EAPP
APPROACHES IN LITERARY CRITICISM
CRITIQUE PAPER
- IT IS A GENRE OF ACADEMIC WRITING.
- CRITUQUE MEANS BRIEFLY AND CRITICALLY
SUMMARIZES AND EVALUATES A WORK OR
CONCEPT.
CRITICISM
- IS FOCUSED ON THE MESSAGE OF THE TEXT.
CRITICIZE
- TO JUDGE OR TO EVALUATE SOMEONE OR
SOMETHING.
CRITIQUE
- THE PAPER OR ESSAY
- THE PRODUCT OF CRITICIZING.
CRITIC
- THE PERSON DOING CRITICISM.
CRITIQUE CAN BE USED:
- CREATIVE WORKS, RESEARCHES AND MEDIA.
APPROACHES IN MAKING A CRITIQUE
 FORMALISM CRITICISM
- IT CLAIMS THAT LITERARY WORKS HAVE
INTRINSIC PROPERTIES AND TREATS EACH
WORK AS A DISTICNT WORK OF ART.
- A PRIMARY GOAL FOR FORMALIST CRITICS IS TO
DETERMINE HOW SUCH ELEMENTS WORK
TOGETHER WITH THE TEXT'S CONTENT TO
SHAPE ITS EFFECT UPON READERS.
 GENDER CRITICISM
- THIS APPROACH "EXAMINES HOW SEXUAL
IDENTITY INFLUENCES THE CREATION AND
RECEPTION OF LITEREARY WORKS." ORIGINALLY
AN PFFSHOOT OF FEMINIST MOVEMENTS,
GENDER CRITICISM TODAY INCLUDES A
NUMBER OF APPROACHES, INCLUDING SO-
CALLED "MASCULINIST" APPROACH RECENTLY
ADVOCATED BY POET ROBERT BLY.
- THE BULK OF GENDEER CRITICISM, HOWEVER,
IS FEMINIST AND TAKES AS A CENTRAL PRECEPT
THAT THE PATRIARCHAL ATTITUDES THAT HAVE
DOMINATED WESTERN THOUGHTS HAVE
RESULTED, CONSCIOUSLY OR UNCONSCIOUSLY,
IN LITERATURE " FULL OF UNEXAMINED 'MALE-
PRODUCED' ASSUMPTIONS.
 HISTORICAL CRITICISM
 THIS APPROACH "SEEKS TO UNDERSTAND A
LITERARY WORK BY INVESTIGATING THE
SOCIAL, CULTURAL, AND INTELLECTUAL
CONTEXT THAT PRODUCED IT- A CONTEXT THAT
NECESSARILY INCLUDES THE ARTIST'S
BIOGRAPHY AND MILIEU." A KEY GOAL FOR
HISTORICAL CRITICS IS TO UNDERSTAND THE
EFFECT OF A LITERARY WORK UPON ITS
ORIGINAL READERS.
 READER-RESPONSE CRITICISM
 THIS APPROACH TAKES AS A FUNDAMENTAL
TENET THAT "LITERATURE" EXISTS NOT AS AN
ARTIFACT UPON A PRINTED PAGE BUT AS A
TRANSACTION BETWEEN THE PHYSICAL TEXT
AND THE MIND OF A READER. IT ATTEMPTS "
TO DESCRIBE WHAT HAPPENS IN THE READER'S
MIND WHILE INTERPRETING A TEXT" AND
REFLECTS THAT READING, LIKE WRITING, IS A
CREATIVE PROCESS.
 MEDIA CRITICISM
 IS THE ACT OF CLOSELY EXAMINING AND
JUDGING THE MEDIA. MEDIA BIAS IS THE
PERCEPTION THAT THE MEDIA IS REPORTING
THE NEWS IN A PARTIAL OR PREJUDICED
MANNER. IT OCCURS WHEN A MEDIA OUTLET
SEEMS TO PUSH A SPECIFIC VIEWPOINT OR
IGNORE AN IMPORTANT ASPECT OF A STORY.
 MARXIST CRITICISM
 IS AN APPROACH TO DIAGNOSING POLITICAL
AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS IN TERMS OF THE
STRUGGLES BETWEEN MEMBERS OF DIFFERENT
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CLASSES.
 STRUCTURALICISM
 A METHOD OF INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS
OF ASPECTS OF HUMAN COGNITION,
BEHAVIOUR, CULTURE, AND EXPIRIENCE THAT
FOCUSES ON RELATIONSHIPS OF CONTRAST
BETWEEN ELEMENTS IN A CONCEPTUAL
SYSTEM THAT REFLECT PATTERNS UNDERLYING
A SUPERFICIAL DIVERSITY.
There are a variety of ways to structure a critique. Like
an essay, a critique uses an academic writing style and
has a clear structure, that is, an introduction, body and
conclusion.
 INTRODUCTION - Typically, the introduction is
short (less than 10% of the critique length) and
you should describe the main argument or
purpose of the work in here.
 BODY - Then, the body of the critique should
give a systematic and detailed assessment of
the different elements of the work, evaluating
 how well the author was able to achieve the
purpose through these.
 CONCLUSION - This is usually a very brief
paragraph, which includes a statement
indicating the overall evaluation of the work.

