headaches, nausea, fatigue, eye irritation and skin rash
Other notes:
 Contact with contaminated soil may be direct (from using parks, schools etc)
or indirect (by inhaling soil contaminants which have vaporized)
 Soil contamination may also result from secondary contamination of water
supplies and from deposition of air contaminants (for example, via acid rain)
 Contamination of crops grown in polluted soil brings up problems with food
security
 Since it is closely linked to water pollution, many effects of soil contamination
appear to be similar to the ones caused by water contamination
Environmental Pollution Effects on Animals
Air Pollution
 Acid rain (formed in the air) destroys fish life in lakes and streams
22
 Excessive ultraviolet radiation coming from the sun through the ozone layer in
the upper atmosphere which is eroded by some air pollutants, may cause skin
cancer in wildlife
 Ozone in the lower atmosphere may damage lung tissues of animals
Water Pollution
 Nutrient pollution (nitrogen, phosphates etc) causes overgrowth of toxic algae

eaten by other aquatic animals, and may cause death; nutrient pollution can
also cause outbreaks of fish diseases
 Chemical contamination can cause declines in frog biodiversity and tadpole
mass
 Oil pollution (as part of chemical contamination) can negatively affect
development of marine organisms, increase susceptibility to disease and affect
reproductive processes; can also cause gastrointestinal irritation, liver and
kidney damage, and damage to the nervous system
 Mercury in water can cause abnormal behavior, slower growth and
development, reduced reproduction, and death
 Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) may cause declines, deformities and death
of fish life
 Too much sodium chloride (ordinary salt) in water may kill animals (24)
Other notes:
 We also assume that some higher forms of non-aquatic animals may have
similar effects from water pollution as those experienced by humans, as
described above (author’s own conclusion)
Soil Contamination
 Can alter metabolism of microorganisms and arthropods in a given soil

environment; this may destroy some layers of the primary food chain, and thus
have a negative effect on predator animal species
 Small life forms may consume harmful chemicals which may then be passed
up the food chain to larger animals; this may lead to increased mortality rates
and even animal extinction.
Environmental Pollution Effects on Trees and Plants
Air Pollution
 Acid rain can kill trees, destroy the leaves of plants, can infiltrate soil by
making it unsuitable for purposes of nutrition and habitation
 Ozone holes in the upper atmosphere can allow excessive ultraviolet radiation
from the sun to enter the Earth causing damage to trees and plants
 Ozone in the lower atmosphere can prevent plant respiration by blocking
stomata (openings in leaves) and negatively affecting plants’ photosynthesis
23
rates which will stunt plant growth; ozone can also decay plant cells directly
by entering stomata
Water Pollution
 May disrupt photosynthesis in aquatic plants and thus affecting ecosystems

that depend on these plants (27)
 Terrestrial and aquatic plants may absorb pollutants from water (as their main
nutrient source) and pass them up the food chain to consumer animals and
humans
 Plants may be killed by too much sodium chloride (ordinary slat) in water (28)
 Plants may be killed by mud from construction sites as well as bits of wood
and leaves, clay and other similar materials (29)
 Plants may be killed by herbicides in water; herbicides are chemicals which
are most harmful to plants (30)
Soil Contamination
 May alter plant metabolism and reduce crop yields (31)

 Trees and plants may absorb soil contaminants and pass them up the food
chain
Environmental Pollution Effects on Wider Environment
Apart from destroying the aquatic life in lakes and streams, acid rain can also corrode
metals, damage surfaces of buildings and monuments, and cause soil acidification.
Pollution of water may cause oxygen depletion in marine environments and severely
affect the health of whole ecosystems.
Conclusion
Environmental pollution is causing a lot of distress not only to humans but also
animals, driving many animal species to endangerment and even extinction.
The transboundary nature of environmental pollution makes it even more difficult to

manage – you cannot build stone walls along the borders of your country or put
customs cabins at every point of entry to regulate its flows into your country.
Everything on our planet is interconnected, and while the nature supplies us with
valuable environmental services without which we cannot exist, we all depend on
each other’s actions and the way we treat natural resources.
It’s widely recognised that we are hugely overspending our current budget of natural
resources – at the existing rates of its exploitation, there is no way for the environment
to recover in good time and continue “performing” well in the future.
24
Perhaps we should adopt a holistic view of nature – it is not an entity that exists
separately from us; the nature is us, we are an inalienable part of it, and we should
care for it in the most appropriate manner. Only then can we possibly solve the
problem of environmental pollution.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
1. Control and regulations on Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

One of the major causes of both indoor and outdoor air pollution are Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOCs). Due to the proven contribution of VOCs to air pollution (and
ultimately smog) VOC control regulations need to be enforced to protect the
environment against them.
2. Activated Carbon
Activated Carbon is a popular air pollution control method. One of the most common
forms of carbon treatment in air pollution control is carbon adsorption. This method
sees the use of dry chemical scrubbing media such as carbon filters for the adsorption
of fumes from the air.
3. Biofilters: Clearing the Air

Biofiltration is a method of pollution control in which process pollutants are
biologically degraded using microorganisms. The most common air pollution control
application of biofilters is the microbiotic oxidation of contaminants in the air.
Biofilters use living materials to degrade pollutants when immobilized in the biofilm.
Applications of this method include treatment of the off-gas from wastewater
treatment plants, after painting and during the manufacture of food products.
Although capable of treating large airflows, one of the disadvantages of biofilters is

the requirement of a large amount of physical space. In recent years efforts have been
made to reduce the amount of space needed, meaning that footprint reductions have
been seen. Various systems are used to ensure that sufficient moisture levels are
maintained throughout the system. Air is humidified before entry to the bed using
humidification chambers, bioscrubbers and water spray systems. Biofilters are cost-
effective and straightforward options for pollutants capable of biodegrading
reasonably easily. The absence of further pollution from biofilters is another positive
associated with this method of air pollution control.
4. Driving Towards Cleaner Emissions

Car engine emissions are recognized as one of the leading causes of air pollution.
Catalytic Oxidizers are placed in the exhaust system of cars to reduce emissions from
the exhaust pipe. The ideal byproducts of a car’s engine are carbon dioxide, some
water and nitrogen. However in reality engines continue to release unburned
hydrocarbons which damage the environment. Catalytic oxidizers now oxidize many
of the unburnt hydrocarbons from an engine, leading to cleaner emissions from cars.
Ways to Prevent Air Pollution
The fact is that human activities contribute the most to air pollution. Considering the
harmful effects of air pollution, now it is very essential that everyone should
25
contribute a bit to prevent air pollution. There are certain ways that one can help to
reduce the emission of air pollutants in the atmosphere. Following are some tips for
preventing air pollution:
Car Pool: Forming and implementing a car pool will reduce the number of cars,
thereby, preventing air pollution by cutting down the use of fossil fuels. This way, it
will help in the sustainable use of fossil fuel and its conservation for the future
generations.
Vehicle Care: Timely servicing of the car helps to keep it in a good condition and
also minimizes fuel exhaust. Driving the car at an average speed and turning off in
traffic is a key to save fuel. Make sure to use unleaded petrol and opt for regular
pollution checking of your car.
Public Transport: Whenever possible, try to travel by public transports. This helps in
two ways; prevents air pollution and increases public income. If you are going to a
nearby place, go by walking or use bicycle, instead of using your vehicle. The
objective is to minimize the use of fuels, as far as possible.
Alternative Energy Source: Another effective way to prevent air pollution is to use
alternative energy sources such as solar energy, hydroelectric energy and wind
energy. Nowadays, sophisticated technologies such as wind turbine, solar water
heaters are introduced to generate electricity and other energy forms for the household
use.
Saving Energy: Saving energy will, of course, help to prevent air pollution. Switch
off the lights, fans, air conditioners, televisions, and other appliances, when not in use.
You can also share a room with others when the air conditioner or fan is on, instead of
switching them on in every room.
Minimize Air Pollutants: Always try to minimize smoke emission, as it can

contribute to air pollution. One way is to compost dried leaves and kitchen waste,
instead of burning them. Composting will also give you organic fertilizer for your
garden. While buying the products, always choose air-friendly and recyclable
products that will minimize the emission of pollutants.
Social awareness about air pollution is the most essential step to be taken for the
prevention of air pollution. Awareness programs and/or advertisements should be
encouraged, so that people understand the potential health hazards of air pollution.
Improvement of transport facilities and proper use of land for the sake of social
benefits are equally important for controlling air pollution.
26
TOPIC 4: LAND, AGRICULTURE, FOOD AND NATURAL RESOURCES
Agricultural land (also agricultural area) denotes the land suitable for agricultural
production, both crops and livestock. It is one of the main resources in agriculture.
The standard classification (used, e.g., by FAO — Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations) divides agricultural land into the following components:
 Arable land — land under annual crops, such as cereals, cotton, other technical
crops, potatoes, vegetables, and melons; also includes land left temporarily
fallow.
 Orchards and vineyards — land under permanent crops (e.g., fruit plantations).
 Meadows and pastures — areas for natural grasses and grazing of livestock.
The first two components — arable land and land in permanent crops — constitute the
cultivable land. The part of arable land actually under crops is called sown land or
cropped land. The term farmland is ambiguous in the sense that it may refer, on the
one hand, to agricultural land and, on the other hand, to cultivable or even only arable
land.
Depending on the use of artificial irrigation, agricultural land is divided into irrigated
and non-irrigated land. In arid and semi-arid countries agriculture is often confined to
irrigated land, with very little farming possible in non-irrigated or rainfed areas.
What is Agricultural Land

