Unit 1- Measurements and Transducers

 Measurement:
Comparison with a pre-defined standard is called as an “Measurement”.

 Instrument:
A device used for measurement or control is called as an Instrument.

 Instrumentation:
The art of science used for measurement or control is called as Instrumentation.
Note: What are standards? Give it’s types.
1) Length: The primary standard of length is “Meter” and 1 meter is the distance between
2 lines engraved on platinum -Iridium bar preserved in Paris. In 1960 , the meter was
redefined and it is equal to 1650 , 76373 wavelength in vacuum of the orange-red
radiation of krypton 86 atoms.
2) Mass: The primary standard of “Mass” is (kg) kilogram. Which is defined as the mass
of cubic decimetre of water add it’s temperature of maximum density 4°c and it is
maintained at international burrow of weight & measure in Paris.
3) Time: The primary standards time is “Seconds” and it is defined as interval time is
corresponding to 9, 192, 631, 770 cycles of the automatic resonant frequency of 133.
The second was defined early 1/86400 of a min solar day.
4) Voltage: The primary standards of voltage is “Volts”.
The primary voltage standard is a Weston’s normal cell (saturated) developing and EMF
of 1.01858 volts at 20°.
5) Resistance: The primary standards of resistance is “1 Ohm”.
Which is a coil of wire magnin,moured in a double wolad, selled container constant
temperature.
6) Inductance: The primary standard of “Henry ”.
It is a Air core coiled system those validity is checked against other primary standard
with accuracy of ± 0.01% .
7) Temperature: Thermodynamic temperature is expressed in Kelvin and the triple point
of water is fixed at 273.163° kelvin. (°k)
This is the temperature at which the water existing in all three seads:ice, water vapour,
liquid.
8) Limunas Intensity: (Candela)
The primary standards of limunas Intensity is “Candela”.
A black body of readyerer held at temperature of solidification of platinum (2042°k)
radiates.
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 1 Candela per centimetre square of the radiator surface.
9) Electric Current: The fundamental unit of electric current is “Ampere". The primary
standard is a current balance which weights the force existed between two current
carring coils.

 Transducer’s:
A device which is converts one form of energy into another form is called a
transducer’s.
It is also defined as a device which converts any physical quantity into an
electrical signal.
e.g.
i. Electric Heater: It converts electric energy into heat energy.
ii. Loud Speaker: It converts electrical energy into sound.
iii. Sensor: A sensor is a device which is used for sensing the degree or
level of physical measured (value to be measured).

A sensor is slightly different from a transducer, because sensor is a device that a forms
initial measurement and then energy conversion while transducer is a device which
converts one form of energy to another.
Hence, All sensor’s are transducer’s but all transducer’s are not sensor.

 Classification of transducers:

Transducer’s are classified into difference groups or types:

1. Classification based on measurement.
2. Classification based on principle of transduction.
3. Primary & secondary transducers.
4. Active & passive transducers.
5. Analog & digital transducers.

1. Classification based on measurand:

There are various types of variables or processes parameters. Like temperature,
pressure, pH, force, speed , etc.
Required to be measured in processes control industries depending upon these
there are different types of transducers.
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 Examples:
 Thermostat, RTD, thermocouple are temperature transducers.
 Baurdon table, bellow, diaphragm are pressure transducers.

 Pressure Transducers:
 Baurdon Table:

/* HERE THERE ARE 4 FIGURES fig.(a) C_TYPE_BAURDON_TUBE,

fig.(b)TWISTED_FLUIED, fig.(c)SPIRAL_TUBE, fig.(d)HELICAL_TYPE */

In this type of fluids, one end of the tube is close or physically held, when the
fluid whose pressure is to be determined enters a table.
The tube tends to straightens on account of pressure. These causes movement
of the free end of the tube. This movement is measured and it is proportional to
the pressure.
The materials used for making baurdon table, glass, brass, stenless still, copper,
phosphor.

 Bellow:

/* HERE , fig.(a)CORRUGATED_SHAPE */

Bellow is a thin walled table of about “0.2 mm” having a corrugated shape as
shown in the fig.(a). Bellow is used to measure pressure.
It is made up of brass, stenless still.