Given are the different ways on how to write a

reaction paper
 Read the material carefully
 Mark interesting places while reading/writing
 Write down your thoughts while
reading/writing
 Come up with a thesis statement
 Compose an outline
 Construct your paper

Given are the tips to avoid common mistakes in

writing a reaction paper
1. Don’t give a summary of an article
2. Perform your personal opinion, not an overview
3. Back your ideas with examples

MEDIA INFORMATION LITERACY
MEDIA AND INFORMATION SOURCES
 INFORMATION - Processed data and/ or
knowledge derived from study, experience,
instruction, signals, or symbols.
 Sources of Information
1. INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE
- also known as Local Knowledge. knowledge that
is unique to the given culture or society.
- it is not written down.
- transferred from one generation to another,
either orally (oral tradition) or through cultural
rituals.
 Characteristics of indigenous knowledge
 Locally appropriate - signifies a way of
life that has advanced with the local
conditions.
 Restraint in resource exploitation -
Production is for survival needs only,
only those necessary. (PRESERVE
RESOURCES)
 Diversified production systems -
Various strategies are utilized to avoid
risk.
 Respect for nature – the land is treated
as sacred.
 Human dependence on nature for
survival - all species are interrelated;
one affects the other.
 Flexibility - adapting to new
circumstances / changes.
 Social responsibility - obligation and
responsibility of every individual to
preserve the land for future
generations.
EXAMPLES: Folk tales, folk songs, folk
dances.
2. LIBRARY
- a place and a "means of access to information,
ideas, and work of imagations."
- that have been expressed in written or printed
form.
 USER SERVICES: function in linking people to
the information they are looking for.
 TECHNICAL SERVICES: function in gathering,
cataloging, and preparing library materials.
 COMPUTER SERVICES: function in maintaining
databases, software programming, web page
design, and computer hardware maintenance in
the library.
 ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICES: function in
managing the library and services, conveying
contracts with sellers, supervising library
employees, and preparing budgets.
 Classification of Libraries:
- School libraries
- Academic libraries
- Public libraries
- Special libraries
3. INTERNET
- A global network of computers that allow users
around the world to share various information
for various purposes.
 Other Classification of Information
1. PRIMARY - An original, uninterpreted, first
hand material created by the person(s)
involved in an activity or an event.
 ARTIFACTS
 DIARIES & AUTOBIOGRAPHIES
 Audio/ video recording.
2. SECONDARY - Information obtained
through analysis, interpretation, and
evaluation of primary source materials.
 INDEX TYPE
 SURVEY TYPE
 REFERENCE TYPE
3. TERTIARY - Involves information that
collects, organizes, and summarizes
primary, and secondary sources.
 bibliographies of bibliographies,
directories and yearbooks, guides
to literature, and lists of research
in progress.
Media and Information Languages
Media Languages
- denotes how media producers make meaning
about a certain medium (advertisement, TV
show, film, etc.) they are producing and how
they transfer that meaning to their target
audience. It allows the audience to convey the
meaning of the text through its signs and
symbols.
- It is expected that audiences have different
interpretations and will use different meaning
systems.
- In interpreting these signs and symbols,
audiences may interpret the media text
denotatively or connotatively.
DENOTATIVE AND CONNOTATIVE MEANING
Denotative meaning is the literal meaning of the media
text while connotative meaning refers to the various
interpretations that the text suggests to the audience
which are often associated with their culture, values,
beliefs, etc.
MEDIA CODES AND CONVENTIONS
Media codes and conventions are the very foundation
of all the existing media.
- Media codes commonly have an established
meaning, denotation or connotation, to the
target audience.
- Conventions refer to the possible methods in
which codes are organized in a product.
There are three types of media codes;
1. Symbolic codes - are audience-based. The
meaning of the product is not based on the
product itself but on the interpretation of the
audience.
 Setting refers to the time and place of the
narrative or a specific scene
 Mise en scene is a French term that means
“everything within the frame”. It describes
all the features (set design, costume, props,
staging) within a frame of media products.
 Acting refers to the portrayal of the actors
in creating media products.
 Color considerations are highly connotative
when it comes to interpretations. It is
usually associated with cultural aspects.
2. Technical codes - refer to codes specific to a
media form alone. The knowledge and
connotations of different camera angles and
shots makes sense when looking at films and
photographs but mean nothing outside those
forms.
The technical codes include;
 Camerawork (camera operation,
positioning, and movement for desired
specific effects)
 Editing (the process of selecting, operating,
and ordering images and sound)
 Audio (expression and utilization of sounds)
 Lighting (the manipulation of light based on
the target mood)
3. Written codes - are the formal language used in
creating a media product. It includes the printed
language (the test visible with the media frame
which is the text you can see within the frame)
and the spoken language which includes the
dialogues and even the lyrics of the song.
There are three types of conventions;
1. Form conventions - are ways in which the types
of media codes are expected to be arranged.
For instance, the title and main casts are expected
to appear at the beginning of a movie while the
credits are expected to appear at the end.
2. Story conventions - refer to the basic structures