Agriculture can be defined as the systematic and controlled use of living organisms
and the environment to improve the human condition. 'Agricultural land' is the land
base upon which agriculture is practiced. Typically occurring on farms, agricultural
activities are undertaken upon agricultural land to produce agricultural products.
Although agricultural land is primarily required for the production of food for human
and animal consumption, agricultural activities also include the growing of plants for
fibre and fuels (including wood), and for other organically derived products
(pharmaceuticals, etc).
Physical, chemical and biological inputs are essential to agricultural systems, and are
ultimately supplied by the soil, moisture, the sun (in the forms of light and heat
energy), plants, animals and biological agents. In productive agricultural systems
these inputs are necessarily controlled, to the extent possible, through appropriate
agricultural practices. The more capably the land base provides and sustains these
inputs, the more capable and productive the land is as agricultural land.
Not all agricultural land is capable or suitable for producing all agricultural products,
regardless of the level of management applied. The main limiting factors in
agricultural production are climate and topography. Climate determines the heat
energy and moisture inputs required for agricultural production. Topographic
limitations mostly restrict the ability to use cultivation equipment. Soils with all their
variability are also a key limiting factor. Depending upon their properties and
characteristics they may be appropriate for sustaining the production of certain
agricultural products, but not others.
27
Agriculture in Kenya
Agriculture is the leading sector of the national economy, employing about 80 percent
of the population and accounting for 26 percent of Kenya’s GDP. However, Kenya
has not yet put its available land resources to full use. Out of 9.4 million ha of
potentially cultivable land, only 2.8
million ha are devoted to agriculture, which heavily relies on rainfed production with
very little irrigation. The irrigation potential for the country is estimated at
approximately 550,000 ha, but only about 109,000 ha has been put to use. Irrigation is
the only way to ensure food security considering the variation in rainfall patterns and
recurring droughts. Kenya has been struggling to achieve food security for the last
two decades; however, recent surveys reveal that the situation is getting worse. For
example in 2004, the ‘food poor’, those who cannot meet the daily necessary
minimum of 2,250 kilocalories, stood at 15 million people, up from 7.3 million in
1973. Of these, 3 million are in constant need of relief, and the number of
malnourished children is also mounting.
Economic importance of agriculture

 Source of food
 Raw materials for industries
 Employment: direct and indirect
 etc
Issues related to environmental impacts of agricultural practices

 Effects of land use change and habitat fragmentation (on wildlife).
 Balancing conflicting urban and agricultural water demands.
 Influence of air and ground-water and surface-water interactions on water
quality.
 Effects of agricultural drainage, irrigation, and return flow on water quality.
 Development and implementation of innovative farming techniques to
conserve soil and water and to improve water quality.
 Effects of genetically modified organisms on native species and habitats.
 Tools for identifying sources of agricultural contamination and rapid
assessment techniques. Effects of pesticides, nutrients, and sediments on fish
and wildlife health and habitat quality. Effects of watershed characteristics—
soils, riparian forests, and wetlands—effects on nutrient uptake, retention, and
cycling. Transport and fate of endocrine disrupting compounds, veterinary
antibiotics, feed additives, hormones, and pathogens in terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems.
IMPACTS OF AGRICULTURE ON NATURAL RESOURCES

a) Negative
1. Agricultural Expansion and Deforestation
Agricultural expansion is one important factor influencing rates of tropical
deforestation and biodiversity loss. Global tropical deforestation exceeds 130,000
square kilometers a year and poses an enormous threat to biodiversity and the
resilience of local and global environmental systems.
2. Land Degradation and Soil Erosion
28
Land degradation is a major problem facing agriculturally dependent populations in

the developing world. Agriculture exposes the soil to agents of erosion such as water
and wind. Soil erosion in tropical and subtropical watersheds leads to siltation, water
flow irregularities, and consequently a decline in irrigation efficiency, and water
pollution through soil and agrochemical runoff.
3. Externalities from Agricultural Chemicals
Agricultural advancement and market-oriented production is generally accompanied
by intensified use of chemical inputs, particularly fertilizers and pesticides.
Indiscriminate uses of these chemicals have serious repercussions for the
environment. High rates of chemical fertilizer use tend to decrease soil organic matter
and pesticides can pollute water, air, soil, and even alter the ecosystem by harming
non-target organisms. The misuse of agrochemicals in many developing countries
reflects two facts. First, policies have only in recent years been formulated and
legislated in many countries, and not all countries have the regulations to implement
the policies that have been promulgated. Second, in places where it is possible, there
has often been a lack of implementation of environmental regulations and policies
governing agrochemical use.
On the other hand, chemical inputs are widely perceived to benefit agricultural
production. But some studies question the value of indiscriminate use of
agrochemicals. For example, in a study of rice production in the Philippines, Antle
and Pingali (1994) concluded that reduced use of insecticides would have a small
overall effect on productivity because crop losses from reduced pest control would be
offset by labor productivity improvements from the better health of farmers.
4. Pollution
b) Positive
Ecoagriculture and Organics
Ecoagriculture refers to the management of landscape for food production while
conserving the ecosystem, particularly the wild biodiversity.
Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU)
The role of Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) in reducing
emissions targets was defined in the Copenhagen. The Conference of Parties 15
(COP15) focused on inclusion of a concrete policy concerning AFOLU issues in the
Kyoto Protocol (AWG-KP) and the Long-term Cooperative Action post-2012 (AWG-
LCA).The LULUCF sector (Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry) has a great
potential for carbon sequestration from afforestation / reforestation, agriculture-
related techniques such as no tillage, drip irrigation, improved nutrient management,
agroforestry and modified livestock management. Despite this, the AFOLU sector is
currently not included in the Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Commitments.
Therefore, Annex I countries have no obligation to limit the Green House Gases
(GHG) generated by deforestation or agricultural practices, such as carbon dioxide
(CO2) emissions from deforestation, methane (CH4) emissions from cattle and rice,
and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from fertilization, among others (e.g. emissions
from fossil fuels, loss of soil carbon, etc). Agriculture being responsible for 14% of
global GHG emissions, such non-inclusion is expected to change, depending on the
climate negotiations. Deforestation accounts for about 17% of the global GHG
emissions. Therefore the discussions about the Reduced Emissions through
29
Deforestation and Degradation (REDD+) remains another central point of the

negotiations. The efficiency of this mechanism to control deforestation is already
under implementation in many parts of the world.
Payments for Environmental Services