 Diaphragm:
 /* HERE THERE ARE 2 FIGURES fig.(a)CORRUGATED_SHAPE,
fig.(b)FLAT_DIAPHRAGM */

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 The pressure to be measured is applied to the 1 side of diaphragm. Since, the
edges of the diaphragm are rigidly fix. Application of pressure produces the
displacement of the centre of the diaphragm.
These displacement is measured and it is found that the displacement is
proportional to the applied pressure.

The pressure is given by :

P= 256 ET²dm / 3(1-ɣ) D^4

Where,
D = diameter of the diaphragm
P = pressure applied
E = N/m² (Young’s modulus)
dm = depletion at the center of diaphragm is meter
(gamma) = ɣ = Poisson’s ratio
t = thickness of the diaphragm .

2. Classification based on principle of transduction:

Due to change in the processes parameter value, the resistance. The capacitance or
the inductance of the material changes depending upon this changes we have
resistive transducers capacitive transducers of inductive transducers.

1) Resistive transducers:

/* HERE THERE ARE 4 FIGURES fig.(a) DISC_TYPE, fig.(b)RED_TYPE,

fig.(c)WASHER_TYPE, fig.(d)BEAD_TYPE */

 Thermistor is a transducer whose resistance of the semiconductor material

changes with temperature.
 If it has negative temperature coefficient, the resistance decreases with
increasing temperature.
 Thermistors are used in temperature measurement and control systems.

2) Capacitive transducers: (micro-phone)

4
 /* HERE THERE IS A fig. */

 In a capacitor micro-phone, the capacitance of the micro-phone reduces

with the sound pressure.
 The diaphragm shown in fig. is used as first plate ‘P1’ of a variable
capacitor.
 When the sound pressure is applied to the diaphragm, it is shifted to the
left as shown in the fig. and hence, the capacitance ‘C’ between the two
plates.

3) Primary and Secondary transducers:

/* HERE THERE ARE 4 FIGURES fig.(a)PRIMARY_TRANSDUCERS, fig.(b)

SECONDARY_TRANSDUCERS, */

 Sometimes more than one transducer is required to measure the

processes. Variable in the above fig. Baurdon tube acts as a primary
transducers.
 Which senses the pressure and converts it into displacement of it’s free
end.
 These displacement moves the core of the LVDT.
 This transformer acts as a secondary transducer.
 Due to the movement of the core of an output voltage is produced.
 The output voltage produces is proportional to the movement of the core
that in turn is proportional to the displacement of the free end of the
baurdon tube.
 Which in turn is proportional to the applied pressure.

4) Active Transducers:
Active transducers do not required an external power supply or generate the
power needed for activation.
Examples:

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 1] piezo-electric transducers
2] photo-electric transducers
3] thermos-electric transducers

5) Passive Transducers:
Passive transducers required an external power supply for the energy conversion
from one form to another form.
Examples:
1] Resistance transducers
2] Capacitive transducers
3] Inductive transducers

3. Analog to digital transducers:

Electrical transducers are classified on the basis of the output. The output may be a
continuous function of time (Analog) or it may be in discrete steps (Digital).

1) Analog transducers:
Analog transducer convert input physical quantity into an Analog output, which
is a continuous function of time.
Examples:
1] Thermocouple
2] Thermistor

2) Digital transducers:
Digital transducers converts input physical quantity into an electrical output,
which is in the form of “pulses”.
Example:

6
 1] Digital tachometer (use to measure speed)

Characteristics of Transducers:
1. Range:
Range of a transducers is a difference between the largest reading value
and smallest value of the measurand.

If ‘Xmax’ is the largest value and ‘Xmin’ is the smallest value then the range of the
transducers are given by,

Range = Xmax – Xmin

2. Span:
Span of a transducers is the algebraic difference between the largest value and
smallest value of measurand.
Span = Xmax – Xmin

3. Error(E):
The algebraic difference between the indicated value (I)and the actual value (T)of the
measurand is called as an error.
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝐸 = 𝐼~𝑇
4. Accuracy:
It is defined as the closeness with which the reading approaches the standard or true
value.
5. Precision:
The closeness with which the individual measurements are distributed about their
mean value is called as precision.