of narratives.
3. Genre conventions - refer to the common use
of the elements of narratives such as the
characters, settings, or themes in a certain type
of media. Genre conventions can be formal or
thematic and are usually linked to the
expectations of the audience.
Media producers, stakeholders, and audience
1. Media producers refer to the people who
initiate, plan, and produce media texts. They
need to have the skill in assessing the media
texts and a thorough understanding of the
target product; and the process that go into
creating the products.
2. Stakeholders refer to the people or
organization that share the same interests or
intentions.
3. Audience is a significant element in delivering
media texts. All media texts are made with a
target audience in mind. Producers conduct an
audience analysis before coming up with a
media text.
Audience analysis
- is the process of looking into the demographics
(age, gender, social status, etc.) and psychology
(values, beliefs, attitude) of the audience.
 Audience engagement refers to the reaction of
the audience to the media text. Different
people react in varied ways to the same text.
 Audience expectations refers to the
anticipation of the audience about the text.
Producers may satisfy or shatter the audience’s
expectations.
 Audience foreknowledge refers to the exact
information (not expectations) which the
audience brings about the media output.
 Audience identification refers to the
connection built by the media text to the
audience.
 Audience placement refers to the strategies
producers use to make the audience feel the
media text is made specifically for them.
 Audience research refers to the monitoring od
the audience before, during , and after the
production of the media text.
LEGAL, ETHICAL AND SOCIETAL ISSUES IN MEDIA AND technical or functional features of a product.
INFORMATION Such features could, however, potentially be
 INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY - World Intellectual protected by a patent.
Property Organization (WIPO), the global forum 5. GEOGRAPHICAL INDICATIONS AND
for intellectual property services, policy, APPELLATIONS OF ORIGIN. - These are signs
information, and cooperation, defined used on products possessing qualities, a status,
Intellectual Property (IP) as referring to the or characteristics that are essentially
“creations of the mind, such as inventions; attributable to that location of origin. Generally,
literary and artistic works; designs; and a geographical indication includes the name of
symbols, names, and images used in the place of origin of the goods (WIPO, 2016)
commerce” (World Intellectual Property
Organization, 2016). Republic Act No. 8293 or Intellectual Property Code of
 It can be classified into two categories: the Philippines
1. INDUSTRIAL PROPERTY - which includes The copyrighted works are under this Term of
patents, trademarks, industrial designs and Protection (Source: Official Gazette, 2012, section 213)
geographical indications and appellations of
origin.
2. COPYRIGHT - which covers literary works (such
as novels, poems, and plays), films, music,
artistic works (e.g. drawings, paintings,
photographs, and sculptures) and architectural
design.
 FAIR USE
TYPES OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY - is a legal principle stating that one can use a
1. COPYRIGHT - It is a legal term used to describe copyrighted work without a license for the
the rights that creators have over their literary following purposes: commentary, criticism,
and artistic works. This covers works ranging reporting, research, and teaching.
from books, music, paintings, sculpture and - Some content creators choose to license their
films, to computer programs, databases, work more freely by giving their work a Creative
advertisements, maps and technical drawings Commons license or even putting their work in
(WIPO, 2016). Public Domain. These CC licenses are copyright
2. PATENT - It is an exclusive right granted for an licenses providing a simple and standardized
invention. It provides the patent owner with the way to give the public permission to share and
right to consent on the invention or a way for use the creative work.
others to use it. In return, the patent owner is
responsible for making technical information
about the invention available in the published
patent document or in public (WIPO,2016).
3. TRADEMARK - It is a distinguished sign of goods
or services of one enterprise from those of
other enterprises. It can be compared to what
craftsmen used in ancient times as “signature
mark” on their product (WIPO, 2016).
4. INDUSTRIAL DESIGN - An industrial design right
protects only the appearance or aesthetic
 NETIQUETTE
features of a product, whereas a patent
- One of the pressing problems in the digital age
protects an invention that offers a new
is the lack of basic manners in using the
technical solution to a problem. In principle, an
Internet. Seemingly overwhelmed with the
industrial design right does not protect the
liberty one enjoys in digital media, online users
 tend to forget that they are still interacting with
real people, although in the virtual world or
cyberspace. To help minimize mistakes,
untoward encounters, and unkind experiences
online, understanding and applying the rules in
Netiquette is necessary.
- TEN CORE RULES OF NETIQUETTE BY VIRGINIA
SHEA.
1. REMEMBER THE HUMAN
2. ADHERE TO THE SAME STANDARDS OF
BEHAVIOR ONLINE THAT YOU FOLLOW IN REAL
LIFE
3. KNOW WHERE YOU ARE IN CYBERSPACE
4. RESPECT OTHER PEOPLE'S TIME AND
BANDWIDTH
5. MAKE YOURSELF LOOK GOOD ONLINE
6. SHARE EXPERT KNOWLEDGE
7. KEEP FLAME WARS UNDER CONTROL
8. RESPECT OTHER PEOPLE'S PRIVACY
9. DON'T ABUSE YOUR POWER
10. BE FORGIVING OF OTHER PEOPLE'S MISTAKES
 DIGITAL FOOTPRINT - is any data record of the
things you do online. Anything on the Internet
with your name creates a trail of data about
you. This could be information in your personal
website, any activity in social media, your