Command-and-control policy instruments existing to conserve environmental and
ecological resources have rarely succeeded in their purpose. The main principle
behind PES is that those who provide valuable environmental services should be
compensated for doing so, and those who benefit from environmental services should
pay for them.PES is defined as a voluntary transaction where a well-defined
environmental service is being bought from a provider if and only if the provider
secures the provision. Unlike command-and-control regulations, which aim directly at
protecting resources, PES schemes use economic incentives to conserve or restore
resources of concern. PES programs have been implemented in several Latin
American countries, including Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, and
Mexico. To slow deforestation, PES programs in these countries rely on the
governments offering cash to communities in exchange for agreeing to conserve
forest resources. Costa Rica introduced Pago por Servicios Ambientales, a PES
program under which private landowners are paid by the Costa Rican society, water
users, and carbon buyers, for conservation of native forest and reforestation . In
Mexico, under Pago por Servicios Ambientales Hidrologicos—Payment for
Hydrological Environmental Services—water users pay ejidos in priority watersheds
for avoiding deforestation. In Heredia, Costa Rica, and in Quito, Ecuador, water users
pay an additional fee to private landowners for protecting the town’s water supplies.
Similarly in Cauca Valley, Colombia, local municipalities pay private landowners for
protecting water supplies. In Yamabal, El Salvador, municipalities pay for enhancing
recharge of water sources by practicing land uses that promote infiltration in the
aquifer recharge area (Pagiola and Platais).
Similarly, PES is in application in the Philippines. A current program requires

operators of hydroelectric power facilities to pay a small fee per kilowatt-hour of
electricity sales, a portion of which goes into a special fund to assist with watershed
reforestation and management. In most settings, however, PES systems are very new,
and their overall effectiveness remains uncertain, however promising. Rather than
being a drawback to their implementation, though, they offer an exciting opportunity
for adaptive management to ascertain what kinds of incentives elicit desired behavior
on the part of resource managers and what kinds of environmental services can be
expected as a result.
30
TOPIC 5:TRADE AND NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Trade in natural resources accounts for a growing share of world trade and a growing
share of policymakers’ attention. The world's growing population and economy create
pressures that increase the demand for trade in fish, forestry, fuels, and mining
products, stimulating a related policy debate on its environment and development
impacts.
The tension between rising demand for natural resources and their scarcity is one of
the challenges that most modern societies must address. Indeed, the resulting tensions
seem likely to increase, especially as the global economy recovers from recession.
Fears of insufficient access to supplies in resource-scarce countries and of
inappropriate exploitation in resource-rich regions could lead to trade conflict or
worse. All this raises an important question: how to adequately design rules that can
promote mutual gains from resources trade?
There are, however, two important qualifications to this general rule.
 First, domestic policies – including subsidies, technical regulations and

consumption taxes – are frequently used. When resources are highly unevenly
distributed across countries, domestic measures have trade effects that are very
similar to border measures.
 Second, the structure of protection that resource exporters face tends to rise
with the stage of processing (tariff escalation), based on tariff measures
imposed by developed economies in forestry, fuels and mining sectors.
Governments employ trade policies as instruments to improve resource conservation,

reduce environmental externalities associated with the harvesting or consumption of
resources, stimulate diversification of exports away from dominant resource sectors,
and stabilise resource prices in response to supply or demand shocks. However,
independently of the objectives actually pursued by policymakers, trade measures
have distortionary effects that need to be recognised.
 First, restrictions on trade have beggar-thy-neighbour effects, as they shift

rents across countries or alter the terms of trade.
 Second, while in some cases the only available policy option, trade measures
are typically beggar-thy-self as they are a second-best policy to address
problems associated with natural resources. The first-best intervention is often
a domestic policy that addresses the distortion at the source.
According to WTO (2010), the three areas in particular may require intensified
cooperation on trade regulation.
 Export policy: A large country can improve its terms of trade and shift rents
internationally by imposing export taxes. As such policies lower the welfare of
trading partners they are likely to induce some form of retaliation.
Commitments on export taxes could be exchanged either among exporters or
for concessions on import tariffs in downstream sectors, that is to reduce tariff
escalation.
31
 Conservation policy: Rules on subsidies that increase the exploitation of a

resource with an open access problem, such as fish, or the consumption of
resources that have negative environmental externalities, such as fuels, may
need to be reinforced. On the other hand, a case can be made to grant
flexibility to subsidies aimed at improving the conservation of natural
resources (“green” subsidies).
 Domestic policies with large trade effects: A production quota is equivalent to
an export quota when the resource-rich country has little domestic
consumption. Similarly, a consumption tax imposed by an importer with no
domestic production of the resource is not different from a tariff. In these
cases, regulating only one of the equivalent measures may be insufficient to
achieve undistorted trade.
Compliance Costs
The costs of compliance with environmental measures—particularly with the
standards applied in export markets—is an issue of concern for developing countries,
because compliance costs may be higher for them than for developed countries,
placing them at a competitive disadvantage. The costs of compliance with the
standards applied in export markets will reflect the degree to which these standards
differ from those that prevail in the supplier’s market. Because many developing
countries apply lower technical standards than developed countries, they may face
higher compliance costs in meeting the standards applied in developed-country export
markets, even when such standards are strictly non-discriminatory. Furthermore,
research has shown that environmental standards can be effective strategic policy
instruments because they can be set such that the low cost producer optimally chooses
not to comply, allowing the high cost producer to monopolise the standardised
segment of the market. Thus, it is important for policymakers to consider how much
scope there should be for the imposition of unilaterally determined standards—which
could impact negatively on trading partners even when they are non-discriminatory—
rather than internationally negotiated standards.
Production and Processing Methods

An issue that has arisen in the WTO is the extent to which trade restrictions may be
imposed against the method used to produce goods, so-called "product-unrelated"
production and processing. A methods (PPMs); that is, against PPMs that may
generate negative production externalities but that do not affect the quality or safety
of the final product. Thus, a regulation on the use or disposal of a pollutant that is
released during the production process but which does not affect the product itself
(such as regulations on the treatment of animal wastes) would be a product-unrelated
PPM requirement. The TBT (Technical Barriers to Trade) Agreement clearly applies
to regulations regarding "product characteristics or their related processes and
production methods, but PPMs that are unrelated to the final product are not explicitly
covered by the WTO Agreements.
With respect to product-unrelated PPMs, the main problem in trade policy arises
when an importing country wishes to impose PPM requirements on a production
process that occurs outside its jurisdiction. Some countries may wish to impose PPM
requirements on foreign producers either to "level the playing field" for their domestic
32
producers who are required to comply with the PPM measures, or because they feel
that this is the "right" policy to be pursued on environmental grounds. The key issue,
from the perspective of the WTO, is whether one Member can use trade measures to
enforce its own environmental preferences or requirements on others.
The developed countries (OECD) has published a "checklist for assessing PPM-based
trade measures and alternatives," to ascertain whether they are "necessary" to meet
"legitimate" objectives. The checklist includes:
 Motivation: How will a particular measure affect "like products" inside or

outside domestic jurisdiction? Are there cultural, ethical or value preferences
that may not be universal? Is the measure protectionist?
 Feasibility: Can foreign producers and exporters manage, technically and
economically, to comply? Can the customs office monitor it fairly?
 Effectiveness: Will the measure achieve the intended objective? Does it have
an unintended impact? Is it flexible enough to accommodate different
environmental circumstances in exporting countries?
 Efficiency: Is it the most cost-effective way to meet the intended objective?
What are the economic costs of alternatives? How severe a cost is imposed on
less developed countries?
Eco-labelling
Labelling and certification of products according to consumers’ preferences –
voluntary environmental, social, health and agro-ecological labels – are now
commonplace, but are an issue of concern to developing countries. Eco-labelling
involves the use of special labels to indicate that a product conforms to certain
environmental standards. Some national governments or regional groups operate eco-
labelling systems, such as the Japanese Eco-Mark, the Canadian Environmental
Choice and the Nordic Swan, while consumer groups, industry associations or non-
governmental groups operate others. The important issues for developing countries
are whether such systems incorporate unrelated PPMs and whether they conform fully
to the WTO principles of non-discrimination and transparency.
In order to provide a marketing advantage, the requirements for an eco-label must be

more stringent than the usual standards for the product in question. Once an eco-
labelled product gains wide consumer acceptance in a given market, however, the
requirement for the eco-label may become the de facto standard for the product. If the
eco-label requirements are not in accordance with WTO principles, they may function
as discriminatory trade measures.
Harmonisation
Harmonisation of environmental standards at the regional or global level may be
appropriate, especially when the environmental problem being addressed has
transboundary or global effects. Harmonisation as implemented by the WTO
encourages governments to adapt national standards to those set by designated
international experts. Critics make the case that these experts often lack diversity in
their expertise—diversity across professional disciplines and diversity across political
jurisdictions. Some observers regard a country’s environmental regulatory system as
an integral part of its comparative advantage and thus consider harmonisation
undesirable, particularly when there are no transboundary environmental effects
33
associated with the issue being regulated. Developing countries are concerned that
harmonisation may adversely affect their competitiveness in global markets.
POLICIES FOR TRADE AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
International agricultural trade, environmental protection and sustainable development

can be complementary forces, but capturing the potential synergies among them
requires careful analysis and deft policymaking. A base of principles for addressing
the trade aspects can be useful in the search for common ground. The principles for
discussions within the WTO Committee on Trade and Environment, are based on
three basic assumptions.
First, the need for poverty alleviation is fundamental. Sustainable development and
environmental protection cannot be achieved worldwide while massive poverty
persists. Poverty alleviation is a central objective of development and a key concern
for environmental policies. Wealth created by trade is an essential means to achieving
this end. Economic growth, continued economic reforms, and a substantial increase in
the transfer of financial resources and technology from rich to poor countries are vital
for achieving poverty alleviation.
Second, domestic and international environmental policies are of paramount