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6. Resolution:
It is defined as the ability of the transducer to discriminate (differentiate) to nearly
equal values.

7. Stability:
The ability of the transducer to retain it’s performance throughout specified
operating lifetime.
8. Sensitivity:
Sensitivity is the ratio of change in the transducer output to change in the value of
measurand(input).
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑺𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕

9. Hystersis:

When a device is used to measured any processes parameter,

 For increasing values of measurand then the output readings output may be
different.
 The difference of the output reading so obtaining is called as Hystersis of the
device.
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 10. Drift:
Drift is a slow variation in the output signal of the transducer with time when the
measurand (i/p) is kept constant.

11. Dead band:

Dead band is defined as the largest change in the input quantity to which the
transducers does not respond.

 Selection criteria of Transducers:

 Purpose of measurement.
 Nature of type of physical quantity to be measured.
 Source of measurand.
 Range of measurand.
 Order of accuracy and precision required in measurement.
 Installation consideration of the transducers.
 Possibility of overloads during the measurement.
 Ambient conditions.
 Lifespan of transducers.
 Transduction principle.
 Limitations of excitations and output of the transducers.
 Availability of transducers.
 Ease of operation.
 Coast.

1) Temperature transducers:

i. Thermocouple:
/* HERE IS A fig. of Thermocouple*/
 Thermocouple is a primary active temperature transducer. Which converts change
in temperature into EMF (voltage). i.e. A converts thermal energy to electrical
energy.

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 Thermocouple works on “Seeback effect”. When a pair of wires or strips made up
of two different metals are join together forming to junctions as shown in the fig.
 If the two junctions temperatures are ‘T1’ and ‘T2’ , then an EMF is produce in the
circuit, which causes a flow of current. The current depends upon two metals and
junction temperatures “T1 and T2”.
 The EMF produce is proportion to the difference between the two junction
temperatures and is given by :

𝑇
ⅇ = ∫𝑇 2(𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝐵 ) ⅆ𝑡 ………… [1]
1

Where,
e = EMF produce
𝑇1 𝑎𝑛ⅆ 𝑇2= The junction temperatures in degree kelvin.
𝑄𝐴 and 𝑄𝐵 = The thermal transport constant for metals A & B.

 It is found that the two constants (𝑄𝐴 & 𝑄𝐵 ) are independent of temperature and
hence the above equation becomes
𝑇
ⅇ = (𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝐵 ) ∫𝑇 2 ⅆ𝑡
1

𝑇
ⅇ = (𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝐵 ) [𝑇] 𝑇21

e = (𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝐵 ) [𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ] …………. [2]

e = α (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) ………….[3]
where,
α = (𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝐵 )
 Using a thermo-couple we can find out the unknown temperature ′𝑇2 ’ because, the
first junction ( 𝐽1) is an kept as reference (known) temperature ( 𝑇1 ).
 The EMF produce is measured using the digital multi-meter, then the magnitude of
the unknown n temperature of the 𝑇2 is calculated using the formula
(equation…[3]).
 The magnitude of the voltage to be used depends on absolute temperature
differences (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) and the polarity depends on the sign.
i.e. 𝑇1 Diff. 𝑇2
Therefore 𝑇2 Diff. 𝑇1

Law of Thermo-couple:
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1) First Law:

/* HERE Is a fig. */

 The law states that, “The EMF produce depends only the two junction
temperatures 𝑇1 𝑎𝑛ⅆ 𝑇2 and it is independent of intermediate
temperatures”.
 Explanation:
Two metals used are homogeneous metal that form a circuit as shown in
fig:
EMF produce depends only on junction temperatures 𝑇1 𝑎𝑛ⅆ 𝑇2 and it is
independent of intermediate temperatures 𝑇3 , 𝑇4 , 𝑇5 & 𝑇6.

2) Second law:

/* HERE Is a fig. */

 The law states that, “If a third homogeneous metal ‘C’ is inserted either at
metal ‘A’ of metal ‘B’ , as long as the two new junctions 𝐽3 & 𝐽4 are at the
same temperature 𝑇3 , the net EMF produced is un-affected by the
insertion of new metal C ”.