browsing history, online subscription, and the
like.
 DATA PRIVACY - Not only virtual self and digital
footprint are incorporated in netiquette.
Respecting and managing data privacy is also a
responsible behavior on the Internet.
 DIGITAL DIVIDE - As part of being mannerly
towards others online, it is also helpful to know
that not everyone has the same access to high-
speed internet, or even so, regular digital
access, or advanced digital knowledge so we are
called to be understanding, helpful, and polite
to the digitally disadvantaged.
 COMPUTER ADDICTION AND CYBERBULLYING
- Computer Addiction is the “overdependence or
a damaging need to do something on computer
or internet” (E-Learning Guide on Media and
Information Literacy). Its impact could be linked
to sleep deprivation, anxiety and even
depression. Setting a limit and immersing
yourself with outside activity can obviate
addiction.
- Cyberbullying is the use of digital means of
communication that could hurt or harass a
person. Examples of this are sending hurtful
texts or SNS messages, posting embarrassing
photos or videos, and spreading mean or
malicious rumors online. Such act or acts
comprise cyberbullying if the offender does
them intentionally and repeatedly, and should
be addressed at once.
Opportunities, Challenges and Threats in Media and
Information
 Opportunities, Challenges, Threats and Risks in
Media and Information
- UNESCO recognizes that the internet holds
enormous potential for development. It
provides an unprecedented volume of
resources for information and knowledge that
opens up new opportunities and challenges for
expression and participation.
- Digitalization and the accessibility of
information through a wide range of devices
have enormously increased the information
resources available to people. The internet
provides numerous and diverse opportunities
towards attaining our goals and objectives in
life. It has positive effects in education and in
economic growth.
OPPORTUNITIES
1. Online shopping - Through online shopping and
by using a web browser, consumers can directly
buy goods over the internet.
2. Citizen journalism - It is the collection,
dissemination and analysis of news and
information by the general public, especially by
means of internet.
3. Online education - With internet connection,
anyone can earn a degree without having to
attend face-to-face class sessions.
CHALLENGES
1. Age-inappropriate content. With the unabated
spread of media, one has to be very careful
about access. There is a wealth of information
one can gain from the Internet, but there is also
 content that is unfit for children and young
people like pornography and violence.
2. Illegal content. The Internet has also been, and
continues to be, used by unscrupulous people
to further their illegal activities, like human
trafficking, the use of force, force, fraud, or
coercion to obtain a commercial sex act or
labor, and child pornography. Some groups also
use the internet to further the ideas of racism
and discrimination.
3. Privacy invasion and identity theft. Data posted
on the Internet may be accessed and used for
illegal activities. Personal information may be
willing shared as pictures or text on social
media or inadvertently given by users as part of
such offerings as games or surveys.
THREATS AND RISKSOFMEDIA AND INFORMATION
1. Libel / Slander. A person commits libel if
he/she, with malice, publishes a false statement
that is damaging to another person’s
reputation, office, trade, business or means of
livelihood. n the Philippine constitution, libel is
a violation of Article 355 of the Revised Penal
Code.
2. Piracy. The unauthorized duplication of
copyrighted content that is then sold at
substantially lower prices in the black market.
3. Cybercrime Law. The Cybercrime Prevention
Act of 2012 (Republic Act No. 10175) covers all
other online anomalies such as identity theft,
child pornography, data misuse, cybersquatting
and other computerrelated and internet
facilitated practices. This law became
controversial in 2012-2013 since it also
criminalizes libel in the online world, limiting
certain exercises of freedom of expression.
 Education, Economic, Social and Political
Aspects and Influences of Media and
Information Literacy
- Media Innovation. It is the process of
developing a new method or process or product
that better serves existing uses or start to serve
a previously unidentified need.
Influence of Media on Education
- It also enhances the teaching and learning
processes inside the four walls of the
classrooms
- Some platforms can be employed to reinforce
concepts and spark discussions, such as short
films, written articles, blog postings, and other
digital media.
- Various media can be used in the classrooms to
hone critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
Influence on Society
- The communication line is always open.
Because of these, necessary societal
interactions, camaraderie, and development of
friendships are facilitated.
- Some platforms can be employed to reinforce
concepts and spark discussions, such as short
films, written articles, blog postings, and other
digital media.
- Various media can be used in the classrooms to
hone critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
Economic Influence
- The new media is used to offer products and
services online.
- Media platforms are a means to augment
people’s income.
- Social media is used as platform for businesses
to advertise their products/services
Political Influence
- Social Media platforms as public
communication. Digital Diplomacy, also called
E-diplomacy or Digi diplomacy is a
government’s use of social media and
information technology to communicate to the
public, especially foreign public.
- Spreading information through social media
enables to directly send messages quickly and
cost-effectively to the target audiences, without
convening a press conference or sending a press
release to news agencies
- People have become informed about the
subjects they need or want