importance for all aspects of sustainable development. These policies rely principally
on cost internalisation as a means of environmental protection. As internalisation
progresses, the risk that economic activities—including trade and development—may
contribute to environmental degradation is reduced. The environmental repercussions
of trade and development policies must be addressed in ways that are consistent with
the continued promotion of sustainable development.
Third, barriers to trade can create impediments to the achievement of sustainable

development, particularly for developing countries. Trade liberalisation is an
important component of progress toward sustainable development for all countries.
Developed country import barriers and subsidies that distort production and trade
make poverty alleviation more difficult for developing countries and may cause them
to accelerate rates of natural resource exploitation by preventing diversification. The
contribution of trade liberalisation to sustainable development is enhanced by policies
that respect environmental and social policy goals.
Some principles for an effective policy framework for agricultural trade,

environmental protection and sustainable development include the following:
 Efficiency is a common interest for environment, development and trade. An

activity is efficient if it uses the minimum amount of resources to achieve a
given output, or alternatively, achieves maximum output from a given amount
of resources. Applied in a broad context, efficiency helps to allocate scarce
resources, such as raw materials and energy, and limits the demands placed on
the regenerative capacity of the environment. Efficiency also applies in the
context of policy making. It is important that policies be designed to achieve
the desired goal at the minimum cost to society. The WTO principle that
policy tools should be the least trade-distorting possible, consistent with the
34
policy objective, is based in part on efficiency. Increased efficiency is the

fundamental argument in favour of trade liberalisation.
 Internalisation and market based incentives. Efficient resource use requires
that the prices paid by producers for inputs and by consumers for final goods
and services accurately reflect their full costs. Many goods are not priced to
reflect full costs due to such factors as unpaid environmental costs and price-
distorting subsidies and trade barriers. Such price distorting policies should be
eliminated and the full accounting of environmental costs included, in order
for the price system to operate more effectively.
 Regulation. Cost internalisation is not always possible or appropriate as a
policy tool, especially in cases where the environmental losses in question are
irreplaceable — such as extinction of species or serious damage to the
regenerative capacity of ecosystems — or in reflecting costs to future
generations. Traditional forms of regulation may also be valid forms of
intervention that can lead to greater efficiency and environmental protection.
 Equity relates to the distribution both within and between generations of
physical and natural capital as well as knowledge and technology. Inequity
and poverty contribute significantly to environmental degradation and political
instability, particularly in developing countries. When basic needs are not met,
the poor may have no choice but to live off whatever environmental resources
are available. At the same time, past use of natural resources already limits the
choices available to present generations, particularly in developing countries.
Trade liberalisation can contribute to greater equity through the dismantling of
trade barriers that harm developing countries. Non-discrimination is an aspect
of equity that is fundamental to the operations of the international trading
system.
 Environmental integrity. Trade and development should respect and help
maintain environmental integrity. This involves recognition of the impact of
human activities on ecological systems. It requires respect for limits to the
regenerative capacity of ecosystems, actions to avoid irreversible harm to
plant and animal populations and species, and protection for valued areas.
Many aspects of the environment—for example, species survival or the
effective functioning of biological food chains—have values which cannot be
adequately captured by methods of cost internalisation, highlighting the need
for other policy instruments.
 Science and precaution. Science is the basis for much economic development
and what we know about the environment. Since understanding ecological
processes is central to valuing environmental damage, science is also a
fundamental prerequisite for cost internalisation measures. Good science must
underlie any trade measures that seek to protect environment and health. Our
understanding of ecosystems, however, is still highly uncertain. Ecosystems
are characterised by thresholds — critical points beyond which relationships
change dramatically, triggered by events such as the extinction of a critical
species in a food chain or an overloading of pollutants. Uncertainty, coupled
with the reality of threshold effects and irreversibility, argues for maintaining
a margin of safety that prevents catastrophic effects.
 Subsidiarity is the principle that decisions should be taken at the closest
possible level to the affected public and at the lowest level of jurisdiction
encompassing all those affected. It follows from the recognition that diversity
and tolerance are among the attributes of a healthy society. International
35
policies should be adopted when this is more effective than policy action by
individual countries or jurisdictions within countries. In the context of trade
and sustainable development, where issues of a global dimension have
significant and varied effects at the local level, subsidiarity may provide a
mechanism that equitably accommodates legitimate differences among
countries.
 Openness comprises two basic elements: first, timely, easy and full access to
information for all those affected; and second, public participation in the
decision-making process. Experience has confirmed that openness is an
essential ingredient in formulating and implementing effective policies.
Openness is important in minimising the risk of "protectionist capture", that is,
that trade policies will be manipulated in favour of inefficient producers at the
expense of others. While structures for openness are increasingly evident in
dealing with problems at the national level, there has not been a comparable
development for issues of an international nature. As people worldwide devote
increasing attention to such issues, there is a need to find forms of
participation appropriate to the different international organisations and
negotiations.
 International cooperation. Sustainable development requires strengthening
international systems of cooperation at all levels, encompassing environment,
development and trade policies. The need for such cooperation is driven by the
international character of many forms of environmental damage. The need for
rules-based cooperative systems of trade is intensified by advances in
information technology that make possible a more global economy. In the end,
the competition implied by more open markets and liberalisation cannot
succeed without cooperation.
36
TOPIC 6: WATER REOURCES AND MAN
The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle refers to the continuous
movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. Water can change
states among liquid, vapor, and ice at various places in the water cycle. Although the
balance of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time, individual water
molecules can come and go, in and out of the atmosphere. The water moves from one
reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere,
by the physical processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration,
runoff, and subsurface flow. In so doing, the water goes through different phases:
liquid, solid, and gas.
The hydrologic cycle involves the exchange of heat energy, which leads to
temperature changes. For instance, in the process of evaporation, water takes up
energy from the surroundings and cools the environment. Conversely, in the process
of condensation, water releases energy to its surroundings, warming the environment.
The water cycle figures significantly in the maintenance of life and ecosystems on
Earth. Even as water in each reservoir plays an important role, the water cycle brings
added significance to the presence of water on our planet. By transferring water from
one reservoir to another, the water cycle purifies water, replenishes the land with
freshwater, and transports minerals to different parts of the globe. It is also involved
in reshaping the geological features of the Earth, through such processes as erosion
and sedimentation. In addition, as the water cycle also involves heat exchange, it
exerts an influence on climate as well.
The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in oceans and seas. Water
evaporates as water vapor into the air. Ice and snow can sublimate directly into water
vapor. Evapotranspiration is water transpired from plants and evaporated from the
soil. Rising air currents take the vapor up into the atmosphere where cooler
37
temperatures cause it to condense into clouds. Air currents move water vapor around
the globe, cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as precipitation. Some
precipitation falls as snow or hail, and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which
can store frozen water for thousands of years. Snowpacks can thaw and melt, and the
melted water flows over land as snowmelt. Most water falls back into the oceans or
onto land as rain, where the water flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion
of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, with streamflow moving water
towards the oceans. Runoff and groundwater are stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all
runoff flows into rivers, much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. Some water
infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers, which store freshwater for
long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep
back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge. Some
groundwater finds openings in the land surface and comes out as freshwater springs.
Over time, the water returns to the ocean, where our water cycle started.
Processes of the hydrological cycle
 Precipitation: Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface. Most
precipitation occurs as rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog drip, graupel, and
sleet.
 Canopy interception: The precipitation that is intercepted by plant foliage
and eventually evaporates back to the atmosphere rather than falling to the
ground.
 Snowmelt: The runoff produced by melting snow.
 Runoff: The variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This
includes both surface runoff and channel runoff. As it flows, the water may
seep into the ground, evaporate into the air, become stored in lakes or
reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other human uses.
 Infiltration: The flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once
infiltrated, the water becomes soil moisture or groundwater.
 Subsurface Flow: The flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and
aquifers. Subsurface water may return to the surface (e.g. as a spring or by
being pumped) or eventually seep into the oceans. Water returns to the land
surface at lower elevation than where it infiltrated, under the force of gravity
or gravity induced pressures. Groundwater tends to move slowly, and is
replenished slowly, so it can remain in aquifers for thousands of years.
 Evaporation: The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it
moves from the ground or bodies of water into the overlying atmosphere. [4]
The source of energy for evaporation is primarily solar radiation. Evaporation
often implicitly includes transpiration from plants, though together they are
specifically referred to as evapotranspiration.
 Sublimation: The state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to
water vapor.
 Advection: The movement of water — in solid, liquid, or vapor states —
through the atmosphere. Without advection, water that evaporated over the
oceans could not precipitate over land.
 Condensation: The transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in
the air, creating clouds and fog.
38
 Transpiration: The release of water vapor from plants and soil into the air.
Water vapor is a gas that cannot be seen
Water Management, Policies, and Legislation Related to Water Use in