3) Third law:

/* HERE Is a fig. */

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  The law states that, “If a third homogeneous metal ‘C’ is inserted between
metal ‘A’ of metal ‘B’ at one of the junction, as long as the two new
junctions 𝐽2 & 𝐽3 are both at the same temperature 𝑇2 , the net EMF
produced is same as if new metal C is absent”.

4) Fourth law:

/* HERE Is a fig. */

 The law states that, “If see back EMF produced by metal A & C, at junction
temperatures ‘𝑇1 𝑎𝑛ⅆ 𝑇2’ is ‘𝐸𝐴𝐶 ’ & that of metals B&C at junction
temperatures ‘𝑇1 𝑎𝑛ⅆ 𝑇2′ is ′𝐸𝐵𝐶 ’, then net EMF produced by metal A & B
at junction temperatures ‘𝑇1 𝑎𝑛ⅆ 𝑇2′ is given by” :
" 𝐸𝐴𝐵 = 𝐸𝐴𝐶 + 𝐸𝐵𝐶 ”

5) Fifth law:

/* HERE Is a fig. */

E = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2
 The law states that, “If the see back EMF produced by two metals at
junction temperatures ‘𝑇1 𝑎𝑛ⅆ 𝑇2’ is ‘𝐸1 ’ and that at junction
′
temperatures ‘𝑇2 𝑎𝑛ⅆ 𝑇3 is ′𝐸2 ’, then net EMF produced by a metals
having junction temperatures ‘𝑇1 𝑎𝑛ⅆ 𝑇3′ is given by” :
E = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2

6) Types of Thermo-couple:

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Type Material used Normal Range Sensitivity Comment
J Iron- -190°c to 700°c 50 Mostly used in
Constantan Industries.
Used for negative
T Copper- -200°c to 370°c 46 temperature
Constantan measurements.
K Chromel- -180°c to 1060°c 42 Used in non-reducing
Alumel atmosphere.
E Chromel- -100°c to 1260°c 68 It has high sensitivity.
Constantan
Low sensitivity & hence
S 90% Platinum 0°c to 1500°c 06 useful for high
& temperature
10 % Rhodium measurement.
R 0°c to 1500°c 06

7) Advantages of Thermo-couple:
I. It is useful for wide range of temperature measurement from
-270° C to 1500° C.
II. Cheaper in cost, than RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector).
III. By increasing the leads of the thermos-couple, long distance temperature
measurements are possible.
IV. It has good accuracy.
V. It has rigid construction.

8) Disadvantages of Thermo-couple:
I. The EMF and voltage produced is a weak signal, which leads to be amplified.
II. The graph of EMF v/s Temperature shows known linearity.
III. Cold junction & other comprehensions are essential for accurate temperature
measurements.

/* HERE Is a graph of Emf v/s Temp. */

9) RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) :

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  Def:
RTD’s are primary, passive temperature transducers whose resistance
changes with the temperature.

 Principle:
RTD’s are mode up of metals, which have crystal structures. In such
metals energy band diagram shows that forbidden gap is absent. Valance band
& conduction band is overlapped is other. Hence many free electrons are
available for conductions.
When voltage is applied between such metals, the free electrons collide
with each other & give rise to electrical resistance.
If such metals are heated, the free electrons start to oscillate and collide
with each other. Hence electrical resistance increases.
RTD use change in resistance of the conductor ( metal ) to determine the
temperature. RTD’s have positive (+ve) temperature coefficient,
i.e. Resistance of the material increases with increasing temperature.

 Construction:

/* HERE there are 2 figures fig.a) Wire_Bound_Type fig.B)

Wire_Bound_Disc_Type */

 RTD’s are the form of wire wound type or thin flim type.
 In wire wound type RTD’s, a coil of wire is wound on a former (base) made
up of ceramic to give support to the coil.
 The wire is wound on the former close together to achieve small size and
increase thermal conductivity which reduces the response time.
 Thus, RTD is a simple length of wire whose resistance is to be monitored
as a function of temperature.
 They are also available in resistance values from 10 𝛺 to 25 𝐾𝛺.