ENTREPRENEURSHIP
MARKETING MIX
 It is a widely accepted strategic marketing tool
that combines the original 4Ps with the additional
3Ps in formulating marketing tactics for a product or
service.
4Ps – Product, Place, Price, Promotion
 Were used in marketing products and physical
goods only.
3Ps – People, Packaging, and Process
 It is also applicable in marketing products.
PRODUCT – any physical good, service, or idea that is
created by an entrepreneur in serving the needs of the
customers. Tangible commodity or the intangible
service that the business firm offers for sale to
prospective customers. Also includes the warranties and
other conditions attached to the product.
THREE LEVEL CONCEPT OF PRODUCT
1. Core Benefits of the Product or Services
 Major factors why a customer buys a product or
avails of a service.
2. Physical Characteristics of the Product or
Services
 The second layer of selection which has a better
packaging for products or a better physical evidence
or customer experience for services.
3. Augmented Benefits of the Product or Services
 Augmented Benefits is the additional benefits,
for example Loyalty Cards.
PRICE – is the peso value that an entrepreneur assigns
to a certain product or services after considering its
costs, competition, objectives, positioning and target
market. It is the amount of money paid by the customer
to the selling business firm so the customer can use the
product.
PRICING STRATEGIES
1. Bundling – Refers to two or more products or
services in one reduced price. Ex. 3 in 1 coffee for
P8.00, Manicure and Pedicure for P150.00.
2. Penetration Pricing – Refers to setting low
prices to increased market share, but the
entrepreneur will eventually increase the price once
the desired market share is achieved. Ex. Mobile
app based transportation service offering reduced
booking fee of P15.00 as its introductory price.
Online websites offering 1 month free for a
subscription-based service.
3. Skimming – The opposite of penetration pricing
where prices are initially high and then they are
lowered to offer the product or service. Ex. Real
estate company offering top-tier projects is now
offering low-cost housing of same quality to serve
the middle segment.
4. Competitive Pricing – refers to benchmarking
pricing with the competitors. Ex. Milk tea prices are
competitively priced.
5. Product Line Pricing – refers to different
products or services within a parallel product array
using varying price points. Ex. LED TV is more
expensive than the LCD TV even if its under the
same brand.
6. Psychological Pricing – Considers the
psychology and positioning of price in the market.
Ex. 99, 199, 299 price of the product.
7. Premium Pricing – refers to setting a variety
high price to reflect elitism and superiority. Ex. Price
of signature clothes, bags, and perfumes.
8. Optional Pricing – refers to adding an extra
product or services on top of the original to
generate more revenue. Ex. Meals in top of the air
fare.
9. Cost-based Pricing – The basis of mark-up is the
cost of the sales. Coconut juice P10, Plastic Cups P4,
he or she can set the price at P20 to earn P6 per
coconut juice.
10. Cost Plus Pricing – The mark-up is based on the
certain percentage of cost. Ex. Setting 50% mark-up
on the coconut juice which is P14.00 x 50% = P7.00;
the new price is P14.00 + P7.00 = P21.00
PLACE – refers to a location or the medium of
transaction. A strategic location depends on the nature
of the business. Providing a pleasant experience in
buying or availing of the service so that the customers
will keep on coming back.
PROMOTION – Involves presenting the products or
services to the public and how these can address the
public’s needs, wants, problems or desires. Provision of
required information to prospective customers so that
they are persuaded to buy. The main goal of promotion
is to gain attention.
PROMOTIONAL TOOLS
1. Advertising – Type of communication that
influences the behavior of the customer to choose
the product or services of the entrepreneurs over
the competitors.
2. Selling – the act of trading a product or service
for a price or a fee.
3. Sales Promotion – are short-term promotional
gimmicks wherein practical incentives and
appealing activities are incorporated to entice the
customers to buy the product or avail the services.
4. Public Relations – are image building initiatives
of the entrepreneur to make the name of the
business reputable to stakeholders.
PEOPLE – Plays a vital role in servicing customers.
Employees become a major influence in the customer’s
buying behavior. These are the people working for the
business.
PACKAGING – It is how the product or service is
presented to the customers. It is the overall
identification (look and feel) of the product or service.
This will determine the uniqueness of the product from
the competitors.
PROCESS – Experience how the brand delivers value. It
includes the external and internal operations of the
business to serve customers better. It is defined as the
step by step procedures or activities.
When used effectively, the 7P’s of marketing will
achieve the two most important objectives of an
entrepreneur; Customer satisfaction and profitability.
THE 4M’S OF OPERATION
METHOD – the process of combining raw materials and
how these are going to be transformed using the other
factor inputs of production.
MANPOWER – The right human resources who will
handle certain business operations. It is one of the
highest cost if operating the business, but also the most
instrumental to its success.
3 Kinds of Qualification Standard
1. Manpower – refers to the personality required
to a worker’s traits, manners, values, the way he
talks, appearance, and his overall physical
attributes.