Agriculture
Overall responsibility for water management lies with the Ministry of Water
Resources Management and Development (MWRMD), granted through the Water
Act 2002. The ministry’s current policy (1999) focuses on decentralization,
privatization, commercialization, and stakeholder participation. The Water Act 2002
has provided the formation of a Water Resources Management Authority, responsible
for water pollution, and the management of lakes, aquifers, and rivers, and the
establishment of a Water Services Regulatory Board, responsible for water supply
through licensed water services providers.
Irrigation development in Kenya is under a number of institutions, including both the

public and private sector. The National Irrigation Board (NIB), mandated with the
development of the national irrigation schemes, and the Irrigation and Drainage
Department (IDD), responsible for the promotion of smallholder irrigation with a
wide network across the country, are under MWRMD with effect from July 2003. The
River Basin Development Authorities (RBDA), with the responsibility of the planning
and use of the water and land resources within their jurisdiction, are under the
Ministry of Regional Development. Besides these main government institutions, there
are a number of non-governmental organizations that support irrigation development.
Irrespective of the institution involved in development, the formation of water users

associations (WUA) has been promoted in order to ensure sustainability of the
schemes. Most of the structures and water rights for each scheme belong to the
irrigating community. Water management within the smallholder irrigation schemes is
the responsibility of the WUAs.
The policies and legislation for water management in agriculture are inadequate,
which is exemplified by the fact that the only existing legal framework is the
irrigation act of 1966 for the establishment of the NIB and management of tenant-
based irrigation schemes. A national irrigation policy and legal framework are under
formulation in order to comprehensively coordinate and regulate the irrigation sub-
sector.
In the absence of an irrigation policy, the Ministry of Agriculture, and later the
Ministry of Water Resources Management and Development, has developed
guidelines for the development, operation and management of smallholder farmer-
managed schemes. The IDD has developed some guidelines and manuals to direct the
development of smallholder irrigation and the process of community participation for
sustainable development.
Water is allocated by water apportionment boards that process water permits for
various users depending on the available water source. The water fees and the
duration of the permit are based on the category of use. The permit for irrigation water
39
has to be renewed after 5 years and the permit fees are based on the surface area to be
irrigated. The permit holder should only use the flood flow for irrigation and will
construct a reservoir to store enough water to irrigate the area specified in the permit
for 90 days. These two conditions are rarely adhered to since irrigation is most
required during the dry season and the cost for constructing a storage reservoir is
beyond the means of most farmers.
All Kenya’s major river drain from the central highlands, divided by the rift into those
flowing westwards into Lake Victoria and those flowing eastwards towards the Indian
Ocean. There are five major drainage basins: Lake Victoria, the Rift Valley, the Athi-
Galana-Sabaki River (and Coastal areas to its south), the Tana River and the northern
Ewaso Ng’iro. Kenya has only a small part of Lake Victoria’s water surface, but the
Kenya catchment contributes a disproportionate 33% of its surface inflow, some 470
million cubic meters a year. The rift valley contains several basins of internal
drainage, forming a chain of endorheic lakes from Lake Natron on the Tanzanian
border, through Lakes Magadi, Naivasha, Turkana, Elementaita, Nakuru, Bogoria and
Baringo.
These lakes vary in alkalinity; from fresh water Lake Naivasha to the intensely
alkaline Lake Magadi. Lake Turkana is notable as a major volume of (more or less)
fresh water in an otherwise arid and barren part of the county, while a number of
rivers, including the Turkwel, Kerio, Athi-Galana, Tana and Northern and Southern
Ewaso Ng’iro, flow for long distances through dry parts of the country.
The National Development Plan 2002-2008 recognizes Kenya as a water scarce

country whereby the water demand exceeds renewable freshwater sources. It is also
clear from the National Water Master Plan of 1992 that out of 164 sub-basins with
perennial river flows, 90 will suffer from surface water deficit by 2010 while already
33 sub-basins without perennial river flow have an apparent water shortage.
Kenya is a water-scarce country. Located in East Africa, Kenya sits on the coast of
the Indian Ocean, which serves as an important outlet. Surface waters cover only 2
percent of Kenya’s total surface area. The climate varies from tropical along the coast
of the Indian Ocean to arid in the interior, and two-thirds of the country is covered by
semi-desert or desert land. As a result, only about 160,000 km2 of land, most of
which is situated in the wetter southwest area, is suitable for the current population of
approximately 33 million. Per capita available water is about 650 m3/year. Future
projections show that by the year 2020, per capita water availability will drop to 359
m3 as a result of population growth.
The uneven distribution of rainfall in addition to temporal and spatial variations often
lead to recurring droughts in the north and east and flooding during rainy seasons.
More than 50 percent of annual water abstraction is used for domestic purposes and
livestock production, and the remainder is used for irrigated agriculture. The demand
management strategies are lacking, and water resources allocation decisions related to
surface and groundwater abstractions are made without adequate data. It is estimated
that more than 50 percent of water abstractions are illegal.
40
Water metering systems are used in few projects; as a result, revenue collection is
very low and corresponds to just 55 percent of the total operation and maintenance
costs.
Major challenges: Poverty, access to safe water and sanitation, food and energy
Due to a steady decline in economic performance during the last two decades, the
level of poverty in Kenya is steadily increasing, especially in semi-arid and arid areas.
The welfare monitoring survey indicated that between 1994 and 1997 the poverty
level rose from 47 to 53 percent in rural areas and from 29 to 49 percent in urban
areas. As of 2005, approximately 42 percent of the population is below the national
poverty line (UNDP, 2005). The poverty line for urban settlements is about US $35
per adult per month and US $16 for rural settlements. In order to alleviate poverty
levels, the Kenyan Government proposed the Economic Recovery Strategy for Wealth
and Employment Creation (ERS), which charts the country’s economic course from
2003 to 2007 and asserts that past institutional arrangements were simply insufficient
to win the battle against poverty. The ERS promotes initiatives that would facilitate
the achievement of MDGs, recognizes water as a pivotal element in poverty reduction
and emphasizes the importance of providing services to the poor while ensuring
adequate water for competing demands. It suggests undertaking comprehensive
institutional reforms to facilitate ‘pro-poverty water and sanitation programmes’. In
this context, Kenya’s poverty reduction strategy programme, initiated in 2000,
commits the government to providing water and sanitation services to the majority of
the poor at a reasonable distance (less than 2 km). The proposed strategy is to involve
communities and local authorities more actively in the management of water and
sewerage systems and services. Over 70 percent of the population, about 24 million
people, live in rural areas. However, half of the urban population is settled in informal
settlements. The percentage of people with access to safe water is 68 percent in urban
areas and 49 percent in rural settlements, according to the most recent data from 2003.
In urban areas, almost 40 percent of water goes unaccounted for, lost through either
leakage or illegal connections. Access to sanitation in urban areas is at 65 percent
compared to 40 percent in rural areas. Accordingly, water-borne or sanitation-related
diseases make up the majority of Kenya’s morbidity rate and are responsible for over
60 percent of premature deaths. The most common
instances of disease in Kenya are malaria (32.6 percent), respiratory system infections
(24.6 percent) and diarrhoea and intestinal worms (17 percent).
Water Management Challenges

 Rapidly growing population
 Sustainable management of water resources in the face of rapidly growing
population
 Climate change/ variability
 Inadequate skills and personnel
 Lack of water for basic hygiene resulting in high prevalence of water borne
diseases\
 Pollution: domestic and industrial wastes,
 Poor policies and regulatory frameworks
 Deforestation of important catchment areas and subsequent dry up of rivers
 Water conflicts between upstream/downstream and across sectors,
 Insufficient water for hydropower generation,
41
 Food shortage,
 Destruction of aquatic resources,
 Low water use efficiency,
 High water losses in urban supply networks, low water supply coverage etc.
 International Water Issues: Currently, there is no existing framework between
the countries for the utilization and management of the shared water resources.
 Kenya shares a number of rivers with other countries:
 The Umba, Mara, and Pangani basins are shared with the United
Republic of Tanzania.
 The Sio, Malaba, and Malakisi basins are shared with Uganda.
 The Omo and Daua basins are shared with Ethiopia.
 The Nile basin is shared with nine other countries.
42
TOPIC 7: FORESTS, RANGELAND AND ECOLOGICAL AND