 Working:

14
 /* HERE there are 2 figures fig.a) Constant current source
fig.B) Wheatston’s bridge */

 Change in resistance has to be converted into voltage or current for the

purpose of measurement and control.
 Electrical power disappeared in the RTD is to be limited to avoid errors
due to heating of sensors.
 Fig.a shows a simple circuit using a constant current source to convert
change in resistance into voltage.
 Fig.b is a wheat stone’s bridge using RTD in one of it’s arms or a ‘branch’
𝑅1 𝑅3
first the bridge is balance ( = ) , show the output voltage is zero (0)
𝑅2 𝑅4
(𝑉0 =0 volt).
 When the RTD is used for temperature measurement, the RTD material
gets heated, due to which the resistance of the RTD changes.
 The bridge gets unbalanced and an output voltage (𝑉0 ) is produced.
 Which is proportional to the change in resistance of RTD. Which inturn is
proportional to the change in temperature.

Write a note on RTD material ?

1) Material which are used for RTD are gold, silver, copper, tungsten, nickel,
platinum, etc.
2) Gold and silver have low resistivity but they are costly.
3) Hence they are rarely used, copper has low resistivity and low cost. It is used
for temperature measurement upto 120° c.
4) Copper suffers from the oxidation hence it is rarely used.
5) Tungsten has high resistivity due to which it is used for high temperature
applications.
6) Nickel cab be used for the temperature range of 100°c to 250°c. It has a low
cost and a temperature coefficient of α=0.0068°C but it shows non-linearly at
high temperature range and also shows drift with time.
7) Platinum:
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 I. Platinum is the best for many applications they have the following
advantages:
a) Wide operating temperature range ( -99°c to 660°c).
b) It has a temperature coefficient of α=0.0036°c.
c) It is used because, if it is good precision & resolution of ± 0.0001°c.
d) Linear over a wide range.
e) Better stability and accuracy are at high temperatures.

10) LM 35: (Temperature sensor)

/*Here is the fig of LM-35 */

 The LM35 is an integrated circuit sensor, that can be used measured

temperature with an electrical output proportional to temperature in
degree (°c) Celsius.
 This sensor circuit is sealed and not subjected to oxidation.
 The LM35 generates a higher output voltage and Hence, it doesn’t
required and amplifier to amplifier the output voltage.
 The output voltage is proportional to the Celsius temperature and the
scale factor is 0.01 V/°c .
 The LM35 doesn’t required any external calibration or trimming and
maintenance and accuracy of ± 0.8°c over the range 0°c to 100°c.
 It draws a current of 60 µAmp from the supply and it processes low self-
heating capability.
 The LM35 comes in different packages like-
o Plastic transistor package with a temperature range 0°c to 92°c .
o Metal transistor package of 0°c to 46°c .

11) Working of LM-35:

/*Here is the fig Working of LM-35 */

 There are two transistors in the centre of the diagram.

1
 Transistor 𝑄1 has ( )𝑡ℎ of the current density .
10
16
 Since, same current is going to both transistors this causes a voltage across ′𝑅1 ′ resistor
that is proportional to absolute temperature.
 The curvature compressor curvature circuits straightness are the slightly curved graph
of V v/s temperature .
 The amplifier ′𝐴1 ′ at the top insures that voltage at the base of transistor ‘𝑄1 ’ is
proportional to absolute temperatures by comparing output of two transistors.
 The amplifier ′𝐴2 ′ converts absolute temperature (kelvin) into Celsius (c) for LM-35.
 The Little circle with ‘I’ unit is a constant current source.
 The two resistors are ′𝑅1 ′ & ′𝑅2 ′ are calibrated in the factory to produce a highly
accurate temperature sensor.
 The integrated circuit consist of two transistors, two amplifiers, constant, current
source and a curvature compensation circuit. All of these fits in tiny package with 3
leads as shown in fig.

2) Pressure Transducers:

 Strain gauge:
We know that elasticity;
𝑆𝑡𝑟ⅇ𝑠𝑠
𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Where;
Stress = force acting per unit area
Strain = compression or Elongation per unit length
 Strain is commonly measured instead of stress because, strain can be
measured more easily using resistance transducers such transducers are called
as strain gauges.
 Strain gauge a secondary passive transducers useful for measurement of strain
produces by a force on a wire.
 Strain gauges on secondary gauges which are used along with primary
mechanical transducers to measure variables likes weight, force & pressure.