2. Experience – refers to the length of working
experience in relation to the job criteria required as
worker, and also that a worker applied for.
3. Academics – refers to the workers’ academic
qualifications or the educational attainment
required to perform the job better.
MACHINE – Technology used in efficiently operating the
business. It was also described the “best friend” of
manpower in producing goods and offering services.
In selecting the type if equipment to purchase,
the entrepreneur may consider;
 Type of products to be produced.
 Production system to be adopted.
 Cost of the equipment.
 Capacity of the equipment.
 Availability of spare parts in the local market.
MATERIALS – Used in creating a product or performing
a service, which includes supply chain management.
The entrepreneur may consider;
 Cost
 Quality
 Availability
 Credibility of suppliers
The materials include both direct and indirect
consumable materials. The specifications, quantity
needed, and schedule of delivery should be clearly
stated. Reliability of the
suppliers should be assured and single source should be
avoided.
DEVELOP A PRODUCT NAME
BRAND – Brand is a name or mark that is intended to
identify the seller’s product and differentiate it from the
product of the competitors. Ex. Apple, Nike, Coca-Cola,
Nescafe, Tide.
Brand Mark – recognized by sight but cannot be
expressed.
Trademark – is a brand that have been adopted by the
seller and given legal protection. The trademark is
protected by operation of law under the DTI.
Branding – protects the company from imitations and
fake products.
Selecting a Good Brand Name
 1. It should suggest about the product or service.
2. It must be easy to pronounce and remember.
3. It must be simple and short.
4. It must be distinct or different from others.
5. It must be adaptable to new company product
that may be added.
6. It must be capable of registration and legal
protection.
Different Strategies Used to Sell More Products
1. Branding within a product mix
a. Separate name for each product – This
is often teamed as family branding. It is
simple and less expensive to introduce new
and related products to a line.
b. Company name combined with the
product name – The company name is best
suited for marketing products that are
related in quality and use.
c. The Company Name Alone – Branding
with the company name alone places a
great burden on the producer’s reputation
for quality if other products carrying the
same brand name may not make the grade
and this will affect the other products in the
market.
2. Branding for Market Situation
a. Introduction of Line Extension – This is
the strategy where brand names are
extended into new forms and sizes of an
existing category.
b. Introduction of Brand Extension – Thus
strategy calls for the extension of the brand
name to new or modified product
categories.
c. Introduction of New Brand Name – It is
the strategy where a new brand name is
attached to a new product category.
Reasons for the Existence of Brands
1. Identification – Brands enable consumers to
easily distinguish one product from another.
2. Protection – It enables the owner of the brand
name to enjoy the goodwill associated with the
name so as not to be taken advantage by others.
3. Positioning – It enables the owner to
communicate the benefits of his product.
Criteria for choosing a brand name
1. Distinctive
2. Word Association
3. Legal Requirements
4. Memorability
5. Pronounceability
6. Limitations
DEVELOP A PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION – In project management is a
structured format of presenting information about a
project product. Usually created by the project manager
and approved by the project board.
The product description should be AUDIENCE
FRIENDLY. All audience-friendly products must include
the keywords naturally optimized and incorporated into
grammatically correct and high quality copy.
THE STRUCTURE OF PRODUCT DESIGN
1. Identifier
2. Title or Topic
3. Purpose or Aims
4. Composition
5. Derivation
6. Format and Presentation
7. Development Skill Required
8. Quality Criteria
PRODUCT SATISFYING FEATURES – Product patronage
in the market is conditioned by the strategies and
policies employed by the manufacturer and the
marketing organization on the product’s attributes.
1. Design – It matters to the elements that
collectively form of good or service that will satisfy
customers and gain competitive advantage. Good
design can improve the marketability of the product
through its design and appearance.
2. Product Colors – Customer’s rejection or
acceptance of the product. The possibility of
differential advantages comes in knowing the right
color combination that will appeal to customers.
3. Product Quality – This is the set of features and
attributes of a product or service that determine its
ability to satisfy human needs. Optimal quality
refers to a situation that the product or service
provides the customers with an experience that
meets their expectations.
4. Product Warranties – One very important
attribute of the product. It is the state where the
buyer is assured that the product meets the
specifications stated in the product labels.
CREATE A PROTOTYPE OF THE PRODUCTS
PROTOTYPE – Is a functional, not final version of a
product or service that businesses can use for testing
and to introduce to investors before officially launching
to a wider market. It can help add value to a project as
well as credibility.
Step 1. Document it
Step 2. Research it
Step 3. Make a prototype (can be 3d model)
Step 4. File a Patent (Utility Patent and Design Patent)
 Multiple choices
 Ranked respondent places an ordering on items
in a list
 Combined open and close ended questions
 Qualitative observational tests.