ECONOMICAL ROLES
ECOLOGICAL ROLES
1. Benefits people get from ecosystems (goods and services)
Experts currently recognize four categories of ecosystem services. The following lists
represent samples of each:
B. Provisioning services
The products obtained from ecosystems, including, for example, genetic resources,
food and fiber, and fresh water.
• Food (including seafood and game), crops, wild foods, and spices
• Water
• Minerals (including diatomite)
• pharmaceuticals, biochemicals, and industrial products
• Energy (hydropower, biomass fuels)
C. Regulating services
The benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes, including, for
example, the regulation of climate, water, and some human diseases.
• Carbon sequestration and climate regulation

• Waste decomposition and detoxification
• Purification of water and air
• Crop pollination
• Pest and disease control
D. Supporting services
Ecosystem services that are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem
services. Some examples include biomass production, production of atmospheric
oxygen, soil formation and retention, nutrient cycling, water cycling, and provisioning
of habitat.
• Nutrient dispersal and cycling
• Seed dispersal
• Primary production
E. Cultural services
The non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual
enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experience,
including, e.g., knowledge systems, social relations, and aesthetic values.
• Cultural, intellectual and spiritual inspiration
• Recreational experiences (including ecotourism)
• Scientific discovery
43
ECONOMIC ROLES
 Water catchment areas, thus rainfall attraction


 Carbon credit
 Agroforestry
 Employment: direct and indirect
 Tourist attraction
 Science and innovation
 Raw materials for industries: food industries, pharmaceuticals, etc

CHALLENGES/ CONCERNS FOR SUSTAINABLE FOREST USE

/MANAGEMENT
 Poaching,
 Rapidly accelerating deforestation,
 Soil erosion,
 And depletion of mineral resources,
 Water pollution from urban and industrial waster;
 Degradation of water quality from increased use of pesticides and fertilizers,
 Desertification/land degradtion.
 Overexploitation during the past 30 years has reduced the country’s timber
resources by half, while in the past five years the output of forestry, fishing,
and mining industries has declined significantly.
 Forests are being lost not only to provide wood fuel, but also because of
clearing for agriculture, construction, tourism and industrial activities. The
countries wide natural biodiversity is being rapidly reduced.
NATURAL FOREST MANAGEMENT AS A CONSERVATION TOOL

Undisturbed forest land where natural forest management can be considered as a
conservation tool should include at least some of the following conditions:
- Proximity of a forest resource to agricultural frontiers from where agricultural

expansion might occur,
- Expanding local populations or rural communities,
- High local rates of deforestation or forest degradation occur,
- Easily accessible road access into tropical forest resources already exists and is
regularly used by local communities,
- High local immigration rates occur into localities where manageable forest resources
exist,
- Close proximity of a forest resource to wood markets and to wood-processing

industries.
44
This approach to forest management is sometimes called the "use it or lose it"
principle.
PRINCIPLES OF TROPICAL FOREST MANAGEMENT
a) Policy and legislative frameworks
 A national policy framework

For sustainable forest management to succeed a sound forest policy is essential. A
national forest policy should be part of a national land use policy, assuring balanced
forest use and conservation with agriculture and other land uses. Forest policies
should not contradict the policies of other sectors. Policies should also reflect
development patterns for a country and regional policies where appropriate. Forest
policies are basically statements of goals for the forestry sector without going into
detail about how they will be implemented.
A key policy feature of sustainable forest management is a commitment by

governments to define, and defend a permanent forest estate based on secure, long-
term land tenure for communities, concession holders and other forest users. Although
each country decides best how to translate development themes which balance human
activities with resource management into development policies, a basic feature for
sustainable management is a firm and consistent commitment, including management
plans and budgetary support, by governments to implement the forest policies it has
formulated and approved. It should be a requirement of a national forest policy that
management of tropical forests will be undertaken in a planned and disciplined
manner.
 Forest legislation
Laws and regulations comprising forest legislation are the legal instruments which are
necessary to put into effect many of the objectives of a forest policy. Legislation
permits the translation of policy objectives into specific legal provisions affecting
both forest use and forest land and the way forest resources enter into the life and
development of communities and countries.
Forest legislation enacted by the government should reflect the principle of

sustainability in order to support implementation of forest policy. Depending upon
social needs and prevailing ecosystems in a country, the objectives of forest law may
cover a range of forest management issues. Points concerning sustainable tropical
forest utilisation and management which should be included in forest legislation are:
- Maintaining or enlarging the amount and regional distribution of forest cover needed
to secure a stable environment and to provide a basis for sound economic and social
forest development.
- Protecting in a network of protected areas representative examples of all natural
forest ecosystems in order to maintain an acceptable level of biological and landscape
diversity.
- Preparing management plans for all State forest land and for forest lands in non-
State tenure.
45
- Establishing and supporting a viable and multi-functional forest economy,

combining ecological conservation and economic resource utilisation.
b) Security of forest tenure

Security of tenure of forest resources and access to forest land is a basic principle
and a prerequisite for sustainable tropical forest management Appropriate and reliable
forms of forest and land tenure should be established by legislation, including various
forms of forest ownership and usage rights. The following provisions concerning
security of tenure should be recognised:
- Two broad categories of forest land tenure, namely, private holdings (such as
corporations and communal ownership) and public land (such as central, provincial or
community government
).
- The rights and obligations of different categories of forest owners, including local
communities.
- Categories and the nature of usage rights.
 National land use planning

Forests should be classified into productive and protective zones on the basis of a
national forest inventory, ecological considerations and community consensus. Forest
management units for wood production within the permanent forest estate should be
identified and responsibility for management allocated amongst various owners and
users.
c) Forest management planning

A forest management plan translates national or regional forest policies into a
thoughtfully prepared and well co-ordinated operational programme for a forest and
for regulating forestry activities for a set time period through the application of
prescriptions that specify targets, action and control arrangements. It is an
indispensable part of a forest management system and should regulate protection,
inventory, yield determination, harvesting, silviculture, monitoring and other forest
operations. It should always:
- Provide firm guidance on the log yields which may be cut,

- Specify where and under what conditions and constraints the yield may be
harvested.
A forest management plan is required to provide continuity in managerial operations

over time, to formalise administrative arrangements and to provide a basis for
monitoring forest activities. A key criterion for the sustainable management of
tropical forests is the existence and effective implementation, including monitoring, of
an approved management plan that has been prepared using up-to-date and accurate
information. A forest management plan has the purpose not only of setting out
approved management objectives and specified action but, equally importantly, of
communicating these to people who are concerned with the implementation of a plan
in a forest or group of forests to which it applies.
46
d) Sustainability in forest management

Recognition of the fundamental importance of the principle of sustainability is
essential in the preparation and subsequent implementation of prescriptions in a forest
management plan, irrespective of the objectives of management. Sustainable
management of tropical forests may be regarded as one of the most important
contributions which the forestry sector can make to programmes of national
development in tropical developing countries.
e) Goals and objectives of forest management

 The identification of a management goal and specific objectives for a forest
management unit, according to policy priorities, resources potential and
constraints, is a basic forest management principle.
 A goal is a long-term aim, derived from forest policies or determined as the

end-point of a strategy to achieve sustainable forest resources development.
Only one goal should be determined and defined for any particular forest
management unit.
 Objectives are measurable activities, or outputs, which state specific results to

be achieved during a specified period of time. Several objectives may be
determined and defined in a forest management plan. Each objective should be
clear about:
 What activities will be undertaken

 Where they will happen
 Who has responsibility for taking action
 When the action should be taken
 When action should be completed
 How much will be achieved or specific quantitative statements concerning
outputs
Why an activity will contribute to achievement of an objective.
f) Permanent definition of forest boundaries
A basic principle of tropical forest management is clear and permanent definition of
forest boundaries - irrespective of land ownership and tenure -linked to permanent
marking, surveying and mapping of boundaries. Permanent definition and subsequent
surveying of boundaries are essential steps in defining and mapping a permanent
forest estate. They also contribute towards achieving effective protection of a forest
from degradation or loss. It is not possible, in practice, to define the area of a forest
where planned sustainable management is proposed, nor to derive an annual allowable
harvest in the absence of permanently defined, surveyed and mapped forest
boundaries.
g) Effective forest protection