 Electrical strain gauges:

 As a electrical strain gauges changes in length produces change resistance,
capacitance or Inductance of the material.

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  Piezo-Resistive Effect:
If a metallic conductor is stretched or compressed, it’s resistance
changes it’s in accordance to change in length and diameter of the
conductor.
Due to which resistivity changes these property is called Piezo-Resistive
Effect. Hence resistive strain gauges are also called “Piezo-Resistive
Gauges”.

1) Wire strain gauges:

a) Unbounded wire strain gauges:
b) Bounded wire strain gauges:
2) Foil strain gauges:
3) Semiconductor strain gauges:

1) Wire strain gauges:

a) Unbounded wire strain gauges:

/*Here is the fig.a */

/*Here is the fig.b */

 Unbounded wire strain gauge consist of a wire stretched between two points in
an insulting medium such as Air.
 The diameter is about 20 µm the wire is kept under tension (fully stretched), so
that their s no sag or free vibration.
 Unbounded strain gauges are usually connected in a bridge circuit.
 The bridge is balanced with no load (force applied).
 When external load or force is applied, the length of the wire changes, due to
which fixed resistance of the string was changes.
 The bridge unbalances and some output voltages is produced. This output
voltage is proportional to the change in length (strain) of the wire, which in term
is proportional to the applied force.
 The displacement produce is of the order of 50 µm, which can be detected using
an unbounded strain gauge.

b) Bounded wire strain gauges:

/*Here is the fig.a */

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 A metallic bounded strain gauge is as shown in fig. It is fine wire element of 25 mm
in diameter. It is load back & forth on a base. The base material may be Teflon ,
paper, bakelite. The top of the wire is converted with thin material so that the wire
is ________ not mechanically damaged.
When a load is applied between the leads of the strain gauge, there is displacement
due to which the element tends to elongate & increases in length & decreases in
cross section area.
The combine effect is an increases in the resistance of the strain gauge, which is
given by:

𝑙
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴

where,
𝜌 = Specific resistivity of material
𝑙 = Length of the conductor
𝐴 = cross section area of conductor

Note:
 Gause factor-K:
It is the ratio of measurement of sensitivity of the material to strain.
OR
It is also defined as the relative resistance variations per unit strain.

∆𝑹
𝑹
𝑲= ∆𝒍
𝒍

2) Foil strain gauges:

/*Here is the fig.a */

This type of strain gauge is an extension of resistance wire strain gauge, here the strain
Is sensed by metal foil. The metals used for making foils are platinum, Nickle, nichrome,
Constantin.
As there is a large surface area of it is metal bounded then wire strain gauges, foil strain,

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 Strain gauge greater power dissipation capacity then, wire strain gauge for these
reason they are used for higher operating temperature range.
They have similar characteristics as wire strain gauge. The gauge factor is also small
(K<5).

Advantages:
 They are fabricated on a large scale.
 The technology used for this purpose is called as thick film or thin film type.
 The film formed is about 0.2 mm thick.
 The resistance foil is in the range of 15 𝛺 to 1000 𝛺.

3) Semiconductor strain gauges:

/*Here is the fig.a Semiconductor strain gauge*/

 Semiconductor material such as germanium, silicon, etc. are used as resistive

materials.
 A typical semiconductor strain gauge consist of a semiconductor material and
it’s leads that are placed in protective boxes as shown in the fig.
 The semiconductor filament or wafer which has a thickness of “0.05 mm” us
used.
 It is bounded on a Teflon base, which is an insulating material.
 Golden leads are taken out for making electrical contacts.
 A semiconductor strain gauge can be fabricated along with act as a pressure
sensitive transducer.
 The semiconductor strain gauge will measure strain for (0.1 µ to 5.00 µ).
 Semiconductor strain gauge are used when, high gauge factor (K) is required.
 High gauge factor (K) means high change in resistance .
 Which can be measured by with good accuracy.

Advantages:
 They have high gauge factor (K= +130) due to which the very small strain of
0.01 µ can also be measured.