Advantages of Prototype
- It tests and refines the functionality of the design.
- Keep records of the research showing that no similar
patented products in the same market
- Consider the commercial sales of value of the
invention.
- Create an informal drawing of the invention.
Testing a prototype is a vital or necessary part of design
and manufacturing process.

EVALUATION OF PROTOTYPE – Participative users base

their evaluation of a paper or machine prototype on
their expectation and problems to identify usability
problems.

Method of Evaluation
1. Planning
2. Running Sessions
3. Output

Three General Approaches

1. Simple Observation – is given the task, and
evaluator just watches the user problem.
2. Constructive Interaction – normal conversation
between two users is monitored.
3. Query-interviews (structured and
retrospective) – surveys and questionnaires.
Variant: Co-discovery learning – uses semi-
knowledgeable “coach” and naïve subject
together use the interface in making naïve
subject.
Result in naïve subject questions – semi-
knowledgeable coach responding, provides
insights into thinking process of both beginner
and intermediate users.

Ways of recording data and actions during observation

1. Paper and Pencil
2. Audio Recording
3. Video Recording

Styles of Questions
 Open-ended questions
 Close-ended questions (strongly disagree,
disagree, etc…)
 TYPES OF INDUSTRY
Primary industry - This sector of a nation’s economy
includes agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, quarrying,
and the extraction of minerals. It may be divided into
two categories: genetic industry, including the
production of raw materials that may be increased by
human intervention in the production process; and
extractive industry, including the production of
exhaustible raw materials that cannot be augmented
through cultivation.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY Secondary industry - This sector, also called