Forest protection from fire, from conversion to other land uses and from losses caused
by shifting cultivation and unlawful logging is a fundamentally important principle of
sustainable tropical forest management, irrespective of the objectives. Sustainable
forest management cannot be achieved in the absence of a firm and lasting
commitment and appropriate action to effectively protect a forest management unit
from the threats and activities that might impair the achievement of forest
management objectives.
47
h) Maintenance of forest ecosystems and site productivity
 Biological diversity conservation and forest genetic resources

Biological diversity means the variety of life forms of both plants and animals, the
ecological roles they perform and the genetic resources they contain. An important
feature of natural tropical forests is their great biological diversity. It is estimated that
tropical forests contain at least 50 per cent and probably more of all living species in
the world, including a large proportion of the higher plants and mammals. Apart from
the small number of tree species of current economic importance, or of domestic
importance to local communities, there are likely to be many others present having
lesser known values. Some of these will be important to ecosystem stability, others
might form an important part of future wood harvests or other forest products, in
response to changing environmental conditions and market demands. Genetic
variation helps to buffer ecosystems against environmental change and provides the
basis for selection and improvement of the products and other benefits to meet future
needs, so far as they can be foreseen. The greater the uncertainty over the future -
whether environmental change or markets for wood and non-wood products - the
greater the potential value of conserving biological diversity.
Conservation of the biological diversity of natural tropical forests is dependent upon

maintaining essential functional components of ecosystems while allowing for natural
dynamic change to occur. It should be recognised that our present level of knowledge
is inadequate to enable all the components of tropical forest ecosystems to be
determined with certainty. The precautionary principle therefore is that forest
management practices, including harvesting, should aim to conserve as wide a range
of species as possible. In particular, endangered plant and animal species need to be
protected.
 Maintenance of ecosystem integrity and site productivity

The maintenance of ecosystem integrity and site productivity includes
maintenance of suitable conditions for the biological functions of tree reproduction
and growth and the preservation or increase of soil productivity. It is fundamentally
important to manage tropical forest ecosystems to maintain their integrity and to
enable site productivity to be maintained to supply wood and non-wood products at
levels which are consistent with biological requirements, market interest and the
needs of local communities. Acceptance of this position may lead to a reduction of
wood output where intensive log production has been carried out. In such cases
industrial demands for logs may need to be reduced to levels that are consistent with
the biological production capacity of specific forest ecosystems.
Key aspects of forest ecosystems management which contribute to the maintenance of

site productivity are summarised in Figure 6. The focus is upon maintenance of
ecological processes, maintenance of biological diversity, satisfaction of the needs of
local people, maintenance of the harvest of all products, and the sustainability of
wood production.
 Maintaining the capacity of a forest to regenerate naturally

Maintaining the capacity of a tropical forest ecosystems to regenerate naturally is an
important principle of sustainable forest management. The essentials are:
48
- Seed sources of all tree species comprising the ecosystem should be retained,
- Soil disturbance over the entire production forest should be minimised.
Representative areas, especially sites of ecological importance, should be managed to

ensure that the capacity of forest ecosystems to regenerate naturally is not impaired.
Steps that may be taken include forest protection, minimising canopy opening and
protecting corridors of undisturbed forest, including streamside buffer zones.
KEY CONCERNS/CHALLENGES FOR RANGELAND AND FOREST

MANAGEMENT
 Poaching
 Rapidly accelerating deforestation,
 Soil erosion,
 Depletion of mineral resources,
 Water pollution from urban and industrial waster; degradation of water quality
from increased use of pesticides and fertilizers,
 Desertification/land degradation
 Overexploitation during the past 30 years has reduced the country’s timber
resources by half, while in the past five years the output of forestry, fishing,
and mining industries has declined significantly.
 Forests are being lost not only to provide wood fuel, but also because of
clearing for agriculture, construction, tourism and industrial activities. The
countries wide natural biodiversity is being rapidly reduced
 Population (Human, wildlife, livestock)
 Policy issues : land use policy, wildlife, ASAL policy)
 Politics
 Urbanization
49
TOPIC 8:DEVELOPMENT OF FLORA AND FAUNA

Indigenous flora and fauna needs to be identified when in the initial investigation
stages of a development, where the environmental complexity and regional setting of
a proposed development is defined. Decisions on the conservation status of
indigenous flora and fauna can then be addressed in an overarching Site Biodiversity
Management Plan (SBMP) where, for example, open space (vegetation and habitat
mapping), riparian corridors, identified threatened species and weed management, if
applicable, are interfaced with the economic imperatives of development. Although
sometimes difficult to define accurately, open space needs to be conserved in such a
way as to protect functional corridors where animals can move safely, thus facilitating
population dynamics.
The subsequent stages in planning for conservation of indigenous flora and fauna
involves a dynamic situation where economic imperatives, engineering
methodologies, legislative constraints, and other extraneous influences such as visual
amenity/landscape themes are juxta-positioned to achieve the optimal built
environment configuration with consideration of conservation of existing biodiversity
elements, and recognising that various levels of impact from Anthropogenic
Perturbation already may be in evidence. If the biodiversity of a site is sufficiently
complex and therefore of high conservation value, and this indigenous flora and fauna
so defined (and which underpins the site level of biodiversity) cannot be conserved,
then the development of the site needs to be considered more closely, including the
‘no development’ option.
The fundamental position of sustainable development needs to embrace an approach

where the site ecology existing ie. indigenous flora and fauna, is not obliterated by the
proposed development, rather conserved to provide functional habitat complexity. In
small allotment developments ie, ±500m2, this can be achieved by conservation of
remnant vegetation in gully lines, parklands where there is some dedication to
conservation of indigenous species in lines or clumps, and within the easements set
aside for main arterial roadways, remembering that roadways can veer around
significant trees on connector roads within estates. The net effect is that a vestry of
landform and associated vegetation can remain, even if the development is typically a
‘slab on ground’ in tiered building platform design, fully cleared and optimising land
yield. The estate should retain the character of the original site ecology in some part
and conserve tall trees in open space areas to reinforce this pre-development condition
as a ‘signature’ vertical element. Regional significance of a site and its connectivity
are of fundamental importance in this development scenario.
In larger allotment developments ie. > 2000m2, there is the opportunity to design
allotment layout so as to maximise distances between Building Location Envelopes
(BLEs), thus providing conservation areas contiguous over boundaries. Areas outside
of BLEs, and including Waste Water Disposal Areas (WWDAs) in unsewered
developments, can then be conserved under a site covenant thereby ensuring that
proportionately large continuous tracts of vegetation can be conserved across estates.
Such tracts of conserved and possibly remnant vegetation, if dedicated with
consideration of landform/gullies/waterways can become important and functional
50
corridors) across estates linking with areas off-site. The mature development will have
a matrix of BLEs, roadways and conservation areas (Private and Public Open Space),
which when planned with consideration of animal movement pertinent to the fauna
utilising the site on a neighbourhood to regional basis, will provide Functional
Corridors which will support and enhance biodiversity.
In general, biodiversity for a zone with this configuration can be maintained with its
essential habitat elements, but there are other important management considerations
including restraining of domestic pets, noise and lighting. In estates with this
configuration, and augmented with appropriate ‘Streetscape’ and suggested plantings
within allotments, it is a consequence that the built environment does not dominate
the character of the estate.
Corridors
The conservation of linear landscapes, either joining large block habitats, or
unconnected to other significant habitats can be summarised thus:
 There is no clear set of generalist design parameters to ensure the success of a

corridor.
 The success of corridors in conservation, and thereby maintenance of populations, is
not well established as only species specific studies review their effectiveness.
 Corridors are only one conservation initiative which should not be viewed as a
clearly visible linear landscape, but should be reviewed in the overall site habitat ie.
matrix.
 Corridors should not be considered as a conservation measure in themselves.
 Corridors are compromised if mortality rates are increased by, for example, leading
to hostile areas of matrix.
 Corridor effectiveness is determined by several factors including length, linkages to
large block habitat, and topography/weed infestations modifying velocity of fauna
migration.
 Riparian corridors should be considered as separate landscape units with regard to
conservation management.
These issues are however most relevant to the pre-development situation, and
comment must be made that at the point of development of the property with
dwellings as suggested in master-planning layouts, edge effects for corridors will
assume a higher importance (noise and light will need to be contained to BLEs) and
not extend into corridors thereby reducing their width, and consequently their
functionality.
Riparian corridor
Riparian corridors are stream side areas which support a wealth of biological diversity
and are ecologically important regardless of their role as corridors. Riparian zones are
an unusually diverse mosaic of landforms, communities, and environments within the
larger landscape.
51
Whereas there is evidence that corridors may facilitate movements of individuals

within habitats, it is difficult to separate this function from that of simply adding
habitat. However, riparian corridors are usually remnant habitat that support aquatic
and stream verge communities, and owing to this should be considered quite different
from linear landscape elements connecting habitat.
Connectivity (functional corridors)