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  Hysteresis characteristics is less than 0.05 %.
 They are very small in size from 0.7 mm to 7 mm in length.
Disadvantages:
 They are very sensitive to change in temperature.
 They are expensive (costly).
 They show non-linearly in gauge factor (K) v/s strain characteristics.

i. Pressure is defined as a force acting per unit area at a point in the

surface.
ii. Pressure is another processes variable which is required to the
monitored in controlled in process controlled industries.

iii. Pressure transducers are divided into two types:

A] Elastic pressure transducer
B] Gravitational pressure transducer

A] Elastic pressure transducer:

 It first converts pressure into physical displacement (Strain) and then it
converts strain into proportional electrical signal.

Thin Plate diaphragm:

/*Here is the fig.a Thin Plate diaphragm with a strain gauges*/

/*Here is the fig.a Side view of thin plate diaphragm */

 Construction:
 A thin plate diaphragm is thin circular plate stretched and fixed at the
peripheri (End).

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  It is made up of metals such as bronze, phosphor-bronze, stainless steel,
etc.
 The thickness of plate and it’s size is depends upon the range of the
pressure to be measured. The arrangement to measure pressure is
shown in fig.b.
 Four strain gauges are fixed on the diaphragm as shown in fig.a.
 The strain gauges may be of bounded type or unbounded type.
 Consider, A diaphragm of radius ‘R’ & thickness ‘T’.
 When pressure is applied, the diaphragm is defected as show in fig.b.
 The deflection is maximum at the “centre” & is given by: y=𝑦0 .
 The deflection is minimum at the “ends” & is given by: y=0 .
 The stress at the edges of the diaphragm is more compare to the stress
at the centre.
 They are two types of stress developed in the diaphragm. They are Radial
Stress & Tangential stress. After conversion of these stresses into strain
we have:

3 𝑃 𝑅2
1] Radial strain = ∗ ∗ …………….[1]
4 𝐸 𝑡2

−3 𝑃 𝑅2
2] Tangential strain = ∗ ∗ (1 + 𝛾) ………………[2]
4 𝐸 𝑡2

Where;
E = Young’s Modulus for the material of the diaphragm.
P = Poisson’s Ratio for the material of the diaphragm.

 Working:

/*Here is the fig.c Working diagram of thin plate diaphragm */

 Four strain gauges are used as shown in fig.c .

 The strain gauges 1 & 3 are mounted near the ends.
 This strain gauges respond to Radial strain.

 Strain gauges 2 & 4 are located near the centre and they respond to
tangential strain/
 The output voltage is given by:
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 𝑎 ∆𝑅1 ∆𝑅2 ∆𝑅3 ∆𝑅4
𝑉0 = [ − + − ]
(1 + 𝑎 2 ) 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4

Where,

𝑅1 𝑅3
a= =
𝑅2 𝑅4

∆𝑅1, ∆𝑅2, ∆𝑅3, ∆𝑅4 = changes in the (4) four resistances

To calculate the unknown pressure the bridge is initially balanced.

The bridge is set to be balanced if output voltage 𝑉0 = 0 volt.
The output voltage 𝑉0 = 0 volt only when pressure is “zero” and strain
is “zero”.
When pressure is applied to the diaphragm, strain is produced
because of which resistance of strain gauges changes. The bridge
becomes unbalanced and an output voltage is produced, which is
proportional to the applied unknown pressure.

Double cantilever beam:

/*Here is the fig.a */

/*Here is the fig.b */

i. In this method, a cantilever beam is mechanically connected to the

diaphragm by a rigid pin as shown in the fig.
ii. Four strain gauges are thermally matched for temperatures stability
and are placed on the beam as shown in the fig.
iii. Unknown pressure to be measured which applied to the diaphragm.
iv. To calculate the unknown pressure, the four strain gauges are
connected in the wheat stone’s bridge.
v. The bridge is initially balanced (𝑉0 = 0).
vi. When pressure is applied on the diaphragm from due to rigid pin, the
beam is displaced, string is produced because of which resistance of

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 strain gauges changes, the bridge unbalanced and in output voltage is
produced.
vii. Which is proportional to the applied unknown pressure.