GAS LAWS manufacturing industry, (1) takes the raw materials
BOYLE’S LAW supplied by primary industries and processes them into
 Inversely proportional consumer goods, or (2) further processes goods that
 Temperature is constant other secondary industries have transformed into
 V1P1=V2P2 products, or (3) builds capital goods used to
CHARLE’S LAW manufacture consumer and non-consumer goods.
 Directly proportional Secondary industry also includes energy-producing
 Pressure is constant industries (e.g., hydroelectric industries) as well as the
 V1T2=V2T1 construction industry.
GAY LUSSAC’S LAW Tertiary industry - This sector, also called service
 Directly proportional industry, includes industries that, while producing no
 Volume is constant tangible goods, provide services or intangible gains or
 P1T2=P2T1 generate wealth. In free market and mixed economies
COMBINED GAS LAW this sector generally has a mix of private and
 Pressure and volume is inversely proportional government enterprise. The Industries of this sector
but both are directly proportional to temperature. include banking, finance, insurance, investment, and
 P1V1T2=P2V2T1 real estate services; wholesale, retail, and resale trade;
AVOGADRO’S LAW transportation, information, and communications
 Directly proportional services; professional, consulting, legal, and personal
 V1N2=V2N1 services; tourism, hotels, restaurants, and
IDEAL GAS LAW entertainment; repair and maintenance services;
 PV = nRT education and teaching; and health, social welfare,
administrative, police, security, and defense services.
P – Pressure (1 atm = 760 torr = 760 mmHg) Quaternary industry - The quaternary sector consists of
V – Volume (Standard Liter 22.4L) those industries providing information services, such as
T – Temperature (Standard Temperature = 273K) computing, ICT (information and communication
__°C + 273K technologies), consultancy (offering advice to
n – Number of Moles (6.02 x 10²³ mol. or 1 mol) businesses) and R&D (research, particularly in scientific
R – Universal Gas Constant (0.0821 L•atm/mol•K) fields).
Note: always to nearest hundredth decimal place when The quaternary sector is sometimes included with the
rounding off to final answer. tertiary sector, as they are both service sectors.
Ex. 10.056 or 10.06
TYPES OF E-COMMERCE
APPLIED ECONOMICS Ecommerce is a business model that allows businesses
Industry - A group of productive enterprises or and consumers to make purchases or sell things online.
organizations that produce or supply goods, services, or There are many different types of ecommerce business
sources of income. In economics, industries are models to choose from, and today it’s easier than ever
customarily classified as primary, secondary, and for creative founders to use them to make their ideas a
tertiary; secondary industries are further classified as reality.
heavy and light.
B2C (Business-to-consumer)
  B2C businesses sell directly to their end-users.
Anything you buy in an online store as a consumer
— from wardrobe and household supplies to
entertainment — is done as part of a B2C
transaction.
The decision-making process for a B2C purchase is much
shorter than a business-to-business (B2B) purchase,
especially for lower-value items. Because of this shorter
sales cycle, B2C businesses typically spend less
marketing dollars to make a sale while having a lower
average order value and fewer recurring orders than
their B2B counterparts.
consumers to exchange goods and services and
typically make their money by charging transaction
or listing fees.
C2C businesses benefit from self-propelled growth by
motivated buyers and sellers, but face a key challenge
in quality control and technology maintenance. Online
businesses like Craigslist, Walmart, Alibaba and eBay
pioneered this model in the early days of the internet.

B2B (Business-to-business)
 In a B2B business model, a business sells its
product or service to another business. Sometimes
the buyer is the end-user, but often the buyer
resells to the consumer. B2B transactions generally
have a longer sales cycle, but higher-order value
and more recurring purchases.
Recent B2B innovators have made a place for
themselves by replacing catalogs and order sheets with
ecommerce storefronts and improved targeting in niche
markets.

B2G (Business-to-government)
 Business-to-government (B2G) is an ecommerce
model where a business sells and markets its
products to government entities or public
administrations — whether local, county, state or
federal.
This model relies on the successful bidding of
government contracts. A government agency will
typically put up a request for proposal (RFP) and
ecommerce businesses will have to bid on these
projects.

C2B (Consumer-to-business)
C2B businesses allow individuals to sell goods and
services to companies. In this ecommerce model, a site
might enable customers to post the work they want to
be completed and have businesses bid for the
opportunity. Affiliate marketing services would also be
considered C2B.
 The C2B ecommerce model’s competitive edge
is in pricing for goods and services. This approach
gives consumers the power to name their prices or
have businesses directly compete to meet their
needs.

C2C (Consumer-to-consumer)
 C2C ecommerce businesses — sometimes
referred to as online marketplaces — connect