The potential success of a corridor for a broad number of species is directly related to
the habitat quality of adjoining blocks, corridor length, and the speed at which
animals can safely move along it ie connectivity. This now needs to be considered
with a review of the corridors themselves as proposed on a property pre-construction
and referring to, for example, the increased mortality rate anticipated should a
corridor lead to a hostile area in a matrix and consequently promoting local extinction.
For this purpose, corridors (in gullies with either regrowth or where remnant
vegetation exists) need to be grouped with their boundary association with assessment
of contiguous/continuous habitat offsite. The assessment of corridors in this fashion
does not include the central riparian corridor for the reasons given above.
Assessment is based on:
 The functionality of the corridor as based on the physical complexity of the

vegetation within the corridor. This relates directly to edge effects and in increasing
survival rates through, for example, reduced predation pressure. This is a generalist
approach which is not a species-specific interrelationship. It focuses on the success
of movement for an array of species. A principal factor in this assessment is that the
corridor does not lead to what is considered to be a hostile area of the matrix eg.
break in the corridor or physical boundary.
 Species-specific interrelationship examining the habitat needs within the corridor,
thereby acting in some part as habitat, and the reward for migration in the corridor to
adjoining blocks which will have ecological attributes considered pivotal in their life
history strategies, and ensure the maintenance of their population on a local to
neighbourhood, and perhaps regional scale (local – within the associated catchments;
neighbourhood – including contiguous catchments; regional – further a field than the
contiguous catchments, but restricted to similar habitat eg. elevation).
It is important to note that the outset of considering corridors as a conservation
strategy must emphasize that all species have differing requirements from any
corridor. And, if this simplest model for corridors cannot demonstrate corridor
utilization benefits either generally or species-specifically, then this negates the need
for further complex ecological assessment.
Open space
It is the interplay between the proposed built environment, the existing natural
environment, consideration of the history of the site, identification of targeted
rehabilitation programmes, and minimal disturbance to drainage lines and riparian
zones, which affords environmental planning opportunities which best manage the
whole-of-estate environs over the life of the project. Open space designation therefore
52
can be both public and private open space where conservation of vegetation
communities and their associated habitats are protected in agreed covenants, which
are legally binding on the land for the life of the estate.
There are three principles which need to be addressed with regard specifically to the
pre-development property:
1. What species are of ‘significant value’ either on, exploiting opportunistically, or

foraging into, the proposed development site?
2. If corridors are proposed as linear landscapes facilitating fauna movement across the
estate, then -
 What are the corridor linkages onsite and offsite?
 What are the corridor expected chances of success ie. survival/mortality rates?
 Are corridors of sufficient area and quality of habitat to be just considered as
additional habitat?
 What opportunities are there to embed corridors in a functional matrix resultant
from rehabilitation of the landscape outside of the BLEs?
3. How do the corridors proposed, including the riparian corridor, relate to the
underlying models of theoretical ecology? ie. island biogeography and meta-
population models.
It is the planning of open space, both public and private which captures the best
outcomes for habitat matrix integration with the built environment. Owing to this
broad scale whole of estate, and regional setting, it is a consequence that not only
‘significant’ species are conserved but also biodiversity levels existing are, in some
part, conserved.
The simplest model of fauna management for a site, in a non-riparian corridor, is

therefore that species existing onsite do so as their life history strategies are supported
by the habitat existing within site. It follows therefore that if minimal disturbance is
made to the existing landscape ecology during construction, then it is reasonable to
expect the persistence of species so determined in the pre-construction fauna survey,
if the staging of the construction is sensitive to the indigenous fauna’s life histories. It
also follows that if the built environment is designed so that the public and perhaps
some of the private open space are allowed to regenerate, for example, surrounding an
existing system of gullies and riparian corridors in a habitat matrix, that species
existing on site will be conserved and that they will opportunistically exploit more
extensive and complex habitats afforded by this regeneration.
53
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Discuss some of the global/local issues or concerns with regards to natural resource
management (10 marks)
2. Highlight the different types of classifications of natural resources (10 marks)
3. Enumerate four (4) of the ecological services human beings obtain from the
environment (8 marks)
4. What are the main challenges/concerns faced by rangeland and forest resource
managers (10 marks)
5. Discuss the impacts (both positive and negative) that Agriculture has on Natural
resources (15 marks)
54
REFERENCES
1.Conroy, M. J., & Peterson, J. T. (2013). Decision making in natural resource

management: a structured, adaptive approach. John Wiley & Sons.
2. De Lara, M., & Doyen, L. (2008). Sustainable management of natural resources:

mathematical models and methods. Springer Science & Business Media.
3. Kline, J. D., Mazzota, M. J., Spies, T. A., & Harmon, M. E. (2013). Applying the
ecosystem services concept to public land management. Agricultural and Resource
Economics Review. 42 (1): 139-158, 42(1), 139-158.
4. Lynch, D. R. (2009). Sustainable natural resource management: For scientists and

engineers. Cambridge University Press.
5. Nassauer, J. (Ed.). (2013). Placing nature: culture and landscape ecology. Island
Press.
55

ARM 205 Digitized

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ARM 205 Digitized

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ARM 205: Natural Resources and Management

SOUTH EASTERN KENYA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AND VETERINARY SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

LECTURER: Ms. Peggy Ngila TEL. NO: 0721730227

All copyright to South Eastern Kenya University

Expected Learning Outcomes

At the end of the unit, the learner should be able to;

1. Advance knowledge of management and sustainable utilisation of natural

Lectures; Group activities and discussions; field trips and excursions

LCD projector, computers, e-learning materials, Internet, whiteboard

Continuous assessment tests (30%), end of semester examinations (70%).

TOPIC 1: NATURAL RESOURCES AND MAN: INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION

Classification of Natural resources

a) Origin: On the basis of origin, resources may be divided into:

b) Status development: Considering their stage of development, natural resources may be

c) Renewability: With respect to renewability, natural resources can be categorized as follows:

d) Availability: On the basis of availability, natural resources can be categorised as follows:

is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on sciences, economics, and the practice of natural

Natural resource management is congruent with the concept of sustainable development, a

Natural resource management specifically focuses on a scientific and technical understanding of

 State Property Regime

State Property Regime

Private Property Regime

Common Property Regimes

Non-property Regimes (open access)

The various approaches applied on NRM include:

 Top-down or Command and Rule

Integrated natural resource management (INRM)

Frameworks and Modelling

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM)

A problem of CBNRM is the difficulty of reconciling and harmonising the objectives of

CBNRM is based particularly on advocacy by nongovernmental organizations working with local

The issue of biodiversity conservation is regarded as an important element in natural resource

Precautionary Biodiversity Management

material measures to carry out precautionary management of biodiversity in natural resource

Concrete "policy tools"

Administration and guidelines

In order to have a sustainable environment, understanding and using appropriate management

Comprehending the processes of nature including ecosystem, water, soils

Using appropriate and adapting management systems in local situations

 Examine impacts of local decisions in a regional context.

 Avoid or compensate for the effects of development on ecological processes.

TOPIC 2: PRINCIPLES AND PHILOSOPHIES RELATED TO NATURAL

1. The duty of States to ensure sustainable use of natural resources

It is a well-established principle that, in accordance with international law, all States

2. The principle of equity and the eradication of poverty

The principle of equity is central to the attainment of sustainable development. It

The right to development must be implemented so as to meet developmental and

3. The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities (Shared

4. The principle of the precautionary approach to human health, natural

5. The principle of public participation and access to information and justice

Public participation is essential to sustainable development and good governance in

Public participation in the context of sustainable development requires effective

6. The principle of good governance

7. The principle of integration and interrelationship, in particular in relation to

The conservation of biological diversity and ecological integrity should be a

9. Principle of improved valuation, pricing and incentive mechanisms

10. Principle of integrated environmental management

11. Principle of enforcement

12. Principle of accountability

NATURAL RESOURCE LIMITATIONS

As a consequence of this overconsumption, the scarcity of fossil resources such as oil,