Column type load cells (force transducers):

/*Here is the fig.a */

/*Here is the fig.b */

i. Fig. shows a typical column type load cell it consist of a cylindrical

column.
ii. Which has a diameter of 7cm to 30cm an length from 10cm to 60cm.
iii. It measures weight or force from 0.5 N to 104 N.
iv. It is necessary that, the force to be measured must be applied uniformly
over the area of the load cell at the loading point.
v. No other force must be working or acting on the column except the 1
under management.
vi. When force is applied to the load cell, the surface of the column
undergoes compretional strain along the axis of the force applied and
tangential strain along the circumference.
vii. Four string gauges (resistive) are use to measure the strain.
viii. Two of them measure compretional strain and other two are used to
measure tangential strain.
ix. If these strain gauges are connected in the wheat stone’s bridge, the
output voltage produces due to change in resistance of the strain gauge
will be proportional to they applied force.
x. The output voltage produced is given by:

𝑉0 = 0.65 𝑉𝐾𝐸

Where,
V = applied voltage
K = gauge factor
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 E = Elasticity

Capacitive transducer:(variable capacitive pressure gauge)

i. It is a pressure transducer, where the capacitance is made to change by
changing one of the electrical parameters in auordance of pressure or
displacement.
ii. For parallel plate capacitor:
∈𝐴
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐ⅇ (𝐶) = 𝐾.
ⅆ

Where,
A = area of the plates
d = distance between the plates
K = dielectric constant (for air=1)
(Epsilon) ∈0 = Zero (0) (permittivity of free space)

/*Here is the fig.a */

 Construction:

i. It consist of two parallel plates enclosed in an insulating container.

ii. One plate is fixed and is called as plate “𝑃2 ”.
iii. The other plate is moveable (flexible) fixed on the front side called
as diaphragm (plate 𝑃1 ).
iv. These two plates are separated by dielectric material or ‘Air’.
v. The front plate diaphragm acts as a pressure soming unit.
vi. When the pressure exerted on the diaphragm is more than
atmospheric pressure it moves inverts their by decreasing the
distance ‘d’ between the two plates 𝑃1 & 𝑃2 .
vii. Since, capacitance (C) is inversely proportional to distance (d), the
capacitance of the transducers increases in proportional to the
applied pressure.
viii. When the pressure exerted on the diaphragm is less than the
atmospheric pressure.
ix. The diaphragm moves outwords, distance (d) between the two
plates increases capacitance of the transducers decreases in
proportion to the pressure.
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 x. This principle is used in capacitance microphones when the sound
waves strike the diaphragm.
xi. The diaphragm moves in out according to compressions and rate
fractions.

 Applications:
i. Linear and Angular displacement can be measured.
ii. Force & pressure can be measured.
iii. Can be used in humidity measurement, since characteristics of
dielectric change with humidity.
iv. Which in terms change in the capacitance.
v. Used in liquid level (nano-meters).
vi. Used to modulate the frequency of an oscillator.

LVDT (Linear Variable Differentiable Transformer):

/*Here is the fig.a */

/*Here is the fig.b */

i. LVDT is a secondary passive transducer used to measure displacement,

position indicating applications and also used to measure ‘pressure’ and
‘weight’.

 Construction:
i. It consist of a primary coil (P) uniformly wound over the non-magnetic
former.
ii. Two identical secondary coils (′𝑆1 ′ & ′𝑆2 ′) are symmetrically wound over
the primary on either side of the former from the centre.
iii. The magnetic core in the form for rod is made to move inside the former.
iv. An AC voltage ‘VI’ is applied to the firstly.
v. The magnetic flux of the primary links with the secondary inducing the
voltages ′𝑉1 ′ & ′𝑉2 ′ in them with opposite polarities.
vi. Hence, the output is given by 𝑉0 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 .
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vii. When the core (rod) is exactly at the centre C. The induced EMF’s in
𝑆1 & 𝑆2 are equally magnitude.
viii. The output voltage 𝑉0 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 0.
ix. When the core (rod) moves towards end ‘A’ 𝑉1 > 𝑉2 & 𝑉0 increases in
positive direction.
x. While when core (rod) moves towards ‘B’ 𝑉2 > 𝑉1 & 𝑉0 increases in
negative direction.
xi. This shows that the output voltage is produced depends upon the
displacement if the rod.

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